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 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

G. S. Agarwal, Ahmedabad, India

G. Agrawal, Rochester, USA
T. Asakura, Sapporo, Japan
A. Aspect, Orsay, France
M.V Berry, Bristol, England
A.T. Friberg, Stockholm, Sweden
V L. Ginzburg, Moscow, Russia
E Gori, Rome, Italy
A. Kujawski, Warsaw, Poland
L.M. Narducci, Philadelphia, USA
J. Pefina, Olomouc, Czech Republic
R. M. Sillitto, Edinburgh, Scotland
H. Walther, Garching, Germany
 Preface
This volume presents six review articles devoted to various topics of current
interest both in classical and in quantum optics.
The first article, by S.Ya. Kilin, entitled Quanta and information, is concerned
with a multidisciplinary subject which involves optics, information theory,
programming and discrete mathematics. It contains contributions from areas such
as computing, teleportation, quantum cryptography and decoherence. The article
presents an account of recent results obtained in this relatively new field.
The second article. Optical solitons in periodic media with resonant and
off-resonant nonlinearities, by G. Kurizki, A.E. Kozhekin, T. Opatrny and
B. Malomed, reviews the properties of optical solitons in periodic nonlinear
media. The emphasis is on solitons in periodically refractive media (Bragg
gratings), incorporating a periodic set of thin layers of two-level systems
resonantly interacting with the field. Such media support a variety of bright
and dark 'gap solitons' propagating in the band gaps of the Bragg gratings, as
well as their multi-dimensional analogs (light bullets). These novel gap solitons
differ substantially from their counterparts in periodic media with either cubic
or quadratic off-resonant nonlinearities.
The article which follows, entitled Quantum Zeno and inverse quantum Zeno
effects, by P. Facchi and S. Pascazio, deals with an effect and its inverse which is
a manifestation of hindrance and enhancement, respectively, of the evolution of a
quantum system by an external agent, such as a detection apparatus. The article
includes some examples from quantum optics and quantum electrodynamics.
The fourth article, by M.S. Soskin and M.V Vasnetsov, discusses the current
status of a relatively new branch of physical optics, sometimes called singular
optics. It is concerned with effects associated with phase singularities of wave-
fields. Wavefronts in the neighborhood of such points exhibit dislocations, optical
vortices and other features which are not present in commonly encountered
wavefields which have smooth wavefronts.
The next article, by G. Jaeger and A.V Sergienko, presents a review of
advances in two-photon interferometry and their relation to investigations of the
foundations of quantum theory. A recent history of tests of Bell's inequality and
the production of entangled photon pairs for testing it is given that illustrates the
central role of spontaneous parametric down-conversion in current two-photon
vi Preface

interferometry. Quantum imaging and quantum teleportation are used to illustrate

the current power of entanglement in advanced quantum-optical applications.
New, increasingly efficient sources of entangled photon states are described
and the manner in which they will assure further progress in multiple-particle
interferometry is discussed. Multiple-photon entanglement is shown to provide
a new set of phenomena to be investigated in the future by multiple-photon
interferometry.
The concluding article, by R. Oron, N. Davidson, A.A. Friesem and E. Has-
man, is concerned with transverse mode shaping and selection in laser resonators.
It presents a review of recent investigations on the shaping and selection of laser
modes, by the use of various elements that are inserted into laser resonators.
Experimental techniques, as well as basic numerical and analytical methods, are
presented. The qualities of the emerging beams, based on different criteria, are
discussed, along with various applications for specially designed beams.
I wish to use this opportunity to welcome three new members to the
Editorial Advisory Board of Progress in Optics, namely Professor G. Agrawal
(Rochester), Professor A.T. Friberg (Stockholm) and Professor L.M. Narducci
(Philadelphia).

Emil Wolf
Department of Physics and Astronomy
University of Rochester
Rochester, New York 14627, USA

July 2001
 E. Wolf, Progress in Optics 42
© 2001 Elsevier Science B.V.
All rights reserved

Chapter 1

Quanta and information

by

Sergei Ya. Kilin

Quantum Optics Lab, B.I. Stepanov Institute of Physics,

National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Francisc Skarina Avenue, 70, 220072, Minsk, Belarus
Contents

Page
Introduction 3
§ 1. The quantum concept 3
§ 2. Information 16
§ 3. Quantum information 30
§ 4. The problem of decoherence 74
§ 5. Conclusions 82
Acknowledgements 84
References 84
Introduction

The first volume of the series Progress in Optics, launched and edited by
Emil Wolf, contained a chapter by Dennis Gabor [1961] entitled "Light and
Information". It was a record of his lecture presented at the University of
Edinburgh in 1951. In an effort to answer the question of what information theory
can contribute to the physics of light, Gabor suggested a program: "Information
theory is of some heuristic use in physics, by asking the right sort of questions''.
He also noted that information theory "prepares the mind for quantum theory",
and that "in information theory we appear to have the right tool for introducing
the quantum point of view in classical physics".
These statements, which suggest a potentially useful program, sound very
contemporary today. Before implementing the program, however, one important
step should be taken, namely the need to realize that quantum objects are
radically new objects to information theory, with new information resources,
inaccessible for classical objects. In this chapter I will endeavor to show
briefly how both "programs" - "Quantum Physics for Information Theory" and
"Information Theory for Quantum Physics" - are working together to fiirther
progress in understanding the world and to offer new practical applications in
technology.

§ 1. The quantum concept

The rapid development of quantum optics at the end of the twentieth century,
has caused many individuals, not only specialists in quantum physics but also
people working far fi-om this field, to appreciate once more the basic statements
of quantum theory. Indeed, the abstract basic ideas of quantum physics, to
which only a few specialists paid attention not long ago, are now important
for almost everyone because of their new applications in technology and,
primarily, in optical applications. Quantum computers, quantum teleportation and
cryptography, observation and monitoring of single atoms, ions, and molecules,
including biological molecules, all belong to the quantum world. This world
is extremely difficult to explain in terms of the common classical world of
4 Quanta and information [1, § 1

macroscopic physics. For its description, it requires a proper definition of

quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.
Quantum mechanics, which originated in the 1920s by the investigations
of Niels Bohr (1885-1962), Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961) and Werner
Heisenberg (1901-1976), provided physicists with the recipes for calculating
the energy states of atoms and molecules and the matrix elements of transitions
between these states. However, in addition to this aspect which immediately
found applications in practical physics, quantum mechanics contained the
"ideological", philosophical aspect, which accounts for the odd nature of the
quantum world and has remained almost unused until recent years. In the most
complete and clear form, sometimes with deliberately paradoxical statements,
this part of the quantum theory was presented by Erwin Schrodinger in his
famous paper of 1935, which he classified as "a paper or a general confession"
{Referat oder Generalbeichte). Using modem terminology, it examines one of
the problems of quantum information, namely, what information about the states
of quantum objects can we obtain and what happens to the quantum objects
while we are obtaining this information? More than half of a century passed
before the basic principles formulated by Schrodinger became necessary for an
understanding of experiments with practical applications.
The present chapter discusses several experiments of this kind. These are,
first, experiments on quantum teleportation, quantum cryptography, and, second,
quantum computers, which are expected to be extremely beneficial but difficult to
construct. Some of the chapter is devoted to single material particles in quantum
optics and the methods of their detection. These objects can serve as elements of
quantum computers. In conclusion, I examine the problem of decoherence and
possible solutions, which is crucial for quantum computation. First, this chapter
discusses the language of quantum optics and the statements of quantum theory
necessary for fiirther examination.

1.1. Schrodinger and his famous paper of 1935

On November 29, 1935, the journal Die Naturwissenschaften published Erwin

Schrodinger's paper "Modem state of quantum mechanics". It was written during
his compelled stay in Oxford (fig. 1), after he and Paul Dirac had been awarded
the 1933 Nobel prize in physics. As Schrodinger mentioned, his work originated
from the discussion started on May 15, 1935 by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky
and Nathan Rosen in their paper "Can the Quantum Mechanical Description of
Reality be Complete?", and continued in Niels Bohr's [1935] paper with the
1, § 1] The quantum concept

'^w.

Fig. 1. Erwin Schrodinger was bom in Vienna, where he studied at first in a gymnasium, then
in the university until graduation in 1910. Schrodinger started working in theoretical physics and
soon became a professor in Breslau (now Wroclaw) and then in Zurich, where Einstein had worked
earlier. In Zurich, Schrodinger published works that led him to a formulation of the basic equation of
nonrelativistic quantum mechanics, the Schrodinger wave equation. For the development of quantum
mechanics, Schrodinger together with Dirac was awarded a Nobel prize in 1933. In 1927, he was
appointed to the chair of theoretical physics in Berlin, previously headed by Planck. When Hitler
attained power, Schrodinger left fascist Germany and accepted an invitation to Oxford. In 1936 he
returned to Austria for a short time and held a chair in Graz, but after the Anschluss he had to leave
his country again. This time Schrodinger moved to Ireland, to the Institute of Fundamental Research
in Dublin. In 1947 he finally returned to his homeland. His health was failing, however, and after a
long illness he died in Vienna. [The photograph and biographical note are taken fi-om the anthology
Zhizn' Nauki [Science life], edited by S.P. Kapitsa and published by Nauka (Kapitsa [1973]).]

same title. Despite the abstract and complicated style of Schrodinger's paper,
its importance was soon realized by Russian scientists, and it was immediately
translated into Russian and published in 1936. The English translation did not
appear until 1980.
In his paper, Schrodinger analyzed difficulties in the quantum-mechanical
description of measurement procedures and formulated four basic principles.
According to these principles, the states of quantum objects have the following
properties:
(1) Superposition: A quantum state is described by a linear superposition of the
basic states.
(2) Interference: The result of measurement depends on the relative phases of
the amplitudes in this superposition.
6 Quanta and information [1» § 1

(3) Entanglement: Complete information about the state of the whole system
does not imply complete information about its parts.
(4) Nondonability and uncertainty: An unknown quantum state can be neither
cloned nor observed without being disturbed.
I shall briefly comment on each of these statements. However, let us note first
that, until recently, the third and fourth principles were almost unknown to most
physicists and were discussed only in connection with the Einstein-Podolsky-
Rosen (EPR) paradox and Bell's inequalities.

1.2. Quantum objects and their states

1.2.1. Superposition and the Schrodinger-cat paradox

In contrast to a classical object, a quantum object has statistical origin. However,
the probabilistic nature of a quantum object cannot be understood as a classical
uncertainty connected, for instance, with incomplete knowledge about the object.
For the description of a quantum object, the concept of state is used. By saying
that an object is in a quantum state, we mean that there is a list (a catalog, in
Schrodinger's language) or, similarly, a wave ftinction, a state vector, or a density
matrix containing the information about the possible results of measurement on
this object. In the general case, the results of measurement differ fi-om time
to time even if the object is prepared in the same quantum state. Hence, the
state vector should give statistical information, i.e., distribution functions for
the results of measurement. As a simple example, consider the state vector for
a system with two orthogonal basic states |1) and |2), e.g. energy states. The
state of the object is described by the state vector (wave function)

|^) = a|l)+^|2), (1.1)

where a and /? are complex numbers. In other words, the total state is
given by a linear superposition, and the squares of the absolute values of the
amplitudes a and (3 are equal to the probabilities of finding the system in the
corresponding states (|a|^ + |j8p = 1). As a result of measurement, the coherent
superposition (1) is destroyed and reduced to a new state, which is determined
by the type of measurement. For instance, an attempt to find the system in
state 12) leads to its perturbation by the measurement device. At the moment
of measurement, reduction (projection) takes place,

|^)^|2)(2|^^)=^|2), (1.2)
1, § 1] The quantum concept 7

SO that after the measurement the system is driven into state |2) and the initial
state is destroyed ^
A superposition state should be distinguished from a mixed state, which is
described by the density matrix

Pn,,x = | a | ' | l > ( l | + |i8|'|2)(2|. (1.3)

In fact, state (1.3) is a classical state, since a system in a mixed state can be
found either in state 11) or in state |2), whereas in the superposition state (1.1)
the system can be simultaneously found in two states. This principal feature of a
superposition state manifests itself in the interference terms of its density matrix

p = | W ) ( i I / | = | a | 2 | i ) ( i | + ||3f|2)(2| + a r | l ) ( 2 | + a*/?|2>(l|. (1.4)

To stress the unusual nature of superposition states, Schrodinger suggests an

example disturbing to our common sense. Following Schrodinger, suppose that
a steel chamber contains a flask with poison that can be broken by means of
some mechanism triggered by the radioactive decay of a single atom. The box
also contains a cat (initially alive), which can die as a result of the atom's
decay. Similarly to the atom whose state is a superposition of the decayed and
nondecayed states, the state of the cat is also given by the superposition of
the states of an alive cat, 11), and a dead cat | i ) : | ^^) =L| T ) + ^ | i )• Since
quantum superposition states are frequently observed for microscopic systems,
such as atoms and molecules, but never observed for macroscopic systems, some
effect must be destroying the Schrodinger-cat states for macroscopic systems.
This effect, which is called decoherence, is considered below. Note that the
problem of pertaining superposition (Schrodinger cat) states for mesoscopic
systems is crucial, and its solution will give rise to many applications of quantum
information.
For further consideration, the superposition state is used to describe a single-
photon beam with a given wave vector, or a single-photon state 11 photon)-
The state of radiation with a given wave vector can be represented by a

^ Note that measurement, i.e., interaction with a macroscopic measurement device, is an irreversible
process in principle. During this process, the state of the measured object changes (reduction takes
place). Reduction, like other physical processes, has its own characteristic time scale, specific for
each individual measurement. The process of reduction is very short, however, so the question of its
internal dynamics, i.e., of the possibility to 'see it with one's own eyes', is usually ignored, although
in some measurements, for instance in quantum tomography of ultrashort pulses, it is obviously of
interest.
 Quanta and information [1, § 1

|2>j|0)^=|W> |l>l|l>«=|t^> I0>j|2>„=|««>

|i>t|o>«=|J> l«>t|iL=l«>

l«>l|0>«=|0>

Fig. 2. A light beam with a fixed wave vector is equivalent to two harmonic oscillators corresponding
to two orthogonally polarized modes of the electromagnetic field. A single-photon state of this beam
is given by a superposition of two energy-degenerate states of polarized photons | J) and | ^ ) . A two-
photon state of this beam is generally a superposition of three energy-degenerate states, two of which
represent pairs of photons with equal polarizations | I | ) and | ^ ^ ) , and the third representing a
pair of orthogonally polarized photons \l<-^).

set of two quantum-mechanical oscillators, each corresponding to one of two

orthogonal polarizations (fig. 2). Denoting the eigenstates of the oscillator with
vertical polarization as \n)i and the eigenstates of the oscillator with horizontal
polarization as \m)^, two basic vectors, | 1 ) | | 0 ) ^ = | | ) , | 0 ) | | 1 ) ^ = |<-^), are
introduced so that any single-photon state can be decomposed as

llphoton) =a\l)-^b\^). (1.5)

Note that a certain ambiguity exists in the notion of a superposition state. In fact,
state (1.5) with a = 13= l/\/2 is a superposition state if considered on the basis
of vertical and horizontal polarizations, that is, measured by means of polaroids
oriented horizontally and vertically. At the same time, this state (||) + \^)yV2
can be considered as one of the basis states of the pair

I/) = (II) +1-))/v^, l\) = (II) - MVVi, (1.6)

which corresponds to a measurement with the polarizers oriented at 45*^ and 135*^.
In this basis the state evidently cannot be considered as a superposition state.
Therefore, any quantum state is a superposition state, since it is a superposition
state in any basis where it is not a basic vector. The choice of basis states
implicates the choice of measurements allowed by a quantum object.
An important type of measurements arises when a single-mode field with fixed
polarization is discriminated by two directions in the phase space (say X and P,
fig. 3). In this method of discrimination, which is obviously connected with the
type of measurements adopted, one is not interested in how many photons are
1, §1] The quantum concept

Fig. 3. The stereographical projection from the north pole of the sphere demonstrates the
isomorphism between a harmonic oscillator phase plane and the phase space of a two-level
system - the Bloch sphere. Two orthogonally squeezed states displaced from the origin by the
amplitude a ^ XQ + ipo in the limit of infinite squeezing correspond to two different circles
(shown in white) on the sphere. Two states 1^^^^} and \ep^) are defined by the vectors orthogonal
to planes crossing the white circles. Therefore, the continuous-variable measurement discriminating
between two orthogonally squeezed states is equivalent to a measurement discriminating between two
nonorthogonal states \ex^) and \ep^) [{ex^^\ep^) = XQPQ/J(4 + xl){4 + p^)] of a two-state quantum
system (e.g., a polarization state of a single photon).

in the object (e.g. in an optical pulse), but rather one wonders how much the
light is squeezed in the X or P direction. This method of characterizing quantum
objects can be referred to as continuous-variable representation, because of
the assignment of the object states to a continuous phase plane. Note that
the two-valued continuous variable representation of the harmonic oscillator
states is isomorphic to the coherent-state representation of a two-state quantum
system (Arecchi, Courtens, Gilmore and Thomas [1972], Pefina [1984]), with a
sphere as the phase space (fig. 3) because the stereographical projection provides
one-to-one correspondence between sphere and plane. The measurement used
for the discrimination is homodyne detection of squeezed light variances,
(Ax2) - {(a + fl+)2) - {(a + a^))\ (Ap^) - -{(a - a^f) + {(a - a^))^ (Yuen
and Chan [1983]). For details of the isomorphism see § 1.2.2.2. below and the
work by Van Enk [1999].

7.2.2. Entangled states

In addition to superposition states, Schrodinger considered the so-called entan-

gled states, which describe the state of a composite system whose parts can be
10 Quanta and information [1? § 1

Initial state Interaction Final state

Fig. 4. As an example of an entangled state, consider the state of a composite system: two-level
atom-field. Suppose that the atom is crossing the area of interaction with the field, for instance,
a cavity. After a short period of interaction, the atom and the field become spatially separated.
However, the state of the whole system remains entangled: the state of the atom is strictly correlated
with the state of the field |*^) = |atom)i |field)} + |atom)2 |field)2- Note that the lifetime of such
an entangled state may be much larger than the interaction time.

spatially delocalized. States of two systems could serve as examples of an entan-

gled state: the state of a field and the atom emitting it (fig. 4) or a quantum system
formed by two single-photon beams with different wave vectors. Each state of
such a photon pair can be represented as a superposition of four basic states,

111 +12) = Cii iDi II)2 + c _ | - ) i | - ) 2 + q ^ \l), l - h + c ^ i l - ) i Il>2.

(1.7)
In the general case, the photonfi*omthe first beam is connected with the photon
from the other beam, since the total state vector is not given by the product of the
single-photon state vectors. This connection, which is much stronger than in the
case of classical correlation, manifests itself in experiments with photon pairs
in Bell states. Bell [1964] suggested these states in relation to the EPR paradox.
The states
l ^ ' ) = (II)ilI)2 + | - - ) i | - - ) 2 ) / V 2 , (1.8a)
l<^-)=(II>ill)2-|--)i|--)2)/V2, (1.8b)
l'^") = (II>i|--)2 + | - ) i l D 2 ) / ^ , (1.8c)
l'f'") = ( I I ) i | - - ) 2 - | - ) i l I ) 2 ) / V 2 , (1.8d)

form the basis of the Bell states. Each of these entangled states has a remarkable
property, namely, as soon as some measurement projects one of the photons onto
a state with a definite polarization, the other photon also immediately becomes
polarized. For instance, in the case of |y^^) states, if one photon is registered
with polarization <-^, the other photon turns out to have the orthogonal polariza-
tion!. How can a measurement over one particle have an instantaneous effect on
the other, possibly located at a large distance? Einstein, as well as many other
outstanding physicists, did not accept this "action of ghosts at a distance", but
this behavior of entangled states has been demonstrated in numerous experiments
(Clauser and Shimony [1978], Greenberger, Home and Zeilinger [1993]).
1, § 1] The quantum concept 11

Entangled quantum objects are not absolutely unknown objects in physics.

The two electrons of a helium atom in the ground state, for example, have
their spins entangled, but this is more a type of unification through unavoidable
interactions than entanglement. The entanglement of which Schrodinger spoke
is the state of two quantum objects which are noninteracting at the moment of
observation. This is an important point in all discussions about entangled states,
and it eliminates many questions. Thus, entanglement implies the presence of
at least two objects, allowing local manipulations with each. Naturally, it means
that at least two possible conclusive results exist for measurements on each part.
Only in this case one conclusive measurement leaves an opportunity for a second
one to be selective, but not trivial, noninformative. This snag sometimes waits
for those who pay attention only to the bipartite aspect of entanglement, for
example, considering the two-mode-one-photon state as entangled. Any attempts
to leave two opportunities for second measurements after the first conclusive one,
for example, by means of nondemolition methods, immediately create a new
quantum system, with new outputs (paths) for a photon. As a result, an observer
has to describe this new quantum system with an increased number of modes
because the two-mode-one-photon system is actually nothing but one quantum
system with two possible states.
Entangled states have another paradoxical property, which was pointed out by
Schrodinger in 1935. According to one of his principles, complete information
about the state of the total system still does not provide complete information
about the states of its parts. Suppose that we are going to find out the state of
a particle in one of the pairs (1.8), for example, in eq. (1.8d). Then we have to
average the density matrix of the pure, that is, the most determinate, state

l'^")=(lt),M2-|-)lll)2)/V^

over the states of the second particle. The resulting density matrix of the first
particle,

p(i) = Tr(|y^-)(«f^-|) = (||), , a | + | ^ > , i ( - | ) / 2 ,

is apparently the density matrix of a mixed state, which is not maximally

determinate.
In addition, one important optical object possesses the property of en-
tanglement - two orthogonally squeezed modes with fixed polarizations and
different wavevectors. The state of this continuous variables object in the limit
12 Quanta and information [1? § 1

of infinite squeezing is isomorphic to the Bell states of a two-level system

discriminated by the measurements in orthogonal basis (1^;^) ± \ep)), composed
from nonorthogonal states \ex) and \ep) (see fig. 3). At finite squeezing r a
continuous variables entangled state is known from quantum optics as a two-
mode squeezed state

\^r) = ^,fl('^^'-r\")^\")2- (1-9)

n=0

Equation (1.9) is written in the Fock basis (Walls and Milbum [1995]).

1.2.2.1. How can one generate entangled states?. Entangled photon pairs can
be obtained experimentally by means of cascade decays in atomic systems (As-
pect, Grangier and Roger [1981]) or parametric processes involving resonance
fluorescence, where two pump photons give birth to a pair of entangled photons
(JD\ and 0)2, (OQ + 0)Q -^ W\ -\- (x>2. The quantum correlation for such photons
has been predicted by Apanasevich and Kilin [1977, 1979] and observed by
Aspect, Roger, Reynaud, Dalibard and Cohen-Tannoudji [1980]. The possibility
of obtaining entangled states for massive particles, atoms, was demonstrated
experimentally by Hagley, Maitre, Nogues, Wunderlich, Brune, Raimond and
Haroche [1997]. At present, the most popular source of entangled photons
is spontaneous parametric decay (spontaneous parametric down-conversion) in
crystals with quadratic nonlinearity (Zel'dovich and Klyshko [1969], Bumham
and Weinberg [1970]). In this process an ultraviolet pump photon decays into a
pair of red photons with approximately equal energies, so that the energy and
momentum conservation laws are satisfied, ho)^ = hw^ + ho){\ hk^ = hk^ + hki,
where hcOj and hkj (j = p, s, i) are the energy and momentum, respectively, of
the initial photon (p) and the two output photons, called the signal (s) photon
and the idler (i) photon. By using crystals with quadratic nonlinearity and type-II
phase matching (fig. 5), one can easily obtain polarization-entangled states in the
directions 1 and 2, which are determined by the intersections of phase matching
cones for ordinary and extraordinary photons (fig. 5b). In these directions one
can observe Bell states of the form (1.8) (Kwiat, Mattle, Weinftirter, Zeilinger,
Sergienko and Shih [1995]). Note that recently Atatiire, Sergienko, Saleh and
Teich [2000] demonstrated a new technique that can serve as a basic component
in the preparation of multiphoton entangled states with the help of femtosecond
spontaneous parametric down-conversion.
The entangled states of two-mode squeezed optical fields with X-P quan-
tum correlation can be produced by degenerate parametric down-conversion.
1,§1] The quantum concept 13

Optic axis of the crystal

Type II

Fig. 5. Creation of entangled photon pairs in parametric down-conversion, (a) Momentum

conservation inside the crystal, also called "phase matching", is achieved due to the crystal
birefringence, which allows the dispersion to be compensated. As a result, the idler and signal
photons form a rainbow of colored cones, where conjugated photons are emitted in opposite
directions with respect to the pump beam. In the case of type-I phase matching, the signal and
idler photons have the same linear polarization, which is orthogonal to the pump polarization, and
their cones are concentric with the pump beam. In the case of type-II phase matching, conjugated
pairs are formed by a photon with extraordinary polarization and a photon with ordinary polarization.
In this case, the cones of signal and idler photons have different axes. For uniaxial negative crystals,
like BBO (beta-barium borate), the axis of the cone of extraordinary photons lies between the
pump beam and the optic axis, whereas the axis of the cone of ordinary photons is on the opposite
side of the pump beam (all the axes and the pump beam are in the same plane), (b) The image
of down-converted light emitted by the crystal. Numbers 1 and 2 denote the directions in which
polarization-correlated pairs are emitted. In these directions there is no definite polarization; all we
know is that the polarization is different for beams 1 and 2.

ICDL ^^ (Oi±Q m2i subthreshold optical parametric oscillator (OPO) (Polzik,

Carri and Kimble [1992]). Note that any nonlinear interaction of optical pulses is
a possible source for entanglement creation. For example, nonlinear interactions
proposed for the nondemolition measurement could be used to create entangled
states (Horoshko and Kilin [2000]). The opposite process, disentanglement, when
initial entanglement between subsystems is erased while the local properties of
the state are preserved, was recently described by Mor and Terno [1999].

1.2.2.2. How can one measure (project) entangled states?. A Bell state can be
distinguished from the other Bell states due to their different symmetry. Among
the four states (1.8), the first three have bosonic symmetry, since permutation
14 Quanta and information [1, § 1

Fig. 6. Scheme for observing intensity interference. Polarization-entangled beams emitted by the
crystal are mixed on a 50% beam splitter and registered by two detectors. Photocounts from the
detectors are fed to the coincidence circuit. For each photon from any beam, two possibilities exists,
to be either reflected or transmitted by the beam splitter. The probability of a photocount is given
by the square of the absolute value of the sum of the corresponding quantum amplitudes. The
unitary transformation performed by the nonpolarizing beam splitter concerns only the spatial part
of the photon wave function. Photons are bosonic particles; therefore, the spatial part of the wave
fiinction is symmetrical for the bosonic polarization states | ^ ^ ) , | ^^) and antisymmetrical for the
fermionic state | ^ ~ ) . Two-photon interference on a beam splitter demonstrates that two photons
are directed by the beam splitter into the same beam in the case of a symmetrical wave fiinction
and into different beams in the case of an antisymmetrical wave function. Hence, a coincidence of
photocounts from two detectors projects the state of a photon pair onto the fermionic state \^~).

of particles 1 and 2 does not change the signs of their wave functions. The last
state (1.8d) is fermionic: permutation of 1 and 2 changes the sign of its wave
function. This specific feature of the state \W') = (||)i \^)2 - \^)i 11)2)/A/2
also reveals itself in the intensity interference of beams 1 and 2 (fig. 6). In the
figure, both detectors click only if the entangled photon pairs are in the fermionic
polarization state | W~). This is a well-known feature of two-photon interference
on a beam splitter (Feynman, Leighton and Sands [1964]); in the case of a
spatially symmetrical wave function, the beam splitter sends both particles into
the same output beam, whereas in the case of a spatially antisymmetrical wave
fiinction, the two particles are directed into different output beams. Photons have
bosonic statistics; therefore, conservation of the total symmetry requires that the
spatial part of the polarization-fermionic wave fiinction | ^ ~ ) is antisymmetrical.
A measurement distinguishing the fermionic state among the four states (1.8) is
called Bell state measurement (BSM).
The problem of complete BSM with the discrimination of all Bell states is
not easy to implement experimentally. A simple interferometric setup cannot be
of help for the discrimination among the four EPR states. This was reported
recently by Liitkenhaus, Calsamiglia and Suominen [1999] and by Vaidman and
Yoran [1999], who demonstrated that a complete Bell measurement cannot be
performed using only linear elements. Kwiat and Weinfurter [1998] suggested
1, § 1] The quantum concept 15

a method to overcome this conclusion, but their method requires that the state
of interest be embedded in a larger Hilbert space, and therefore can be applied
only in the presence of multiple entanglement. To reach this objective, Scully,
Englert and Bednar [1999] presented a scheme in which each of the four
maximally polarization-entangled two-photon Bell states is uniquely correlated
with the counts registered in one of the four detectors. The scheme exploits the
nonlinear process - resonant two-photon absorption of atoms, which are suitably
prepared in a coherent superposition of hyperfine states. In another proposal,
Paris, Plenio, Bose, Jonathan and D'Ariano [1999] described an interferometric
setup designed to perform a complete optical Bell measurement. It consisted
of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer with the first beam splitter a polarizing one
and the second a normal one; inside the interferometer a nondemolition photon
number measurement is performed by the Fock filtering technique.
The identification of continuous-variables entanglement presents no problems
of this kind, because the very notion of entanglement for continuous variables
obviously implies the choice of type of measurements in advance: the observer
should discriminate between two directions on the phase plane. In optics this
identification is realized by homodyne detection including local oscillators and
beam splitters. The degree of squeezing of local beams plays a crucial role for
the degree of continuous-variables entanglement.

1.2.3. The impossibility of cloning quantum states

Since the measurement device destroys the initial quantum state, one can
consider a quantum state as a highly sensitive object that all the information
about itself keeps secret. The uncertainty principle is a manifestation of this
ability. Another typical manifestation is the theorem about the nonclonability of
a quantum object state (Wootters and Zurek [1982]). Cloning means creation of
an exact copy of an object with the conservation of its initial (and unknown)
state.
Suppose we have a device for cloning photons. This device reproduces photons
with given properties (photons in a given state). If we mean polarization states,
the effect is described by the transformation

I^I>l I) ^ I^FV)| n),\Rl)\ - > ^ |i?FH)| — ) ,

where \Ri) is the initial state of the cloning device and \Rv\), |^FH) are its
final states after cloning photons with vertical and horizontal polarizations. In
other words, instead of a single photon with a given polarization, we obtain
two photons with the same polarization (fig. 2). However, if we try to clone
16 Quanta and information [1? § 2

a photon with a polarization that is neither horizontal nor vertical, for instance,
a II) +iS |<^), the transformation will be

|i?,)ia\ I) +/3| ^ ) ) ^ a|/?Fv)| H) +)3|/?FH)| — ) • (I-IO)

Even under the condition of equality of |i?Fv) and \RFR), the transformed state
does not represent two photons polarized at angle (p = arctanjS/a. Indeed,
creation of a single photon polarized at the angle q) = arctan^/a, that is, in
the state a ||) + ^ | ^ ) , could be reahzed by applying the creation operator
b^ = aciy + ^a^ to vacuum, where ^V'^H ^^^ ^^^ creation operators for the
photons polarized vertically and horizontally. They correspond to the right and
left harmonic oscillators in fig. 2. Two photons with the same polarization can
be obtained from the vacuum by applying this creation operator twice:

(b\f |0) = v/2 (a" III) + ; S 2 1 ^ ^ ) + v/2ay3|I^>) . (1.11)

For all nonzero a,^ the state (1.11) does not coincide with the field part of
state (1.10), that is, a single quantum object cannot be cloned.

§ 2. Information

2.1. Shannon and his classical paper

Information theory was bom in a surprisingly rich state in the classical paper
of Claude E. Shannon [1948] (fig. 7), 13 years after Schrodinger's paper
[1935]. Shannon's paper entitled "The Mathematical Theory of Communication",
considered how to describe any communication system without resorting to the
concrete type of physical structure of the system (which, of course, can be as
diverse as the whole world) and to the meaning of communication messages. In
this way he argued two main points of information theory:
(1) Information can be measured, and these measures are of practical impor-
tance in choosing methods for transmission of messages.
(2) Information can be transmittedfaithfully, even if errors are generated during
the communication.
In his work Shannon discussed almost all classical resources of information.
The main points and notions of the work are the following: entropy, relative
entropy; information, mutual information; encoding, redundancy of alphabets;
typical sequences, data compression; noiseless coding theorems; error-correcting
codes; and information of continuous functions, sampling theorem.
Another random document with
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 Growth of market towns and of communications, still largely mule tracks
no doubt, was leading to fixation of language as discussed in an earlier
chapter. One may mention, incidentally, that old mule tracks persist on lands
in old-fashioned corners like the Channel Islands, where they are very
numerous, and may form rings around the demesnes of the more important
houses. The growth of markets was bringing neighbours together, weakening
dialectal differences, and so helping to fuse local groups into nations on a
basis of common language and common tradition expressed in growing
poetry and prose in the evolving languages. Against these influences must be
set that of the Roman heritage of universalism so vigorously represented by
the Church, which the Holy Roman Empire tried so hard to imitate.

The poverty of the villagers and their weakness in face of the dangers of
the forest and its wanderers, outlaws, and adventurers is an outstanding fact
of the development of the next phase. There was insufficient freedom for
agricultural experiment save to some extent in the monastery gardens, and
insufficient knowledge for useful discussion, so cultivation methods
remained in the grip of custom, with the modification due to the spread of
the three-field system. Even the fallows could not keep the land up to a
proper grade of fertility.

So traditional cultivation on lands owned or worked in common by the

villagers was ever under threat of disruption, and doubtless the severities of
climate and plague in the fourteenth century contributed their quota to the
disintegration of the old mode of life. The complaint of diminished fertility
made itself heard far and wide, and the end of the Middle Ages witnessed
the breakdown of the old village system in the west. Trade and the voyages
of discovery furnished supplementary sources of wealth, and the beginnings
of larger industry grew out of this. In East-Central Europe change was
delayed partly because there was still much forest land to be adapted, but
largely because of the absorption of the people in struggles against Turk and
Tatar. Even there, however, the old village system decayed in the end, and it
is only in central Russia that it has maintained itself among the Slavonic
peoples, who, almost to this day, from one point of view, may be looked
upon as colonists spreading in the forests and their borders in Muscovy.

Of the lands north of the Mediterranean, France was most favoured

agriculturally, and owed most to the Roman heritage of unity, and here grew
la grande nation, while farther east national growth was delayed largely by
attempts at an imperial unity, worked up as a device for defence against the
Turk and Tatar. National growth in isolated or semi-isolated lands like the
English plain, Holland, Sweden, and the central Scottish lowland was also a
feature, while the diverse outlooks of the diverse coasts of Ireland and the
weakness of that country's interior made the Green Isle the tragic type of the
island which is so generally disunited.

Villagers with common lands gave place, with many a struggle, to

landholding by proprietors with labourers under them, and if in Britain the
labourer became landless and so fitted himself to become machine-fodder in
the Industrial Revolution, in France he struggled to keep his link with the
sacred soil of that sunny land, and ultimately won his position of ownership
in the Revolution of the end of the eighteenth century. This change made
itself felt as far as the Rhine, beyond which the peasant still remained subject
to heavy seigniorial dues. It is claimed that during the recent war there has
been a great move towards peasant proprietorship or something akin to it in
the lands near the eastern border of Europe-of-the-Sea, carrying eastward, as
it were, the work done one hundred years ago in France.

Facts about decline of the old village communities are legion, and cannot
even be listed here, but attention may be drawn to the spread of root crops
(for winter food for man and beast) in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. This helped materially to break down traditionalism, for it
interfered with the old right of the villagers to free pasture of all the village
cattle all over the stubble left after harvest: the lands with root crops had to
remain enclosed. Of the new wealth brought in by individual proprietorship
and root crops and other agricultural experiments, we have much evidence in
the farmhouse buildings of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; those of
the years 1720-60 or so seem specially characteristic in Guernsey, Channel
Islands. But the problem of fertility was not solved, even though leguminous
crops were ploughed in and the chemical decomposition of the soil was
speeded up by liming. Trade and long sea voyages loomed larger in the lives
of the European peoples and industry grew ever larger, so that the urban
element gained immensely in numbers and influence. We thus have a picture
of the preface, as it were, to the Industrial Revolution, but another series of
changes had been working to the same end.
 The spread of the habit of sea trade from the Mediterranean to North-west
Europe led to changes in the design and construction of ships. By the middle
of the seventeenth century old difficulties about disease due to stinking
bilge-water had largely been overcome, and ships were being built with
better proportions for speed and manoeuvring, and in the early eighteenth
century came the full adaptation of the fore-and-aft sail and the use of
mahogany and other hard woods from the tropics for ship furniture, and so
for house furniture too. With all this went increased size and speed of ships
and ability to tack effectively, and so, broadly, to follow a course even if
winds were variable. With all this new power and also the development of
armaments, Europe found herself in a position to exploit the other parts of
the earth inhabited by other races less well equipped. They gradually, nay
almost suddenly, became the producers of raw materials, food-stuffs, and
fertilizers for the vastly increasing populations of industrial Europe, which
began to teem in the manufacturing cities when coal and steam machinery
were added to the European equipment.

Along with this industrial development has gone the nationalist revival to
which reference has already been made in several places (pp. 23, 33, 35, 49,
62-3), a cultural movement which in the nineteenth century became
politically embittered, and which through its imperialistic outgrowths in
England, Germany, France, and Russia has been a main factor of the recent
war.

10

Aspects of Modern Europe

The Industrial Revolution supervened in England first. Her landless

labourers, her rather uncertain harvests, her severance from the Roman
tradition at the religious schism, her growth of sea-power and trade, as well
as the invention of James Watt, all contributed to this end. The necessary
coal was found in places mostly remote from the great centres of English
tradition, and industry grew where the civic heritage was weak and the lands,
even the common lands of the market towns, had been enclosed by
proprietors, who also often replaced the monks of the Middle Ages as
landlords without attempting to fulfil their other functions. The growth of
our huge industrial agglomerates on private land with an oligarchic
government of landowners, and, since 1830, factory owners and their
associates, has naturally had as a result the policy of non-interference, so that
crowding has been permitted and even encouraged, and the slum, which is
now deteriorating the quality of the population, is the inevitable result,
bringing in its train practically all the most serious social problems of our
day, the stunting of growth and judgement, the craving for excitement and
emotion as a substitute for thought, the aesthetic degradation which carries
with it the loss of keenness on one's work. To compensate for this we have
only got a vast accumulation of profits in the form of mobile capital, so
much of which has been blown into space in 1914-18. The accumulation of
capital, it should be appreciated, would have been far less had it not been
that industrial primacy and the primacy of the carrying trade happened, as
above suggested, to be closely associated in one and the same people.

From England the Revolution has spread along the coal belt through
northern France and Belgium, Germany, Bohemia, and Poland to Russia,
with characteristic modifications from region to region, according to the
local circumstances and social heritage of the people affected. But before
proceeding to note these differences it is important to realize one general
change which has many aspects. In the old village with its law based on the
custom of the neighbourhood, each had his or her place unless cast out: one's
status was all-important and not easily changed. In England the labourer
became landless, drifted to the factories, made a contract for his labour, and
so changed the organization of society from an organization based on status
to one based on contract. That change is still going on, and the remnants of
old ideas of status have struggled hard against such measures as death duties,
super-tax, and the rest, which all tend in the direction of making labour,
however disguised, the great medium of exchange. This big alteration from
status to contract has affected the whole of industrial Europe and has spread
thence as a ferment of change far beyond our continent, but in Europe the
change has hardly anywhere gone so far as it has in Britain.
 In France coal was far less abundant than it was in England, and the
struggle for the soil went in favour of the peasantry rather than of the
plutocracy as with us. Both these facts, added to those of the sunny climate,
have made the Industrial Revolution far more feeble in France. The antiquity
and continuity of life in the market towns has led to the persistence of small
industries, often with a very long-standing personal link between master and
men; hence the difficulty of the impersonality of industrial organization from
which we suffer so badly in Britain is less general in France, though they
also have the limited company to contend with. The wealth of the country
for so many centuries has encouraged high-class—one might say, luxurious
—manufacture, and jewellery, porcelain, and silk are characteristic products.

The persistence of special quality lines in the cloth trade is another

feature, but on the whole the story of French industry has been one of half-
hearted effort only. The Treaty of Versailles puts an enormous amount of
iron ore into the French Customs Union, so that France becomes by far the
greatest European producer of iron minerals, though her coal supply is
deficient. It remains to be seen whether the French people will develop more
industrial activity in consequence of this, and also whether they will go in
for increased use of the hydro-electric power they have within their territory.

The Flemings have an old-established industrial and commercial tradition

much less divorced from peasant life than in our country. Their Walloon
neighbours, on the other hand, have entered into industrialism recently, and
their country has changed suddenly from a backward rural area to a very
busy manufacturing one, using large quantities of imported raw material.
The people were cultivators and stock-raisers by long tradition, and they
have tried to keep up this activity in some measure, while a protective
customs duty on meat keeps up the stock-raising business. Another
traditional (in fact racial) feature here is the genius for co-operation, and this
works itself out in widespread insurance schemes maintained by the people.

Among the Germans the background of industrial development was very

different from that which we have noted in Britain. Where the river valleys
leave the hills for the northern plain are old cities of great dignity and fame,
and though they were somewhat decadent after the decay of the Hanse, they
were strong enough to keep their common lands and their tradition of city
government from the Middle Ages. Coal was found along this zone, and it
became industrialized, but the new movement had to respect the cities,
which grew often on public land. The old city of Nürnberg developed
industrial refinements on the basis of craftsmanship, which owed a great deal
to the old business of distributing goods from the East brought up from
Venice to its mart. There was thus neither on the one hand the same general
growth of slums as in Britain, nor on the other the accumulation of immense
profits from slum development to be used as liquid capital for speculative
purposes. Moreover, the industrial effort in Germany was contemporaneous
with the effort to make Germany a real nation-state, and each movement
influenced the other. Much thought was given to the question of the national
balance-sheet, and industry was made to help agriculture by conversion of
waste products into fertilizers. Thus, though Germany was experiencing the
same cityward drift of people as Britain, her agriculture remained in a far
stronger position than ours, and with that went the probability of better
maintenance of the quality of the people. The wasting of resources on war,
the distrust created by aggressive intrigues, the loss of territory and minerals,
and the loss of health of the people through the blockade, all imply changes
in the situation of the German people, the consequences of which it is
difficult to foresee.

German industry utilized Polish labour in large quantities, and was much
concerned with the westward-flowing Slavonic stream which was said to be
altering the character of the German people. On the other hand, a German
stream of organization flowed eastward and south-eastward, and the
industrial fever made great strides in the latter half of the nineteenth century
in Bohemia, in Austria proper, in Upper Silesia, and in Poland. In Bohemia it
emphasized the differences between German and Slavonic elements of the
people; in Upper Silesia and in Poland the Germans were mainly found in
the towns, especially in the leader class, and often difference of language
and sentiment between masters and men was a very undesirable feature.

Polish industrial centres were correspondingly notorious for their bad

social conditions before the war.

The industrial fever spread to Russia, and of its entry into that country we
get a useful sketch in Kropotkin's Fields, Factories, and Workshops. Here
was a country with marked seasonal cycles, and often at first manufacture
was made a winter occupation, and was hoped by some to offer a means of
rescuing many of the people from some of the evils of the severe Russian
winter. In the Ukraine Poles seem to have done a good deal of the industrial
organization, and it was natural that German experience should carry great
influence. It was said that the co-operative, even communist, traditions of the
people accounted for much in the form of organization of industry, the guilds
or artels being a distinctive feature. Needless to say that, with transport ill
developed, education neglected, and self-government impossible under the
Tsar, Russian industry was of doubtful efficiency and social conditions bad.
One must, however, remember that industry was only beginning.

In addition to the main zone of industry which we have now followed

along the coal zone from Britain to Russia, the attempt was made near small
coalfields elsewhere, and even at times away from coal, to glean some of the
wealth industry brought. About 1895, however, hydro-electric power became
transmissible over long distances and thus much more applicable. This
change created new regions of industry in Scandinavia and around the Alps.
Both Sweden and Norway use this power, and it has made an immense
difference, especially to Norway. In the case of Norway the weakness of
class distinctions has led to the careful organization of good social
conditions, in spite of serious difficulties because of the very limited sites
available. In Switzerland, South Germany, and Italy, up to 1914, the use of
hydro-electric power was creating a valuable community of interest and
problems that was drawing the whole region together, while Switzerland was
becoming strong economically in a way undreamed of before. Post-war
developments will need to be watched with care and breadth of view. Hydro-
electric power was being developed in pre-war France, and will probably be
a great help to that country if greater care is taken on the social side than was
taken in the early stages of the movement. It has been claimed that a hydro-
electric power system could be developed all around the Iberian plateau, and
something is said to have been done recently towards its development. In the
British Isles only a few spots can give enough power to make an installation
an economic success in the present state of knowledge, so that in a water-
power age Britain would have a minor position. It seems doubtful at present
whether this form of power will become anything more than an accessory. It
is noteworthy that in the Alpine region it helps a population fundamentally
inclined to patient detailed work to build up an industry in fine electrical
machinery partly developed from an old watchmaking tradition.
 The utilization of tidal power has been debated, and a scheme for the
Severn estuary, as well as one for the north coast of Brittany, has been
elaborated. Should this line of development be followed in the future,
Britain's position and the power of the tides at several points would assist
greatly.

For the present, however, the fashionable power is oil, of which, so far as
is known, Britain has only a very little, and in which the whole of Western
Europe is also poor. But oil is rather easily transportable, and Western
Europe's powers of transport are being used to exploit sources of oil in such
places as are not already in the sphere of influence of the United States of
America. However this may be disguised, it is none the less an indication of
Europe's increasing dependence on other regions for what her industry
needs. Large amounts of raw products now come from outside Europe, and
if power also comes from afar, Europe's advantages will be restricted to her
climate in its relation to efficiency, her capital, her tradition of skill which
she has endangered by the enormous amount of specialization developed
among her workers, and her ownership and control of transport by sea. On
this last point it is noteworthy that the great advance made by the United
States of America does not seem to be fully maintaining itself.

For the immediate future the incalculable water-power available in the

monsoon lands, the immense and easily workable deposits of coal in Shansi
(North China), the coal and oil available in and near the United States of
America, the huge water-power that might be utilized in several parts of
America, the possibilities of tidal power in many regions, and the production
of power-alcohol from equatorial vegetation, are all interesting factors of a
situation the precariousness of which for the thickly populated areas of
Western Europe is obvious to all. With their organization based upon skill
and patience, the peoples of Central Europe may well go on developing,
perhaps even exploiting, the Russian and Turanian lands on their eastern
flank, as these latter do not seem likely to become industrial for some time.
On the other hand, a Sino-Japanese development of industry on a large scale
is always possible, and, if wisely managed, should have the benefit of the
skill, taste, and honesty of the Chinese merchant as well as of the skilful
industry of the Chinese workman, whose frugality and cheerfulness would
make him a formidable competitor. The signs of the times are thus in favour
of the departure of industrial primacy from Europe, however much political
effort may contrive to delay the change.

Before following out this thought it will be best to mention some of the
collateral developments in European and other lands more indirectly affected
by industrialism. The huge factory populations need food, and the imported
food supply of Europe is an enormous problem. Cereals and some fruits may
be carried with ease, but the factory hands and especially the miners and
furnacemen need meat, and though meat can be carried in refrigerators or
alive, yet imported meat suffers through transport. While therefore Australia,
Argentina, and other regions are very busy supplying stock products, there is
a good deal of stock-raising and dairy work to be done in Europe. Holland
and Denmark have specialized in this matter, and the latter made herself a
centre for dairy produce from Holland and Lithuania and even Russia before
1914. With political and social peace Ireland would undoubtedly develop in
this way. Several hill regions, like Central France and parts of Switzerland,
were also busy stock-raising, and are likely to prosper in this direction if
European industry maintains itself.

In Switzerland the high ledge-pastures or alps have a remarkable growth

of hay in spring after the snow melts, and this gives advantages over our
British high lands. For their better utilization it would be necessary to
improve the breeds of grasses, and important experiments for this purpose
are in progress in Wales. In the Highlands of Scotland the population is
decreasing fast, and thus Britain is losing a most valuable element in her
population, an element trained to endure hardness and traditionally interested
in serious thought.

The large financial resources of industrial populations and the

thriftlessness so inevitably developed under the circumstances of their life in
its present anarchic phase, further lead to a demand for luxury foods,
flowers, and so on, and Holland and the Channel Islands are notable
providers of these extras. The increase of fine machinery and other factors
make it fairly certain that olive oil will have a good market for a long time,
even if pea-nut oil is used alongside of it. Olive oil and fruits offer
opportunities for the Mediterranean.
 Thus practically every part of Europe is directly or indirectly brought into
the process of industrial development, and all are increasingly dependent on
the world outside, however much the German people may have tried to
maintain their agriculture.

This dependence and the precariousness of Europe's industrial position,

added to the fact that with an effort and some amount of goodwill the
peoples of Europe could grow to understand one another, especially in view
of their common debt to the Roman heritage, make it unthinkable that what
is practically civil war can be tolerated much longer in Europe. Before 1914
the Labour Movement was clearly working towards the weakening of the
idea of the nation-state and its sovereignty, but the events of 1914 showed
that the movement had not yet gained a real hold on men's imagination. The
new League of Nations movement is an evidence of development of the
same line of thought among the thinkers of the Continent, and is slowly
gathering momentum through the creation of institutions with laws for their
guidance, and the promise of the growth of a body of lawyers as interested to
maintain those institutions as the lawyers of the nation-states have been to
maintain that form of organization. The League has had to take up the
question of the relations of Europe to distant lands, and has stood for a
principle of trusteeship, the fate of which is trembling in the balance. The
more hopeful Europeans see signs of the growth of co-operation, and find
indications of it even as between France and Germany. Britain is torn
between the attitudes of solidarity with Europe and of aloofness from Europe
and association with distant lands of English speech. Perhaps the
improvement of the League of Nations scheme or its transformation after
discussions with the leaders of the United States of America will give a
means to put an end to this dilemma by reconciling both aims.

Therein lies one of the greatest hopes for the salvaging of civilization,
though Britain's other problem of rescuing her population from degenerative
tendencies due to industrialism is as clamant for solution if the world's peace
is to develop. That industry should spread, that every people should maintain
an agricultural background, and that the peoples of Europe should find
means to co-operate in matters of imports from the tropics, transport
arrangements, and labour conditions, must be the hope of all who think of
the future seriously, even if this means the discarding of ambitions of power
which in less critical times disguised themselves under the cloak of
patriotism. This does not mean the destruction of patriotism, but rather its
ennoblement into a passion for the well-being and the health of future
generations of the people, for the enrichment of each heritage of language,
literature, tradition, and art by active effort, and for the growth of that
toleration which is the accompaniment of self-control and its attendant
liberty and peace.

[NOTE.—The writer wishes to express his most sincere thanks to his

friends and fellow workers in the fields of research concerned, especially to
Miss R. M. Fleming and Mr. H. J. E. Peake, and the late Professor V.
Giuffrida-Ruggeri.]
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

Among the most important general reference works one must mention the
chief encyclopaedias, Reclus's Géographie universelle (also in English), the
International Geography, the Dictionnaire de Géographie universelle (V. de
S. Martin). Ratzel's Anthropogeographie and Brunhes's La Géographie
humaine and Géographie humaine de la France should also be mentioned
here. Bowman, The New World, has a fine collection of maps relating to the
political resettlement of Europe.

On Race Questions the standard book is W. Z. Ripley's famous work, The

Races of Europe, supplemented by G. Sergi's Europa in Italian and by a
number of papers by Keith, Parsons, Peake, Fleure, and others in the Journal
of the Royal Anthropological Institute during the last ten years. Dr. Haddon
and Mrs. Quiggin have issued a valuable revision of Keane's Man, Past and
Present. Déchelette's Archéologie is the standard work in its field and may
be supplemented from Burkitt's Prehistory and Macalister's Archaeology.

On Languages and their Distribution the student may begin by consulting

A. Meillet's Les Langues dans l'Europe nouvelle and L. Dominian on
Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe. From these books a
bibliography can be compiled to suit the student's purpose.

The evolution of social conditions in Europe is so complex that it has not

as yet received synthetic treatment, but some tentative efforts are useful if
read critically. Among them one may note the files of La Science sociale and
Demolins's Comment la route crée le type social, Guizot's Histoire de la
Civilisation en Europe, Kropotkin's Mutual Aid, his Fields, Factories, and
Workshops, and his Memoirs of a Revolutionist, as well as Jenks's works,
such as the little History of Politics, and Geddes's Cities in Evolution.

It is impossible to give an adequate list of books on special regions, but

the following will be found of value for various parts of the Continent
involved in the recent treaties:

P. Vidal de la Blache, Tableau de la Géographie de la France; P. Vidal de

la Blache, La France de l'Est; R. Blanchard, La Flandre; H. J. Mackinder,
The Rhine; Atlas de Finlande; P. Leroy Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars; A.
B. Boswell, Poland and the Poles; J. Cvijic, La Péninsule balkanique; M. I.
Newbigin, Geographical Aspects of Balkan Problems; M. E. Durham, The
Burden of the Balkans; E. de Martonne, La Valachie; A. Philippson, Das
Mittelmeergebiet; D. G. Hogarth, The Nearer East.

Further guidance to books on regions of Europe will be found in the

valuable handbooks issued by the British Government in two series, i.e. the
handbooks issued by the Intelligence Department of the Admiralty, and the
handbooks issued by the Historical Section of the Foreign Office.

The reader interested in some of the problems may wish to consult J.

Fairgrieve's Geography and World-Power, H. J. Mackinder's Democratic
Ideals and Reality, H. J. Fleure's Human Geography in Western Europe, and
C. B. Fawcett's Frontiers.

The standard journals have issued important articles by Hinks, Lyde,

Newbigin, and others on the rearranged boundaries of European states, and
among books concerned with the new Europe one may mention J. M.
Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace; I. Bowman, The New World;
M. I. Newbigin, Aftermath; and H. J. Fleure, The Treaty Settlement in
Europe.

The new Times Atlas is invaluable, and may be supplemented on the

historical side by use of the well-known historical atlases of F. Schrader,
Poole, Ramsay Muir, Diercke, and others. Several valuable maps occur only
in Vidal de la Blache, Atlas général.

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