2. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person.

3. It can make cross questioning possible.

4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person
concerned.
5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.
6. It has flexibility.
7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can
be better judged through cross questioning.
8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.
9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in
historical, experimental, case studies and clinical studies.
Merits of Interview:
1. Direct research.
2. Deep research
3. Knowledge of past and future.
4. Knowledge of special features.
5. Mutual encouragement is ossible.
6. Supra-observation is possible.
7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes.
8. Examination of known data.
Disadvantage of Interview:
1. May provides misleading information.
2. Defects due to interviewee(low level of intelligence or may be
emotionally unbalanced)
3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.
4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental
outlook of interwee and interviewer.
5. One sided and incomplete research.

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 6. Art rather than science.
Schedule:
When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose
it is known as schedule.

“Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are

asked and filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with
another.”
W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt
By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many
things at once. It is best suited to the study of a single item thoroughly.
According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is
nothing more than a list of questions which, it seems necessary to test
the hypothesis.”
Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented
with the specific purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis.
In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays a vital role.
As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely
determined by the ability and tact of the interviewer rather than by the
quality of the questions posed.
Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes
down the answers all by himself, the quality of questions has not any
great significance.

Important Features of Schedule:

1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are
asked and the answers are noted down by him.
2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be
attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
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4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the
circumscribed elements essential to the analysis.
5. It aims at delimiting the subject.
6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down
formally and the interviewer is always armed with the formal
document detailing the questions.
Thus interviewer not to depend upon the memory.
Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule;
1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.
2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.
3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.
4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.
5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.
6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included
in schedule.
Merits of Schedule:
1. Higher percentage of responses.
2. Possible to observe personality factors.
3. Through interview personal contact is possible.
4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.
5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is
there.
6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.

Observation Technique:
This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used
for evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used
in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes, values towards their life
problems and situations. It is most useful technique for evaluating the
behaviors of children.
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It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural
situations.
“It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this
technique group behaviours and social institutions problems are
evaluated.”
C. Y. Younge
“Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than
audio and vocal organs.”
C.A. Mourse
The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original
form, is known as observation.
Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by
watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations
and activities.
Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying
people when one is interested in their overt behavior.
In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as
they think, they do but this is often different from what they actually
do. These restrictions are missing in observation so observation is a
more natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and formality of
questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality and informality in
observation. Data obtained through observation are more real and true
than the data collected by any other method. It also plays a particular
part in survey procedure.

Characteristics of Observation Schedule:

According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;
1. It serves a formulated research purpose.
2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly.

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 3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general
propositions.
4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity ,
reliability and precision.
5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a
problem.
6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.
7. It employs own experiences.
8. It establishes cause-effect relationship.
9. It is an objective technique of data collection.
10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique.
11. It is formal as well as informal technique.
12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data
collection.
Advantages:
1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and
information.
2. We get first hand data through this method.
3. Record of observation is also available immediately.
4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.
5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct
information.
Limitations:
1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot
be observed directly.
2. It is subjective method.
3. It is very time consuming process.
4. Costly so energy consuming also.

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 5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e.
subject becomes conscious.
6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not
useful.
7. Observer should be trained and experienced.
Rating Scale:
Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment
regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually
expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by which
such judgments may be quantified.
“Rating is an essence and direct observation.”
Ruth Strong
“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of
a variable.”
Von Dallen
Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and
attributes.
A rating method is a method by which one systematizes, the
expression of opinion concerning a trait.
The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers
and judges and even by the self as well.
The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are
evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the
basis of the opinions and judgments of the experimenter himself.
In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial
expression, personal documents, clinical type interview, projective
techniques and immediate experiences as emotions, thoughts and
perceptions.
Advantages:
1. Writing reports to parents.
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 2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.
3. Finding out students’ needs.
4. Making recommendations to employers.
5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child.
6. Stimulating effect upon the rates.
Limitations:
1. Difference in rating abilities.
2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.
3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.
4. Average superior than single.
5. Impact of emotions.
6. Limits of self-rating.
7. Over rating.
8. Limits of rating of specific qualities.
9. Limits of justifications.
Activities Involved in Data Collection:
Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the
intended analysis. The collection of data requires time and substantial
effort for acquiring skills and making the necessary arrangements for
collection and to ensure adequate quality.
Access to Data:
Generally it is a problem for researcher to get access to data
because the institutions or the persons who generally control the data
are not willing to provide him data for one or the other reason or
excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate such institutions
or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some educational
problems are of such nature that the subjects specially girls are not
willing to disclose correct information. Similarly a researcher of any
board or university may not have access to confidential data.
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Adequate Standard:
The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly
collected. It is possible if the following conditions are fulfilled.
(i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of
validity. In other words the data should, ensure what they claimed
to measure.
(ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error.
The following types of error are possible in data collection;
(a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/
instrument.
(b) Error of bias.
(c) Deliberate falsehood.
(d) Distortion of facts.
(e) Random errors.
(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the
population so that proper generalization could be made.
(iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The
conditions under which the data were gathered should be properly
noted and suitable data recording method should be used. The
efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising during
recording. The data are generally recorded in the following forms;
(a) notes of the researcher
(b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing the
experiment or conducting a field study
(c) Interview notes
(d) Responses to questionnaires
(e) Recording on tape recorder.
(f) Video cameras
(g) Transcribing data for computer input

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Data Organization:
Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be necessary that
an extensive set of supplementary notes should be made for the
following;
(a) Sources of data
(b) Conditions under which data were gathered.
There should be stored in such a way as offer some reasonable
prospects of retrieval when required.
Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data:
The primary data can be collected through laboratory measurement,
field observation, questionnaires, interviews, opinionnaires, schedules
etc.
The secondary data can be collected from technical publications
such as manuals, handbooks, data sheets, and standards, books and
journals, official publications of the Central government, state
governments, local bodies, private data services and computer data
base.
General Rules:
There are some general rules that apply to all types of data collection.
They are as follows;
(i) Do not collect more information than is required for the research
problem.
(ii) Make sure the wording of the data collection instrument is clear and
unambiguous.
(iii) Use clear and explicit instructions in data collection instruments.
(iv) Design the response options as carefully as the items stems
themselves.
(v) Make responding to the measuring instrument as alternative as
possible.
(vi) Make sure that the final products look professional.

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 9
Data Analysis
Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the
qualitative and quantitative type. It is usual tendency in behavioral
research that much use of quantative analysis is made and statistical
methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and
techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques have
got a special position in research because they provide answers to the
problems.
Kaul defines data analysis as, ”Studying the organized material
in order to discover inherent facts. The data are studied from as many
angles as possible to explore the new facts.”

Purpose:
The following are the main purposes of data analysis:

(i) Description:
It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the
development of most fields. A researcher must be able to identify a
topic about which much was not known; he must be able to convince
others about its importance and must be able to collect data.

(ii) Construction of Measurement Scale:

The researcher should construct a measurement scale. All numbers
generated by measuring instruments can be placed into one of four
categories:

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