Onal to current.

That is why the

Cale is non-linear that senses the current.

ACTIVIT Y A3
AIM

10 assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three on/off

and a power SOurce. switches, a fuse

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Three bulbs (4O W, 220 V each), three on/off switches, a socket, a plug, a fuse of 1.0 A, flexible
connecting wires, main switch.
THEORY
1. A household circuit works on ac mains of 220 V, 50 Hz. From the mains we get iwo supplies
of different current ratings :
() Light line of 5 A for low power appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans, fluorescent tubes,
etc.

(ii) Power line of 15 A for heavy duty appliances like room heater, air conditioner, geysers,
hot plates, etc.

101
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS XI

2 If P, P P. are the powers consumed by different appliances, then the

onsumed in the household circuit is: P= P +P + P,+..
P
total power
Curent drawn from the mains of V volts will be - V

Te protect the appliances from damage due to excessive currents, afuse of

rating
higher than the normally drawn current is connected in series with the live wire 10to 20%
soure of power. from the
3. Different appliances are connected in parallel between live and neutral wires.
Each
is provided with a separate switch in its live wire.
4. Earth wire is asatety measure which ensures any leakage of current to the
appliance
an appliane keeps its potential equal to that of the earth wire (zero volt) andmetallic
the body of
not get a severe electric
shock. user may
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

F Live
wire
Fuse Socket
To
mains
Earth
B Neutral wire
wire

Fig. 8Circuit diagram for household appliances.

PROCEDURE
1. As shown in Fig. 8, connect the three bulbs B, B, and B, separately in series combination
with on/of switches S,, S, and S respectively.
2 Connect these three bulb-switch combinations in parallel across the live and neutral wires.
3. Connect a fuse Fof proper rating in the live wire of the circuit.
4. Connect a three way socket at the end of live and neutral wires. Connect a wire from its
earth pin.
5. Insert the plug in the socket fitted on the main electric board.
6. By pressing the switches S,, S, and S, one by one, check that each bulb is switched on and
off independently of the other.
7. Press the three switches simultaneously and note what happens.

CONCLUSIONS
1. Each bulb functions independently of the other through a separate switch.
2. The three bulbs can function simultaneously with the installed fuse safely.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The rating of the required fuse must be determined carefully by calculating the maximum
current drawn by the circuit.
2. Never use safety fuse of much higher rating than the current normally drawn from/by the
circuit.
3. The safety fuse and the on/off switches must be connected in live wire.
4. Take care while working with mains.

102
 ACT IVIT Y A4
AIM
To assemble the
components of a given electricalcircuit (say Ohm's law circuit used
to measure resistance)

ApPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Aresistor, an ammeter (0-1.5 A), a
voltmeter (0-5 V), abattery/battery eliminator, one-wav kev,
rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY
For assembling the components of any circuit, it is advisable to connect the
following order. components in the
1. Source of power (battery/battery
2. Plug key (near the battery).
eliminator).
3. Resistors, bulbs, inductors or any other load (to be connected ernd to
end).

103
 LAD MANUAL PHYSICS X0

Measuring instruments anmeter, voltmeter, metre bridge, potentiometer, etC. Ammeter is

onneted in series and voltmeter iin parallel with the lod with positive nd, of both
owands the positive ternminal of the battery.
CIRCUT DIAGRAM
Battery Plug key Rh

Rheostat

Fig. 9Assembling the components

for measurement of resistance by Ohm's law.

PROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit diagram required for the given activity and arrange the components
accordingly on the work table as shown in Fig. 9.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with a piece of sand paper.
3. Connect the battery, ammeter A, resistance R, rheostat Rh and plug key Kall in series and
voltmeter V in parallel with resistor R. See that the positive ends of ammeter and voltmeter
are connected towards the positive terminal of the battery.
4. Insert the plug in the key K. See that the ammeter and voltmeter show
deflections on the
right hand (positive) side. Adjust the rheostat so that the deflections are within scale.
5. The deflections in ammeter and voltmeter verify the
continuity of the assembled circuit.
CONCLUSION
The components of the given electrical circuit have been correctly assembled.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Before making the connections, clean the ends of
the connecting wires with a piece of sand paper.
2. Make neat and tight connections.
3. The ammeter should be
connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with the resistor.
4. The positive ends of both
ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.
 Section A: ACTIVITIES

ACTIVIT Y A5
AIM
fo study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
Apotentiometer, a battery of three dry cells/battery eliminator, a voltmeter (0-3 V), an
ammeter
(0-3A), plug key, jacket, a low resistance rheostat, connecting wires and apiece of sand paper.
THEORY
A
potentiometer works on the principle that if a constant current flows through a wire of uniform
area of cross-section and composition, then the potential drop V across any length l of the wire is
directly proportional to the length .
Vcl or V=kl Or k=

Here kis the potential drop per unit length and is called potential gradient.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

A
100

Battery 200

300
K

B 400 70 80
0 10 20 0 50

Fig. 10 Circuit to study variation in potential drop with length.

PROCEDURE the required apparatus

DraW a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 10 and arrange
accordingly on the working table.
length) of the potentiometer
Connect the positive terminal of the battery to the end A(zero
length), through a plug key K, ammeter A
Wire and negative terminal to the end B(400 cm
and loww resistance rheostat Rh.
the positive terminal of voltmeter V to the end Aot the potentiometer wire and
NOW connect
terminal to the jockey Jwhich can slide along the wire AR
6o negative
4. Note that the pointer ofthe voltmeteris at the zero mark when no current is passing through
it. If it is not adjust its pointer with the help of zero adjustment screw provided on its front
sO,
5. panel.
Insert the Plug in the key Kand press the jockey J at the extreme end Bof the potentiometer
voltmeter shows full scale deflection.
of the rheostat sothat
wire.Adjust the sliding contact
105
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

A, the voltmeter will show zero deflection.

at point
6. Now press the jockey note the
7. Now press thejockey
at 40 cm (from end A) and
distances 80 cm, 120 cm,
corresponding reading.
160 cm
the jockey at 400 cm fron
note theofpotential drop Vin each case. See that the ammeter reading eT ät,
end Aand contacts
8. Now make
all your observations ina tabular form.
constant throughout. Record observation.
potential gradient k = V/I for each
9. Calculate
OBSERVATIONs AND CALCULATIONS

Range of the voltmeter =0 to

=
Least count of the voltmeter
A;
Range of the ammeter =0 to
A
Least count of the ammeter =
A
Steady current in the ammeter
length
Table A9 Variation in potential drop with

Voltmeter reading V Potential gradient k=

l
Length of potentiometer wire () (V cm)
S.No.
(cm)
1.
40
2.
3. 80

4. 120

5 160

200
6.
7. 240

8 280

9 320

10. 360

11. 400

-1
Mean value of k= Vcm

PLOTTING GRAPH along

Valong Y-axis and l
Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph of Vversus I, with
straight line graph is obtained as shown in Fig. 11.
Potential gradient =Slope of V-lgraph
k=

Vcm

106
 Section A: ACTIVITIES
Graph of Vvs. l
3.0

(volt)2.5
V
drop2.0
Potential
1.5
)
1.0| Scale:
X axis:1 cm = 40 cm
0.5
Yaxis :1cm =0.5 V

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400

Length of potentiometer wire, l (cm) ’

Fig. 11 Variation of potential drop Vwith length l.

RESULT

1. Within the limits of experimental error, the ratio V/! is found to be constant. This shows that V l.
Mean value of k = V cml

2. Vvs. lgraph is straight line which again shows that V«l.

Value of potential gradient from the graph, k = Vcm -l

PRECAUTIONS
1. Allconnections should be neat, clean and tight.
. lhe positive terminal of the auxiliary battery should be connected to the end of the
potentiometer wire.
Duin8 experimentation, the current passing through the potentiometer wire must remain
current
cOnstant. This can be ensured by using an ammeter in the auxiliary circuit. If the
rheostat.
ianges, it should be readiusted with the help of the low resistance
4. Zero error, if any, in the voltmeter and ammeter should be eliminated by adjust the screw
provided at the front panel.
for the duration it is essential for
urrent in the auxiliary circuit should be passed only and the consequernt change of
taking the observations. This prevents unnecessary heating
resistance
6. Do not dragof the potentiometer
the jockey wire.
along the wire while moving it from one point to another. It should be
wire.
pressed gently at different positions of the
URCES oF ERRoR not be unitorml.
1,
The the potentiometer wire may
2. area of cross-section of
The resistance of the potentiometer wire may chang due to heating.
3, Voltmeter readings may not be accurate.

UNAVOCE
See viva voce questions based on pootentiometer on pages 61 and 62.
107
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

ACTIVIT Y

AIM AG
To draw the diaqram of given open circuit comprising at least a
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are
connected in proper order and correct the circuit and circuit diagram. not
battery,
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
key,
A given open circuit comprising at least a battery, plug resistor, rheostat,
voltmeter;and connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. ammete
THEORY
Electrical circuits can be either functional or open type.
Functional electrical circuit. An electrical circuit is functional only if all the
connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components/devices are in components ae
condition and key is closed. With closed key, all components satisfy the property of
Open electrical circuit. An open circuit means there is abreak in some part of the ci continuiwortyk.ing
break may be either deliberate such as a key left in open position or afault such
sOme burnt out components or a loose connection. This circuit shows discontinuitybroken
for onewineor
more components.
CiRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Some open circuit diagrams
are given in Fig. 12.
Students are advised to
mark the components A A

which are not connected in Rh

Rh
proper order. Then draw
COrrect circuit diagrams
K
and assemble the circuit (0)
(a)
accordingly by connecting
components in proper
order in each case.

A RI

Rh

(u)
(c)

Fig. 12 Some open circuits.

108
 Section A: ACTIVITIES
PROCEDURE

1.
Draw the circuit diagram [see Fig. 12(b)] in
given
your notebook.
In the above diagram, mark the
2.
list of all
components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Make a components in the
against each component. observation table and mark a()in column
appropriate
Now draw the correct circuit
4. diagram.
.Assemble and connect the electrical components in
diagram. accordance with the corrected circuít
. Insert aplug in the key and note
the
these meters towards right hand side deflections in ammeter and voltmeter.
verify that the corrected circuit is Deflections in
functional.
OBSERVATIONS

Table A10: For checking order of

connections of circuit components.
Mark a () in appropriate column

S.No. Circuit component Correct connection Incorrect connection

1 Battery
2 Resistor
3 Rheostat
4
Key
5 Ammeter
6 Voltmeter

For examnple, in given circuit diagram of Fig. 12(b), voltmeter has been wrongly connected. To
measure resistance R, it must be connected in parallel with R. Now students should draw the
correct circuit diagram.
RESULT
Ihe circuit assembled by connecting components in proper order is functionally correct as
verified by passing current through it.
PRECAUTIONSDefore making the connections, ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned properly with
a piece of sand
paper.
s Ihe ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter in parallel
with it.
he positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive
terminal of the
4. Rheostat shouldbattery.
be connected in the circuit using its one end terminal and the other variable

5. terminal.
The plug key should be kept open throughout. It should be closed only at the time of
checking the continuity of the circuit.

109
 SECTION B: ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY
BI
AlM

To identijy a diode, an LED, a resistor

such items. and a copacitor from a mired on
APPARATUS AND MATEPIAL REQUIPED
A
multirmeter, a nized cllection f dice LED,
THEORY
reistt i c

Diode. A two terminal]

reverse biased. It does notdevice which crnducts Curent h
ernit ight during its i2sei 5
LED. A light enitting diode is a two conducio
biased and not when reverse bizsed. It teninal device wúç condus crawe 2
Resistor. A two terrninal device whúch enits characteristic light durnz is nHT
a

Capacitor. A two terminal device whíhconducts

offers
egqually in both direciors
for ac. When Connected infirite resistance to dcbui2s 2 i
acro55 a dc s0urce, a re2E
C>pf) which decreases to zero quickly. This is multmeter shows z lrze CuIrat iTal0
because the apaitor iiialr Graws 2
DIAGRAMS
Violet
Orange
6.D harge
Red
Silver

)
Carbon resistor
D Diodes
1000 uF
0.47 f
Paper
Mica Electrolytic
CAPACITORS
Fig. 1 Diagrarms of carbon resistor, diodes, LED
and capaitors.
PROCEDURE
1. Look for the colour bands on the given
components. If a component has a set of three olour
bands followed by a silver or gold band, then the component is a resistor.
2. Insert the black and red leads (or
probes) into common and positive terminals of the
ltimeter. Turn its selector switch to resistance mode - highest range (0-MQ).
3. Touch the two probes to the two ends of each
component one by one. Note the
deílection in the multimeter. Interchange the positions of two probes for each direction of
and again note the direction of deflection. component

181
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

both directions, then the component is aresistor

deflection in emission
If the multimeter shows an equal direction without any
of light
4.
deflection in one the component is a
from the
5. If a multimeter shows direction, then diode.
in the opposite emission of
component and and no deflection alongwith the light from the
multimeter shows deflection in one direction then the comnponent iS an LED.
6. If the direction,
deflection in the opposite probes
Component and no deflection on connecting its either way to a
show any of
7. If the multimeter does not the capacitance the capacitor is large.
a capacitor. But if which gradually decreases to zerO.
Component, then the componentisdeflection
large initially
the multimeter will show a
observations in a tabular form.
8. Record all vour
OBSERVATIONS
component
Table B1:State of conduction of each
State of conduction of a component
Identified component
Item code
A Conducts equally in both directions
B Conducts in one direction without emission of light
Conducts in one direction with emission of light
D Does not conduct, gives an initial deflection which
decays to zero

RESULT
From the mixed grouping of components, the components marked A, B, C andD
identified as resistor, diode, LED and capacitor respectively.
PRECAUTIONS
1. While checking the conduction state of any component, clean its
leads properly.
2. Use the selector switch of the
multimeter in resistance mode with highest range Opuol
3. While testing any component, avoid touching the metal end of
Body resistance in parallel with the component resistance may either of multimeter proce
create confusion about te
conduction state of the component.
 AIM
A CTI VITY B2
Use of
LED andmul
tcheckimeter to see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an
whether a given electronic component (e.g., diode) is in working order.
APPARATUS AND
MATERIAL
A
THEORY
multimeter, REQUIRED
a
diode, LED, sand
paper.
1. To
check the
junction unidisirforward
diode/LED
When a junction
ectional biased,
flow of current through a junction diode/LED. When a
a substantial current (s few
mA) will flow through it.
through it. diode/LED reverse biased, a
is
negligible current ( few uA) will flow
To check
few 2to k2)whether adiode is in working order. A
reverse biasing.during forward junction diode offers alow resistance (a
biasing
Thus the working of a and it offers a very high resistance ( M2) during
resistance in forward and reverse biased junction diode can be examined by measuring its
WORKING DIAGRAM conditions.
Diode R

p-n
R.B.
+ Red probe
Black probe
K
6V variable
dc battery
Fia. 2 To check
unidirectional flow of current through a diode.
PROCEDURE
(a) Tocheck
unidirectional
1. As shown in Fig. 2,
flow of current through a
junction diode/LED
connect the junction diode, a
resistance box, a 6 V
and a plug key K in series.
Adjust the battery to minimunm voltage. variable de batterv
2. Set multimeter in
current
current range). Take out a measuring mode at a suitable range ot
suitable resistance R trom the resistance mA (starting trom high
flows within the range chosen. Insert the box so that the current
plug in the key Kand note the value ot
flowing in the circuit. current
3. Increase the forward bias in steps of 0.2 V. Note the
applied voltage, current increases rapidly with the current inin each case. Bevond a certain
*. Reverse the terminals of the junction
increase forward bias.
diode so that its p-end is at lower potential and rend is
at higher potential. Observe the current in
multimeter on uA scale. Negligible current
eading will indicate the unidirectional feature of the diode.
show Increase in reverse bias will
negligible change in reverse current.

183
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI

5. Replace the diode by LED and repeat steps 1 to 4. It will be seen that LED allows the flow of

Current only when it is forward biased. LED starts glowing whenbrighter the applied
exceeds 1.2 V. Initially, it glows faintly. Its glow becomes brighter and as
the voltage
is gradually increased. voltage
(6) To check whether the junction diode is in working order or not
6. Set the multimeter in resistance measuring mode.
junction diode N.
?. Touch the two probes of the multimeter to the two end terminals of the
If
the diode resistance. Reverse the diode connections. Again note the diode resistance
diode resistance is low in one case and high in the other case or vice versa, then the diode is

in working order.
8. If the diode resistance is low both during forward and reverse biasings, then the diode ix
short-circuited, If the diode resistance is very high both during forward and reverse
biasings, then the diode junction is discontinuous or open. In both of these situations he
diode is not in working order. Record the observations in a tabular form.
OBSERVATIONS
A. For unidirectional flow of current through the junction diode
Table B2 : When the junction diode is connected in forward bias

Forward bias voltage Forward current

S.No.
(mA)
1
2
3.
4
5

Table B3 :When the junction diode is connected in reverse bias

S.No. Reverse bias voltage Reverse current
(V) (uA)
1.
2.
3.
4

B. For unidirectional flow of current through the LED

Table B4 : When the LED is connected in forward bias

S.No.
Forward bias voltage Forward current
(V) (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4
5

184
 Section B: ACTIVITIES

Table B5 : When the LED is connected in reverse bias

S.No. Reverse bias voltage Reverse current

() (AA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

C. For working condition of the junction diode

Table B6 : Measurement of the diode resistance with multimeter
S.No. Biasing condition of the diode Resistance Nature of resistance
(2)
1. Forward biasing Low/Very high
2. Reverse biasing Low/Very high
RESULT
1. The unidirectional feature of a junction diode and LED has been established, both conduct
only when forward biased and not when reverse biased.
2. The given junction diode is in working order as it offers low resistance in forward biasing
and high resistance in reverse biasing/The given junction diode is not in working order as it
offers low (or high) resistance both during forward and reverse biasing.
PRECAUTIONS
1. For measuring resistance of any component, its leads should be cleaned properly with a
sand paper.
2. For measuring current and resistance, appropriate selection of function switch and
range
switch should be made.
3. The polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper polarities for
circuits.
measurements in dc
4. the
While measuring resistance of any component, avoid direct touching of the metallic ends of
multimeter leads. Body resistance in parallel with the component resistance will affect
the resistance measurement.

5. Each time when we select a resistance scale of different range, we should set the pointer to
zero using 'zeroAdj. knob'.
 Section B: ACTIVITIES

ACTIVIT Y B4
AIM

To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a

glass slab.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Arectangular glass slab (preferably of larger size), a drawing board, white paper sheet,
cello-tape/drawing pins, alpins, protractor, ruler, sharp pencil and eraser.
THEORY
Figure 5 shows the path ABCD of a ray suffering refraction through a rectangular glass slab
PORS. It is seen that
Angle of incidence i= Angle of emergence e

Air

B-) Glass

Fig. 5 Refraction through a glass slab.

Thus the emergent ray CD is parallel to the incident ray AB But the emergent ray gets
laterally
displaced with respect to the incident ray. The perpendicular distance between the incident and
emergent rays, when light is incident obliquely on a refracting slab with parallel faces, is called laterial shift
or lateral displacement.
It is given by
cOs
d= sin(i-r) =t sini 1
COS r
(u2-sin? i)2
Clearly, dmay =f sin 90° =t
The lateral shift produced by a glass slab increases with
(i) the increase in thickness t of glass slab,
(ii) the increase in the value of angle of incidence i, and
(ii) theincrease in refractive index Hof the glass slab,

189
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

RAY DIAGRAMS
AiPi N, A N
P
i=40°
40° i=40
P
B B M
B.
E
d
R

R D,

(a) (b) (c)

N, Ns
As P
P 60
50! P
P
B4 B5
t,

R
R

(d)
DA
Csves
(e)
PA
D%

Fig. 6 Lateral displacements for different i and t.

PROCEDURE

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of cello-tape or drawing pins.
2. Place the glass slab breadthwise on the white sheet [Fig. 6(a)]. Mark its boundary PQRS with a
sharp pencil.
3. Remove the glass slab. Take a point B, on face AB Draw normal B, N, on PQWith the help ot a
protractor, draw an incident ray A,B, making an angle of incidence of 40° with the normal B,N,
4. Again, place the glass slab within its boundary PQRS. Fix twoalpins P, and P, vertically on
the incident ray A, B,, about 8 to 10 cm apart.
5. Looking into the slab from the opposite face SP, position the eye in such a way that the fet or
pins P, and P, appear to be one behind the other. Now fix pins P, and P, vertically in lIne
with pins P, and P, as viewed through the slab.
6. Remove the alpins and encircle the pin-pricks. Remove the slab and complete the path length
of the
ray of light A, B,C, D, Draw perpendicular C, E, on A, B, produced and measure the
of C, E,. This gives a measure of lateral displacement d.
7. Place the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Fig. 6(b). Repeat the experiment againforthesame
angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral displacement.
8. Place the glass slab thicknesswise as shown in Fig. 6(c). Repeat the againtorthe
same angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral displacement.
experiment
twie
9. By placing the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Figs. 6(d) and (e), repeat the experiment
for angles of incidence of 50° and 60°. Measure the lateral displacement in each case.

190
 Section 8 ACTIVITIES

10. Measure the length, breadth and thicknes ot the glass slab using a uler. Rnt all vour
observations in atabular form.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of the protractor = degrees
Least count of the ruler = cm ; length ot the glass slab, , =
Breadth of the glass slab, t, = Cm ;Thickness of the glass slab, =
glass slab
Table B8:Variation of lateral displacement with angle of incidence i and thickness t of
Angle of incidence Angle of Lateral
Thickness of glass Difference i~e Ratio
S. slab traversed emergence displacement
(degrees) d (cm)
No.
(cm) i (degrees) e(degrees)
1. t, 40°

40
2 ta

3. 40°

4. 50°
5. to 60°

RESULT
1. As difference i-eis small, so i=e When light retracts through a glass slab, the emergent rav
is parallel to the direction of incident ray.
2. Within the limits of experimental error, from observations 1, 2 and 3 we s that the ratio
d/ t=constant. The lateral displacement of the emergent rav is diretly proportional to the
thickness of the glass slab (for constant ).
3. From observations 2, 4 and 5, we note the lateral displacement ot the emergent rav inereases
with the increase in the angle of incidence i(tor constant ).
PRECAUTIONS
1. The boundary of the glass slab should be marked with a sharp enil.
2. Alpins should be fixed vertically and about S to 10cm apart.
3. The feet of the alpins and not their heads should be adjusted in the sate straight line.
4. Just after removing an alpin, encircle the pin-prick with asharp pencil.
5. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI

A CTIVIT Y
B5()
AIM
light due toa thin slit.
Toobserve diffraction of
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED bulb/aser pencil), a glass plate and a piece of
Two razor blades, a cello-tape, source of light (electric
black paper.
THEORY
bending of light around the corners of small obstarles
is the plenomenon of geometricalshadow. Diffraction effect
is
1. Diffraction of light. It into the region of
consequent spreading the order of wavelength of
light.
OT apertures and its the obstacle/aperture is of
highly pronounced if the size of Diffraction arises due to the interference of light waves from
single slit. edges held parallel
2. Diffraction due to a wavefront. Two razor blades with their sharp
different parts of the same
(separation ) form a fine single slit. The diffraction patterm
to, quite close to each other central bright band, surrounded on both sides
by coloured
due to asingle slit consists of a laser pencil) of
(with electric bulb) and alternate dark and bright bands (with
bands
decreasing intensity.

DIAGRAM

Glass plate

-Black paper

Fia. 8 A fine slit made by using two razor blades, one glass plate and a piece of black paper.

PROCEDURE

To make a fine slit using razor blades

blade, cut
1. Take a glass platee and fix a black paper on its top with a cello-tape. Using a razor
out anarrow slit in the central part of the black paper.
paralleland
2. With the help of cello-tape, fix the two razor blades. With their sharp edges tormedin
quite close to each other over the slit cut in the black paper. Thus a narrow slit is
between the edges of the two razor blades.
Toobserve diffraction pattern due to single slit
3. Hold a clear electric bulb with straight filament at a distance of behindtheslit
about 4 m through
between the sharp edges of the razor blades. Switch on the bulb, observe the lamp sidesby'
the slit. A diffraction pattern is seen with a central bright both
coloured bands.
band, surrounded ont

194
 Section B ACTIVITIES

4. Place the slit about 0.5 m from the wall and the electric bulb at a distance of about 15 - 20 cn
behind the slit. Observe the light falling on the wall. Again a coloured diffraction pattern is
Seen on the waVe.

5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using a laser pencil instead of electric bulb. A diffraction pattern is seen
on the wall consisting a central bright band and alternate dark and bright bands of
decreasing intensity.
CONCLUSION
Lightwaves incident on a fine aperture bend around its cornersand show the phenomenon of
diffraction.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Theedges of the two blades shouldbe heldparallel and quite close to each other.
2. The electric bulb should be held at a distance more than 2 m form the slit.
 ACTIVITY B6(a)
AIM

To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by
using a candle and screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with three uprights, aconvex lens of small focal length, a candle, a cardboard
screenground glass screen, metre scale and a match box.

195
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS XII

THEORY
position of th.
The position, nature and size of image formed by aconvex lens depends on the
cases.
Object with respect to the lens. Following raydiagrams show the various possible

Object A
at oo
B' 2F

2 B 2F

(b) Object beyond 2F.

(a) Object at infinity.
A
A

2F B
B B'
2F | 2F 2F B F

(() Object at 2F. (d) Object between F and 2F.

B 2F
2F B' FB 2F
2F F

To infinity
(e) Object at F. ()Object between Fand optical centre.

Fig. 9 The position, nature and size of the image A'B' formed by a convex lens for different positions of object AB.

WORKING DIAGRAMS
L
Screen

Image
-Image
2F
2F 2 2F

Object
L Object L'
(a (b)
Fig. 10 Real images of a lighted candle for a convex lens: (a) u <v and (b) u > v.

PROCEDURE
1. Determine the rough focal length of the convex lens by
obtaining a sharp image of the
Sun/distant object on aplain wall and measuring the distance between the lens and the wall
with a metre scale.

2. Mount the convex lens Lin the clamp of the central upright and make its plane verticalso
that its principal axis becomes parallel to the length of the optical bench.

196
 6, 5 4 3 2 1, No. S.
OBSERVATIONS
Left Left Left Left Left Left
lens Side
the of
Position 11. 10.
PositionRough 9. 8. 7. Placethe 6. 5. 4. 3.
metreS
Several obtainedPlace Place which positions the Shift convex the lens of e
fromthe
Distance
infinity.Place
wilinverted Repeat Hold
becomes thdistances
lens of the Mount Mark
the focal
of screen candle principal
Cm Cm Cm Cm Cm Table the the bethe the till the
2 real, will the optical the points
candle F
length candle
on candle candle and a
from
ofcandle lens. sharp screen equal
Between
Fand2FF 2F
At o experiment be slowly the and candle lightedcqual
Within F At Beyond
Right2F Atrelative lens
thePosition to B9 the inverted of The
flame almost centre axis I
: between at candle the to toand
Nature the of screen, between same towards image image upright vertically
the the away screen the candle of rough 2|
lens at of
convex focus and size and
Left Right Right Right Right lens theofSide and =2 being the by from be
of the height th
the magnified. 2 placingscreen
F as theuprights the far inconvex focal with
f= same real, in
position F and that
the lens candlesaway
Jens. the
Position lens, virtualfocus of of the andchalk a
virtualfor
image Several
Notmetres the distance
measurable fromthe
Distance F of uprights. the lens inverted right the clamp
lens f= Fand and to from (x2 lens. twice
and lens. candle's optical picce
Cm Cm Cm Cm of of Cm till a flame upright
candle position
the image obtain the m) In of the
onthe Only from The a and from
Between Ato 2F
Atand2FF AtF
relative image Cm. lens. is
Beyond 2F Between at sharp centre this therough on
and2Fo lenshe to
tPosition the lens so the
formed a theflame. the image 2 little veryobtained th e position, left
same diffused F The that
L image lens and image of
upright focal optical
It will beyond screen small lens.
by will adjust its the
Virtual
Erect Real Real Real Real Real virtual Real or side as
as the be is on
Shift centre lens. the lengthbench
a in so
convex as
be image before. obtained
real, the
seen candle. th e size.
2 will height that
the is
F screen. the lies from on
InvertedInvertedInvertedInvertedInverted invertedErector Nature screeninverted on be
object. that obtained, It screen at the
lens both
The onthe nearly th e oftip the
of the will Note
the
to and optical the the oflenssides
lie image slowly same
Magnified blurred
magnified
Highly Same
the
and MagnifiedobjectDiminished Diminished get at
Diminishedorimage
image being
beyond screern. tip the 1,
magnified smaller a the the of
sharp height respectively. flame
of
size bench. distances
focus towards th e
cannot formed will
Note the
97 as 2 be in lens,
of
F image size. Move of as flame lies
and real, that
be at the the ofthe on at
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

CONCLUSIONS
As the object moves from infinity towards the focus of the lens,
the size of
I.
Increases and the image moves away from the focus. In all these positions the the image
and inverted and is formed on the other side of the lens. image is real
2. When the object is at the focus, the image is real, inverted and
magnified. blurred being highly
3. When the object is at a distance less than the focal length, the image is virtual, erect
magnified. It is formed on the same side as the object. and

PRECAUTIONS
1. The experiment must be performed at a shaded place free from the air droughts.
2. The candle flame should be as high as the optical centre of the lens.
3. The principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the optical bench.
4. The uprights holding the lens, screen and candle should be rigid and mounted yerticallv.
5. The aperture of the lerns must be small for getting a distinct image.
6. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image formed on the screen.