UNIT IV - QUANTUM PHYSICS

Black body radiation – Planck‟s radiation law – Deduction of Wien‟s displacement law and
Rayleigh Jean‟s law - Compton effect, Photoelectric effect (qualitative) – matter waves – concept
of wave function and its physical significance – Schrödinger‟s wave equation – time independent
and time dependent equations – particle in a one-dimensional rigid box – scanning tunneling
microscope.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In physics, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics are the two major fields of
mechanics. Since classical theory is a macroscopic theory, it fails to explain the micro-concepts
like stability of atoms, black body radiation, photo-electric effect, Compton effect, etc. To avoid
these discrepancies a new microscopic theory called Quantum theory was introduced by Max
Planck and the same was developed by Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin
Schroedinger and many others.
Quantum physics is the study of the behavior of matter and energy at the molecular,
atomic, nuclear and even smaller microscopic levels. “Quantum” comes from the Latin meaning
“how much”. If refers to the discrete units of matter and energy that are predicted and observed
in quantum physics. Even space and time, which appear to be extremely continuous, have
smallest possible values.
4.2 BLACK BODY RADIATION

A black body is one which absorbs the entire heat radiations incident on it. When
radiations are allowed to fall on such a body they are neither reflected nor transmitted. Such a
body after absorbing the incident radiations, on heating starts emitting radiations which are
independent of the nature of the body and only depend upon the temperature of the black body.
These radiations are known as black body radiations.
In practice there exists no perfect black body. However, a body showing close
approximation to perfectly black body can be constructed as follows.
Take a hollow sphere with a fine hole and a pointed projection in front of the hole and
coat it with lamp black on its inner surface as shown in figure.4.1
 Fig. 4.1
When the radiations enter in such a body through the hole they suffer multiple reflections
and are completely absorbed. Such a body acts as a black body absorber.
When such a body is heated through a high temperature it starts emitting radiations called
black body radiations through the hole as shown in figure.4.2

Fig.4.2

4.3 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN A BLACK BODY SPECTRUM

When a perfect black body is allowed to emit radiations at different temperatures, then
the distribution of energy for different wavelengths at various temperatures is obtained as shown
in figure 4.3
 Fig. 4.3

Following facts were noted from the graph.

 The energy distribution is not uniform for any given temperature.
 The intensity of radiation (E) increases with increase in wavelength and at a particular
wavelength its value is maximum (  m ). Beyond this if the wavelength increases the
intensity of heat radiation decreases.
 The wavelength, at which maximum emission of energy takes place, decreases with
increase in temperature. The dotted line represents  m at various temperatures.

 For all wavelengths, an increase in temperature causes an increase in the energy

emission.

4.4 LAWS OF BLACKBODY RADIATION

The energy distribution in a black body spectrum was explained by the following laws on the
basis of classical theory.

4.5 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Definition:
It states that the wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature.
 1
m 
T
(or) mT  a constant [ This constant = 0.2892 cm K]
Wien has also shown that the maximum energy is directly proportional to the fifth power of the
temperature. i.e.,
Em α T5
Em = constant× T5
By deducing this law he obtained a law called Wien's law of distribution of energy Eλ given by
8hc 1
E  
 5 hc
kT
e
Limitation: This law holds good only for shorter wavelength and not for longer wavelengths.

4.6 RAYLEIGH-JEAN'S LAW

Definition:
It states that the energy distribution (Eλ) is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (T) and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (λ).
T
E
4
8kT
E 
4
where k is the Boltzmann's constant.
Limitation: This law holds good only for longer wavelengths and not for shorter wavelengths.

It is found that both Wien's and Rayleigh-Jean's laws does not agree with the
experimental results. Therefore it is concluded that the classical theory was not able to explain
the emission of blackbody radiation. Hence Max-Planck used quantum theory to explain the
blackbody radiation.

4.7 PLANCK'S HYPOTHESIS AND RADIATION LAW

Planck derived an expression for the energy distribution, with the following assumptions.
  A black body radiation chamber is not only filled up with radiations but also filled with
large number of oscillators of atomic dimensions called atomic oscillators or Planck's
oscillators. Each oscillator is vibrating with characteristic frequency.
 The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of its
vibration.
 An oscillator cannot absorb or emit energy in a continuous manner. It can absorb or emit
energy in multiples of small unit called quantum. This quantum of radiation is called
photon. The energy of photon is given by
  h
where h - Planck's constant [6.625 × 10–34 J s]
 The oscillator can have only discrete energy values E n given by

E n  nh  n [   h ]
Here n is an integer and it takes value 0, 1, 2, 3, .

4.8 PLANCK'S RADIATION LAW

Definition:
The energy density of heat radiation emitted from a blackbody at temperature T in the
wavelength range λ and λ+dλ is given by
8hc
E 
 hkT 
  e  1
5

 
where, h - Planck's constant
c - Speed of light
k - Boltzmann's constant
T - Temperature of the blackbody.
Derivation:
Let us consider a black body with large number of Planck's oscillators. If N is the total
number of Planck's oscillators and E be their total energy, then the average energy per Planck's
oscillator Ē is given by
E
E= …………(1)
N
 If N0, N1, N2, N3, ... be the number of oscillators having energy E0, E1, E2, E3, ...
respectively, then we have
N  N 0  N1  N 2  N 3  .... ……....... (2)

E  E0 N 0  E1 N1  E2 N 2  E3 N 3  ...... ……....... (3)

We know that according to Maxwell's distribution law the number of oscillators having
energy En is given by
 En

N n  N0e kT
……....... (4)
where T - absolute temperature
k - Boltzmann constant
Also we know that, from Planck's hypothesis
E n  nh ……....... (5)
and n takes the values 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
When n = 0 When n = 1 When n = 2 When n = 3
E0  0 E1  h E 2  2h E3  3h
N0  N0  h  2 h 3 h

N1  N 0 e kT
N 2  N0e kT
N3  N 0e kT

Substituting the values of N0, N1, N2, N3 …. and E0, E1, E2, E3, ... in equations (2) and (3),
we get
 h 2 h 3h

N  N0  N0e kT
 N0e kT
 N0e kT
 ..........
 h

Put x  e kT
, then we have
N  N 0  N 0 x  N 0 x 2  N 0 x 3  .... ….


N  N 0 1  x  x 2  x 3  ...... 
N0
N …….......(6)
1 x
  1 
 using binomial series   (1  x) 1  1  x  x 2  x 3  .... 
 1  x 

E  E0 N 0  E1 N1  E2 N 2  E3 N 3  ......
  h 2 h 3h
= 0  hN o e kT
 2hN o e kT
 3hN o e kT
 .......

= 0  hN 0 x  2hN 0 x 2  3hN 0 x 3  .......

= hN 0 x1  2 x  3x 2  ......

h N 0 x
E ……....... (7)
1  x 2
  
 using binomial series  1  (1  x ) 2
 1  2 x  3 x 2
 4 x 3
 .... 
  2
  (1 x ) 

Now substituting equations (6) and (7) in equation (1) we get

hN 0 x
(1  x) 2 hN 0 x (1  x)
E  
N0 (1  x) 2 N0
(1  x)

h x hx
E =
(1  x) 1 
x 1
x 
 h

Substitute x  e kT

h
E h
……....... (8)
e kT
1
Number of oscillators per unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ+d λ is given by

8d
N ……....... (9)
4
The energy density of radiation between wavelength λ and λ+d λ is given by

E  d  N  E

8d h
=  h
 4

e kT
1
8d hc  c
=


 h
    
 
4

  e kT
 1
 
 8hcd 1
E  d = 
 5
 hkT 
 e  1
 
 
8hc
E  ……....... (10)
 hkT 
  e  1
5

 
This equation (10) represents Planck‟s Radiation law in terms of wavelength.
c
It can also be expressed in terms of frequencies by substituting ν = c/λ and d = d in the
2
Planck‟s law, then
8h 3
E  ……....... (11)
 h 
c 3  e kT  1
 
Deduction of Wien’s displacement law
h
h
When λ is very small, ν is very large, hence  1 and e kT is very large when
kT
h h
compared to 1. Hence e kT  1 , becomes e kT .
8hc 1
 E    h ……....... (12)
5
e kT
This is Wien's displacement law.
Deduction of Rayleigh-Jean's law
h
When λ is very large, ν is very small, hence  1 and
kT
h
h
e kT
 1 [Using exponential series and neglecting higher orders
kT
1 2
ex 1 x  x  .....]
2
8hc 1
Now equation (10) reduces to E  
 5
h
1 1
kT
 8hc kT
E  
 5
hc
8kT
E  ……....... (13)
4
This is Rayleigh-Jean's law.
Thus, Planck's law reduces to Wien's displacement law at smaller wavelengths and
Rayleigh-Jeans law at longer wavelengths. Also this law agrees well with the experimental
curves throughout the whole range of wavelengths.

4.9 SCATTERING OF X-RAYS

Like ordinary light waves, X-rays are scattered by matter in two different ways.
(a) Coherent scattering (or) Classical scattering (or) Thompson scattering
(b) Incoherent scattering (or) Compton Scattering
(a) Coherent scattering
In coherent scattering, X-rays are scattered by electrons without any change in their
wavelengths. This type of scattering was explained by Thompson on the basis of classical
electromagnetic theory.
(b) Incoherent scattering (or) Compton Scattering
In Compton scattering, the scattered X-rays consists of two components, one is having the
same wavelength as that of the incident X-rays and the other has a slightly longer wavelength.
This type of scattering was studied by Compton on the basis of particle nature of light waves.

4.10 COMPTON EFFECT

Definition:
When a beam of monochromatic radiation such as X-rays, γ-rays, etc. of high frequency
is allowed to fall on a fine scatterer, the beam is scattered into two components, (i) one
component having the same frequency (or) wavelength as that of the incident radiation, so
called unmodified radiation and (ii) the other component having lower frequency (or) higher
wavelength compared to incident radiation, so called modified radiation. This effect of
scattering is called Compton effect and the shift in wavelength is called Compton shift.
Compton shift:
When a photon of energy ‘hv’ collides with an electron of a scatterer at rest, the photon
gives its energy to the electron. Therefore the scattered photon will have lesser energy (or) lower
frequency (or) higher wavelength compared to the wavelength of incident photon. Since the
electron gains energy, it recoils with the velocity ‘v’. This effect is called Compton effect and the
shift in wavelength is called Compton shift.
Thus as a result of Compton scattering we get (i) unmodified radiations (ii) modified
radiations and (iii) a recoil electron.

THEORY OF COMPTON EFFECT (DERIVATION)

Consider an X-ray photon striking an electron at rest. This X-ray photon is scattered
through an angle  to X-axis from its initial direction of motion. Let the frequency of scattered
photon be ν' and its energy is h . During the collision, the photon of X-rays gives a fraction of
its energy to a free electron. This free electron gains energy and it begins to move with a velocity
„v‟ at an angle  to X-axis from the direction of incident photon.

Total energy before collision:

Energy of incident photon E  h

Initial energy of electron E  m0 c 2

where m0 is the rest mass of the electron and

c is the velocity of light.
Total energy before collision = h  m0 c 2

Total energy after collision:

Final energy of scattered photon = h 

Final energy of electron = mc 2

where m = mass of electron when it moves with velocity 'v’.
Total energy after collision = h   mc 2

Applying the law of conservation of energy i.e,

Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
h  m0 c 2 = h   mc
2

mc 2  h  m0 c 2  h 

mc 2  h(   )  m0 c 2 …………. (1)

Squaring equation (1) we get

mc 2 2
 [h(   )  m 0 c 2 ] 2

m 2 c 4  mo2 c 4  h 2 [ 2    2  2 )  2h(   )m0 c 2 . …………. (2)

Total momentum along X-axis

Before Collision:
h
Initial momentum of photon along X-axis 
c
Initial momentum of electron along X-axis = 0
h
Total Initial momentum along X-axis 
c
After Collision :

Momentum of scattered photon along X-axis can be calculated as follows:

Mx
In OAB, cos 
 h  
 
 c 
h 
Mx  cos
c
Momentum of the recoil electron can be calculated from figure.
Mx
In OBC, cos 
mv

M x  mv cos

h 
Total momentum after collision  cos  mv cos
c
According to law of conservation of momentum,
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
h h 
 cos  mv cos
c c
h h 
 cos  mv cos
c c
mvc cos   h    cos   …………. (3)

Total momentum along Y-axis

Before Collision:
Momentum of the incident photon = 0
Momentum of the electron at rest = 0
Total momentum before collision = 0
After Collision:
Momentum of the scattered photon
My h 
In OAE , sin    My  sin 
 h   c
 
 c 
Momentum of the recoil electron
My
In OCD, sin    M y  mv sin 
mv

h 
 Total momentum after collision  mv sin   sin 
c
According to the law of conservation of momentum
h 
0  mv sin   sin 
c
 mvc sin   h  sin  ……………. (4)
Squaring equation (3) and equation (4) and adding we get

(mvc cos ) 2  (mvc sin  ) 2  h 2     cos   (h  sin  ) 2

2

 
m 2 v 2 c 2 cos2   m 2 v 2 c 2 sin 2   h 2  2    2 cos2   2  cos  h 2  2 sin 2 


m 2 v 2 c 2 ( cos2   sin 2  )  h 2  2    2 [cos2   sin 2  ]  2  cos 

m 2 v 2 c 2  h 2  2    2  2  cos  …………… (5)
Subtracting equation (5) from equation (2), we get
m 2 c 4  m 2 v 2 c 2  mo2 c 4  h 2 [ 2    2  2 )  2h(   )m0 c 2  h 2  2   2  2  cos 

m 2 c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  mo2 c 4  2h(  )m0 c 2  2h 2 (1  cos ) ………….. (6)

We know from the theory of relativity that the variation of mass with velocity is given by
m0
m ………….. (7)
v2
1 2
c
Squaring on both sides, we have
2
m0 m 02 c 2
m 
2

v2 c2  v2
1 2
c
m 2 (c 2  v 2 )  m 0 c 2
2

Multiplying c2 on both sides, we have

m 2 c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  m 0 c 4 …………..(8)
2

Substituting equation (8) in equation (6) we have

m0 c 4  mo2 c 4  2h(  )m0 c 2  2h  (1  cos )
2 2

0  2h(   )m0 c 2  2h  (1  cos )

2

2h(   )m0 c 2  2h  (1  cos )

2

   h
 (1  cos )
  m0 c 2
  h
  (1  cos )
    m 0 c 2
 1 1 h
  (1  cos )
   m0 c 2
Multiplying „c‟ on both sides
c c hc
  (1  cos )
   m0 c 2
h
    (1  cos )
m0 c

Therefore, the change in wavelength is given by

h
d  (1  cos ) ………….. (9)
m0 c

It is noted that the change in wavelength ( d ) does not depend on the wavelength of the incident
radiations and the nature of the scattering substance, but it depends only on the angle of
scattering (  ).
The wavelength of scattered beam can be given by

h
    (1  cos ) ………….. (10)
m0 c

Case (1) : When   0  then cos 0   1

h h
d  (1  cos )  (1  1)  0
m0 c m0 c

Case (2) : When   90  then cos90   1

h h h 6.62  10 34
d  (1  cos )  (1  0)   31
 0.024 A
m0 c m0 c m0 c 9.1  10  3  10 8

Case (3) : When   180  then cos180   1

h h 2h
d  (1  cos )  (1  [1])   2  0.024  0.048 A
m0 c m0 c m0 c

Thus the wavelength is maximum at   180  .

4.11 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF COMPTON EFFECT

A beam of monochromatic X-rays of wavelength ( ) is allowed to fall on a scattering
material. The scattered X-rays are received by a Bragg spectrometer.
 For various scattering angles, intensity of scattered X-ray is measured. The graph is
plotted (intensity vs wavelength) as shown in fig. It is found that the curves have two peaks, one
corresponding to unmodified radiations and other corresponding to modified radiations. The
difference between two peaks on the wavelength axis gives the Compton shift.

The curves show that greater the scattering angle, greater the Compton shift in accordance
with the expression.
h
d  (1  cos )
m0 c

The change in wavelength d  0.024 A at   90  is found to be in good agreement

with the theoretical value d  0.024 A . Thus the Compton effect is experimentally verified.
Conclusion:
Hence, Compton effect explains the elastic collision of two particles, i.e., electron &
photon. It also proves the particle nature of light radiation and enhance the validity of the
quantum concept.

4.12 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon where light (or other electromagnetic
radiation) falling on a material surface ejects electrons from that surface. This effect provided
important evidence for the quantization of energy, supporting the theory that light behaves as
both particles (photons) and waves.
The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light radiation of suitable
wavelength (or frequency) is called photoelectric effect.

4.13 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER - (MATTER WAVES)

The universe is made of Radiation (light) and matter (particles). The light exhibits the dual
nature. E  mc 2 (i.e.) it can behaves both as a wave (interference, diffraction) and as a particle
(Compton effect, photo electric effect).
Since, the nature loves symmetry, in 1924 Louis de-Broglie made a very bold and novel
suggestion that like light radiation, matter or material particle also possesses dual characteristics.
(i.e.) particle like and wave-like.
In other words, the moving particles of matter like electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms or
molecules exhibit wave nature.

According to de-Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with waves.

• Waves and particles are the only two modes through which energy can propagate in
nature.
• Our universe is fully composed of light radiation and matter.
• Since nature loves symmetry, matter and waves must be symmetric.
• The waves associated with material particles are called as Matter waves.

4.14 De-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH

 From the theory of light, considering photon as a particle the total energy of the
photon is given by Einstein's mass-energy relation
E  mc 2 .............. (1)
Where m - mass of the particle
c - Velocity of light
Considering the photon as a wave, the total energy is given by Planck' Theory
E  h ............. (2)
Where h - Planck's constant.
v - Frequency of radiation.
From equations (1) & (2) we can write
E  mc 2  h
We know that momentum = mass × velocity
p  mc

E  pc  h
h
p
c
h
p [ c    ]

h
The wavelength of photon   …………… (3)
p
de-Broglie suggested that equation (3) can be applied both for photons and material particles. If
m is the mass of the particle and v is the velocity of the particle then
Momentum p  mv
h h
 De-Broglie-wavelength    …………… (4)
p mv
Other forms of de-Broglie Wavelength

(i) de-Broglie wavelength in terms of Energy

1 2
We know kinetic energy E  mv
2
Multiplying by „m‟ on both sides we get
 1 2 2
mE  m v
2
2mE  m 2 v 2

mv  2mE
h h
 De-Broglie-wavelength    …………… (4)
p 2mE

(ii) de-Broglie wavelength in terms of Voltage

When an electron of charge „e‟ is accelerated by a potential difference of „V‟ volts the
electron gains a velocity of v, then
Work done on the electron = eV
1 2
Kinetic energy of the electron E  mv
2
Work done = Kinetic energy
1 2
eV  mv
2
Multiplying by „m‟ on both sides we get
1 2 2
meV  m v
2
2meV  m 2 v 2

mv  2meV
h h h
 De-Broglie-wavelength    
p mv 2meV

PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES

• If the mass of the particle is smaller, then the wavelength associated with that particle is
longer.
• If the velocity of the particle is small, then the wavelength associated with that particle is
longer.
 • If v = 0, then De-Broglie-wavelength    , i.e., the waves becomes indeterminate and if
v   , then   0 . This indicates that de-Broglie waves are generated by the motion of
particles.
• These waves do not depend on the charge of the particles. This shows that these waves
are not electromagnetic waves.
• The velocity of de-Broglie waves is not constant since it depends on the velocity of the
material particle. But the velocity of electromagnetic waves is constant.

PHOTON AND ITS PROPERTIES

The discrete energy values in the form of small packets (or) bundles (or) quanta of definite
frequency or wavelength are called photon. These photons propagate like a particle but with the
speed of light.
Properties
 Photons are similar to that of electrons.
 We know for electrons the definite quantities are „e‟ and ‘m’. Similarly for photons, the
definite quantities are ‘h’ and ‘c’.
 Photons will not have any charge. They are neutral and hence they are not affected by
magnetic (or) electric fields.
 They do not ionize gases.
 The energy of the photon is given by E  h , which varies with respect to the type of
radiation frequencies.
h
 The momentum of a photon is given by p  , where „h‟ is Planck‟s constant, „ ‟
c
frequency of photon and c is the velocity of light.
 The relation between energy and the momentum of the photon is given by
E  pc  h [ E  mc 2  mc  c  pc]
h
p
c
4.15 WAVE FUNCTION ( )
  The variable quantity associated with matter waves or de-Broglie waves is called the
wave function denoted by the symbol 
 It gives the information about the particle behaviour.
Physical significance of Wave Function
  is a complex quantity and individually it does not have any meaning.

  2    is real and positive, it has physical meaning.

  2 represents the probability density (or) probability of finding the particle per unit

volume.
 For a given volume d the probability of finding the particle is given by
P    2 d , where d  dx dy dz

 The probability will have any value between zero to one. (i.e.,)
i) If P = 0, then there is no chance for finding the particle (i.e.,) there is no particle, within
the given limits.
(ii) If P = 1, then there is 100% chance for finding the particle (i.e.,) the particle is
definitely present, within the given limits.
(iii) If P = 0.7, then there is 70% chance for finding the particle and 30% there is no
chance for finding the particle within given limits.

4.16 SCHROEDINGER WAVE EQUATION

The equation that describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical form is known
as Schroedinger wave equation.
.There are two forms of Schroedinger wave equation. They are
(i) Time independent wave equation
(ii) Time dependent wave equation
Schroedinger time independent wave equation
Let us consider a particle of mass m, moving with a velocity v. Let  be the wave
function of the particle along x, y and z coordinate at any time t. The de-broglie wavelength
h
associated with it is given by   .
mv
 Y

wave

The differential equation of a wave moving with a wave velocity v can be written as
 2  2  2 1  2
   .............(1)
x 2 y 2 z 2 v 2 t 2

The equation (1) can be written as

1  2
 2  .............(2)
v 2 t 2
2 2 2
Where  2    and  is Laplacian operator
x 2 y 2 z 2
The solution for equation (2) is
   0 eit ............(3)

 0 - Amplitude of the wave

Differentiating equation (3) w.r.to„t‟, we get

  0 e it (i )
t
  i 

 2
   2 .............(4)
t 2
Substituting equation (4) in (2) we get

2 
 2 
1
 2 
v
2
 2   0 ...........(5)
v2
 v  v
But   2  2  
      

 2
 ..............(6)
v 

Substituting equation (6) in equation (5) we get,

4 2
 2   0 .............(7)
2

h
On substituting   in equation (7) we get,
mv

4 2
 
2
 0
 
2
h
mv

4 2 m 2 v 2
 2   0 .............(8)
h2

1 2
If E is the total energy of the particle, V the potential energy and mv is the kinetic
2
energy then, Total energy E = P.E + K.E
1
E  V  mv 2
2
1 2
E V  mv
2
2[ E  V ]  mv2
Multiplying by „m’ on both sides in the above equation
2m[ E  V ]  m2 v2 .............(9)
Substituting equation (9) in (8) we get,
4 2  2m( E  V )
 2   0
h2
8 2 m( E  V )
 2   0 .............(10)
h2
 h
Introducing  in equation (10) we get,
2

2 m( E  V )
 2  2
 0 .............(11)

This equation is known as 3D Schroedinger Time independent wave equation

For 1D problem
 2 2m( E  V )
  0 .............(12)
x 2 2

Schroedinger time dependent wave equation

Schroedinger time dependent wave equation is derived from Schroedinger time
independent wave equation.
The solution of classical differential equation of wave motion is given by
   0 eit ............(13)

Differentiating w.r.t. time „t‟ we get


  0 e it (i )
t


 i (2 ) 0 e  it Since   2
t

 i (2 ) [   0 e it ]
t
 E E
 2 i  [ E  h ,  ]
t h h
h
We know 
2
 i
  E ...............(14)
t
Multiply „i‟ on both sides of the equation (14)
 i2
i   E
t
  E
i 
t

i  E .................(15)
t
We know that Schroedinger time independent wave equation is given by
2 m( E  V )
 2  2
 0

Substituting equation (16) in equation (10) we get

2m   
 2  2 
i  V   0
 t 
2m   
 2   2 
i V 
 t 

  
2
  2  V  i
2m  t 

 2
  
 2m   V   i t 
 2
..............(16)
   
This equation (16) is known as Schroedinger time dependent wave equation.
The equation (16) can be rewritten as
H  E .............(17)

 2

where H    2  V  Hamiltonian operator
 2m 

 
E  i Energy operator
 t 

4.17 PARTICLE IN A ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOX [SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL]

Consider a particle of mass „m’ moving along x-axis between two rigid walls of a box
at x = 0 and x = a. This particle is moving back and forth between the walls of the box. The
potential energy (V) of the particle inside the box is constant and it can be considered as zero.
Further the walls are infinitely high and the particle cannot come out of the box. The potential
energy V of the particle is infinite outside the walls.
Thus, the potential function is given by

V ( x)  0 for 0  x  a and
V ( x)   for 0  x  a
This potential function is known as square well potential. The particle cannot come
out of the box. Also, it cannot exist on the walls of the box. So its wave function   0 for x  0
and x  a . Now our task is to find the value  within the box i.e., between x = 0 and x=a.
Schroedinger time independent wave equation in one-dimension is given by
 2 8 2 m( E  V )
  0 ………….. (1)
t 2 h2
Since V = 0 between the walls, the equation (1) reduces to
 2 8 2 mE
  0 ………….. (2)
t 2 h2
8 2 mE
Put k 2  in equation (2) we get
h2
 2
 k 2  0 ………….. (3)
t 2

The general solution of equation (3) is given by

 ( x)  A sin kx  B cos kx ….…….... (4)
Here, A and B are two unknown constants.
The values of the constants A and B can be obtained by applying the boundary conditions of the
problem.
Boundary condition (i)   0 at x  0
Applying this condition to equation (4), we have
0  A sin k  0  B cos k  0
0  0  B 1
B 0
The wave function is  ( x)  A sin kx ……….. (5)
Boundary condition (ii)   0 at x  a
Applying this condition to equation (4), we have
0  A sin k  a
It is found that either A = 0 or sin ka  0
„A‟ cannot be „0‟ since already one of the constants B is „0‟. If A is also 0, then the entire wave
function will be zero. Hence, A should not be zero. Therefore sinka should be zero.
sin ka  0 only when ka  n
n
k  ………….. (6)
a
Where n is an integer (1, 2, 3 ...)
Squaring equation (6), we have
n 2 2
k2  ……………. (7)
a2
8 2 mE
We know k 2  …………… (8)
h2
Equating equation (7) & equation (8) we get
n2h2
E ………….. (9)
8ma 2
nx 
The wave function is  ( x)  A sin   …………. (10)
 a 
Here n = 1, 2, 3……...
For each value of n, there is an energy level. The particle in a box cannot possess any
arbitrary amount of energy. It can only have discrete energy values specified by equation (9). In
other words, its energy is quantized. Each value of E n is known as Eigen value and the

corresponding  n ( x) is called Eigen function.

Normalization of wave function
The constant „A‟ can be determined by normalization of wave function as follows.
According to normalization the probability density should be unity. i.e., In this problem, it is
certain that the particle is somewhere inside the box, the probability of finding the particle inside
the box of length a is given by
a

  dx 1


 nx   nx 
a

 A sin 
0
a  A sin 
 a 
 dx 1

 nx 
a

A  dx 1
2
sin 2 
0  a 

1  cos 2n x  
 a  a   1  cos 2
A2    { sin 2  
 dx 1 }
0 
2  2
 

A2  2nx 
a a

 dx   cos  dx  1
2 0 0
a 

2nx 
a

 sin
a  1
2
A
x  
2  2n a 
 0

A2
a 1
2

2 2
A2   A
a a

The normalized Eigen function and energy Eigen values of 1D potential box can be expressed as
2  nx 
 n ( x)  sin 
a  a  …………(11)
n2h2
En 
8ma 2 …………(12)
The electron wave functions n and the corresponding energies for the ground and first two
excited states of an electron in a 1D potential well are shown in fig. 3.8
n  n (x) En

2  x  E1 
h2
1  1 ( x)  sin  
a a 8ma 2

2  2x  E2 
4h 2
 4 E1
2  2 ( x)  sin 
a  a  8ma 2

2  3x  E3 
9h 2
 9 E1
3  3 ( x)  sin 
a  a  8ma 2

The particle in a box can be extended to a three dimensional metal, in which the electrons move
in all directions. Three quantum numbers n x , n y and n z are needed to represent the motion of

the electron along three perpendicular axes x, y and z. We assume the metal is cubically shaped
with sides a. Therefore the energy levels and the wave functions can be written as
h2 [nx2  ny2  nz2 ]
Enx ny nz 
8ma 2 …………(13)
8  n x   n y   n z 
n n y nz  sin   sin   sin  
 a   a   a 
x 3
a …………(14)
Degeneracy
It is seen from equation (13) & (14), for several combination of quantum numbers we
have same energy eigen value but different eigen functions. Such states and energy levels are
said to be degenerate state.
The three combination of quantum numbers (211), (121) and (112) for n x , n y
6h 2
and n z have the same energy value E 211  E121  E112  but different eigen functions
8ma 2
 211 , 121 and  112 are called 3 fold degenerate state.

Non Degeneracy
For various combinations of quantum number if we have same energy eigen value and
same eigen function then such states and energy levels are called Non-degenerate State.
Example

12h 2 8 2 x 2 y 2 z
For nx  2, ny  2, nz  2 we have E222  and  222  3
sin sin sin
8ma 2 a a a a
4.18 TUNNELLING

 In quantum mechanics, particles with lesser energy than that of a potential barrier can
still cross the potential barrier by penetrating through it. This process is called Tunneling.
 This phenomenon can happen only when the particle exhibits wave nature.

4.19 SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPE (STM)

Definition:

An electron microscope that works by using an electrical probe tip which scans over
the surface of a sample at a constant spacing is known as scanning tunneling microscope. STM
allows for a 3D picture of the surface to be created.
Principle:

 Tunnelling effect is the principle behind scanning tunneling microscope.

 When a voltage difference is applied between a conducting tip and a surface close to it,
electrons can tunnel through the vacuum between the tip and the surface, causing a
tunneling current.

 The current that results depends upon the distance between probe tip and sample surface.

Construction:

The basic components of STM are

 Piezoelectric tube with the tip and electrodes capable of moving in X,Y,Z direction.
 Fine needle tip made of tungsten for scanning the sample surface.
 Tunneling current amplifier
 Distance Control Unit and Scanning Unit
 Data Processing and Display Unit
Working:

 Circuit is switched ON and necessary biasing voltage is given to the probe tip.
 Due to biasing, the electrons will tunnel across the gap, and therefore produces a small
electric current called tunnelling current.
 The current produced is amplified and measured in the computer.
 It is found that the current increases (or) decreases based on the distance (d) between the
tip and the sample.
 The current in the circuit should be monitored in such a way that it should be maintained
constant.
 Therefore, for maintaining the constant current distance (d) between the tip and the
sample should be continuously adjusted whenever the tip move over the surface of the
sample.
 The height fluctuations (d) between the tip and the sample are recorded and as a resultant
map of „bumps‟ is obtained in the computer.
 Similarly the tip will scan the sample atom by atom and line by line and the topography
of the sample is recorded in the display unit.

Advantages:

 Examine surfaces at an atomic level.

 Give 3D profile of a surface.
 Latest technique used in Research laboratories for scanning the materials.
 Operate in temperatures from zero kelvin to few hundred degree Celsius.
 Magnification is upto nano-scale

Disadvantages:

 Even a very small sound (or) vibrations will disturb the measurement setup.
 It should be kept in vacuum, as even a single dust particle may damage the tip of the
probe.
 Cost is high.
 More Complexity

Applications:

 It is used to produce integrated circuits

 It is used in biomedical devices
 Used in Research labs
 Used in material science studies for both bump and flat surfaces
 PART – A (Questions and Answers)

1. What is meant by energy spectrum of a black body? What do you infer from it?
When a perfect black body is allowed to emit radiations at different temperatures, then the
distribution of energy for different wavelengths at various temperatures is obtained as shown in
figure

Following facts were infer from the graph.

1. The energy distribution is not uniform for any given temperature.
2. The intensity of radiation (E) increases with increase in wavelength and at a particular
wavelength its value is maximum (λm). Beyond this if the wavelength increases the intensity of
heat radiations decreases.
3. The wavelength, at which maximum emission of energy takes place, decreases with increase
in temperature. The dotted line represents λm at various temperatures.
4. For all wavelengths, an increase in temperature causes an increase in the energy emission.

2. Explain Planck's hypothesis.

 A black body radiation chamber is filled with large number of oscillators called Planck's
oscillators.
 The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as that of its vibrational
frequency.
 The oscillators can absorb or emit energy in multiples of small unit called quantum. The
quantum of radiation is called photon. The energy of photon is given by
E = hv
where h - Planck's constant.
 The oscillator can have only discrete energy values E n given by
 E n  nh  n [   h ]
Here n is an integer and it takes value 0, 1, 2, 3, .
3. Explain Planck's law of radiation.
The energy density of heat radiation emitted from a blackbody at temperature T in the
wavelength range λ and λ+dλ is given by
8hc
E  h
 
5  e kT  1
 
where, h - Planck's constant
c - Speed of light
k - Boltzmann's constant
T - Temperature of the blackbody.
4. . Define Wien’s displacement law. Give its limitation.
It states that the wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature.
1
m 
T
(or) mT  a constant [ This constant = 0.2892 cm K]

Limitation: This law holds good only for shorter wavelength and not for longer wavelengths.
5. Define Rayleigh - Jeans law. Give its limitation.
It states that the energy distribution (Eλ) is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (T) and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (λ).
T
E
4
8kT
E 
4
where k is the Boltzmann's constant.
Limitation: This law holds good only for longer wavelengths and not for shorter wavelengths.
6. Interpret the expression for Compton shift. Why it is not observable in the visible region
of electromagnetic spectrum?

The expression for Compton shift is given by

  =
h
1  cos 
m0 c

 The Compton Effect is observed with ultraviolet light in the X-ray region. The frequency
of light tells us how much energy the light is carrying. Higher frequency, higher energy.
 Visible light is of lower energy than ultraviolet light. To remove an electron from an
atom, there is a minimum ionization energy needed for each different element. With
visible light, the full quantum can be absorbed and used by the electron in the
photoelectric effect.
 With x-rays, the electron is unable to absorb and use all of that energy. Therefore, a
portion of the x-ray energy is absorbed and kicks back the electron while the rest of the x-
ray is simply deflected and that x-ray continues to the detector with just a small change to
a slightly lower frequency.

7. Calculate the change in wavelength of an X-ray photon when it is scattered through an

angle of 0° by a free electron.

= ( ) ( )

8. What the properties of matter waves.

• If the mass of the particle is smaller, then the wavelength associated with that particle is
longer.
• If the velocity of the particle is small, then the wavelength associated with that particle is
longer.
• If v = 0, then De-Broglie-wavelength    , i.e., the waves becomes indeterminate and if
v   , then   0 . This indicates that de-Broglie waves are generated by the motion of
particles.
• These waves do not depend on the charge of the particles. This shows that these waves
are not electromagnetic waves.
The velocity of de-Broglie waves is not constant since it depends on the velocity of the material
particle. But the velocity of electromagnetic waves is constant.

9. How are matter-waves different from electromagnetic waves?

Electromagnetic waves Matter waves
These waves have electric and magnetic Matter waves have no electric and magnetic fields
fields associated with them. associated with them.
These waves can easily pass through These waves cannot pass through vacuum.
vacuum.
Matter waves have velocities less than velocities
These waves have fixed velocities.
of light and depend on situation.
Wavelengths of these waves can be
Their wavelengths cannot be measured easily.
measured easily.
These waves are associated with material particles,
These rays are emitted from source in space.
they do not exist without material particles.
Energies of these waves are quantized. Energies of these waves are not quantized.

10. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of a proton and an electron, accelerated by a

potential of 150V.
𝛌= =1
√ √

11. Define photoelectric effect.

The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light radiation of
suitable wavelength (or frequency) is called photoelectric effect.

12. Summarize the physical significance of wave function.

  is a complex quantity and individually it does not have any meaning.

  2    is real and positive, it has physical meaning.

  2 represents the probability density (or) probability of finding the particle per unit

volume.
 For a given volume d the probability of finding the particle is given by
P    2 d , where d  dx dy dz

 The probability will have any value between zero to one. (i.e.,)

13. Calculate the minimum energy of an electron can possess in an infinitely deep potential
well of width 4 nm.

( )
= 3.77
( )

1 eV=

14. Write down the one dimensional schroedinger time independent equation and write the
same for a free particle.
 The one dimensional schroedinger time independent equation is given by
 2 2m( E  V )
  0
x 2 2

For a free particle, the potential energy is zero i.e., V = 0, Therefore the schroedinger
equation becomes
 2 2mE
 2  0
x 2 
15. Show that for a free particle moving within a one dimensional potential box, the ground
state energy cannot be zero.
 For a free particle moving within a one dimensional potential box, when the ground state
energy n = 0, the wave function is zero for all values of x, i.e., it is zero even within the
potential box which implies no particle is present inside.
 Therefore the ground state energy cannot be zero.

16. Calculate the energy required for an electron to jump from ground state to second
excited state in a potential well of width “L”.
n2h2
We know that En=
8mL2
The energy required for an electron to jump from ground state to second excited state is E2-E1
22 h2 4h 2 12 h 2 h2
E2= = ; E 1 = 
8mL2 8mL2 8mL2 8mL2
3h 2
E2-E1=
8mL2

17. Calculate the lowest energy of the system containing two electrons confined to a box of
length 1 nm.

( )
=6.04
( )

1 eV=

18. What is the meant by tunnelling effect?

In quantum mechanics a particle having lesser energy (E) than the barrier potential (V)
can easily cross over the potential barrier having a finite width „l‟ by penetrating through the
barrier. This effect is called as tunneling effect.

19. Mention any four applications of STM.

  It is used to produce integrated circuits
 It is used in biomedical devices
 Used in Research labs
 Used in material science studies for both bump and flat surfaces

20. List out the limitations of scanning tunnelling microscope.

 Even a very small sound (or) vibrations will disturb the measurement setup.
 It should be kept in vacuum, as even a single dust particle may damage the tip of the
probe.
 Cost is high.
 More Complexity

21. What is wave particle duality?

 Wave-particle duality is the concept that all matter exhibits the properties of both waves
and particles.
 In quantum mechanics, light and matter can be treated as both wave-like and particle-like
properties.
 It has been verified experimentally for subatomic particles, light, and even atoms and
molecules.
22. Write down the expression for the wavelength of matter waves.
 Wavelength of matter waves is given by the expression
h
λ=
mv
where h → planck‟s constant
m → mass of the particle
v → velocity of the particle
23. List the applications of Schrodinger wave equation.
 The Schrodinger equation is used to find the allowed energy levels of quantum
mechanical systems (such as atoms, or transistors).
 The associated wavefunction gives the probability of finding the particle at a certain
position.

24. What are Eigen values and Eigen function?

Eigen value is defined as the energy of the particle and is denoted by the letter En.
Eigen function is defined as the wave function of the particle and is denoted by the letter ψn.

25. What is the principle of scanning tunnelling microscope?

  Tunnelling effect is the principle behind scanning tunneling microscope.

 When a voltage difference is applied between a conducting tip and a surface close to it,
electrons can tunnel through the vacuum between the tip and the surface, causing a
tunneling current.
 The current that results depends upon the distance between probe tip and sample surface.
26. Mention the major applications of quantum tunnelling.
 Josephson junction (SQUID)
 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

27. State compton effect and compton shift.

When a photon of energy „hv‟ collides with an electron of a scatterer at rest, the photon
gives its energy to the electron. Therefore the scattered photon will have lesser energy (or) lower
frequency (or) higher wavelength compared to the wavelength of incident photon. Since the
electron gains energy, it recoils with the velocity „v‟. This effect is called Compton effect and
the shift in wavelength is called Compton shift.
28. What is meant by photon? Give any two properties.
The discrete energy values in the form of small packets or quantas of definite frequency or
wavelength are called photon
Properties :
 Photons are similar to that of electrons.
 We know for electrons the definite quantities are „e‟ and ‘m’. Similarly for photons, the
definite quantities are ‘h’ and ‘c’.
 Photons will not have any charge. They are neutral and hence they are not affected by
magnetic (or) electric fields.
 They do not ionize gases.
  The energy of the photon is given by E  h , which varies with respect to the type of
radiation frequencies.
h
 The momentum of a photon is given by p  , where „h‟ is Planck‟s constant, „ ‟
c
frequency of photon and c is the velocity of light.
29. Define wave function.
 The variable quantity associated with matter waves or de-Broglie waves is called the

wave function .

 It relates the probability of finding the particle at that point and at that time.

30. What is electron microscope?

• It is a microscope in which the object is illuminated by highly accelerated fast - moving
electron beam.
• It has very high magnification of about 100,000 X and very high resolving power.