UNIT-1: 1,1,5,5,5,1

1. Define Remote sensing, platform and sensor.

Remote Sensing: The process of acquiring information about an object or area from a distance,
typically using satellites or aircraft, without direct contact.
Platform: The vehicle or structure (e.g., satellite, drone, aircraft) that carries remote sensing
instruments or sensors to capture data.
Sensor: A device or instrument used in remote sensing to detect and measure electromagnetic
radiation or other signals from the Earth's surface or atmosphere.
2. Define scattering. Explain different types of scatterings
Scattering refers to the process in which particles or waves (such as light) deviate from a
straight trajectory due to non-uniformities in the medium through which they pass. This can
occur when light interacts with small particles, molecules, or irregularities in the medium.
There are three different types of scattering:
• Rayleigh scattering
• Mie scattering
• Non-selective scattering
3.Classify various digital image data formats and explain each in detail with suitable
examples.
BIP - Band Interleaved by Pixel: Most digital data are stored on nine-track tape (800, 1600,
and 6250 bpi), 4- or 8- mm tape, or on optical disks. The nine-track and 4- or 8-mm tapes must
be read serially while it is possible to randomly select areas of interest from within the optical
disk. This may result in significant savings of time when unloading remote sensor data. The 4-
and 8-mm tape and compact disks are very efficient storage mediums, as opposed to the large
number of nine-track tapes required to store most images (Jensen, 1996). Band Interleaved by
Pixel Format (BIP) one of the earliest digital formats used for satellite data is band interleaved
by pixel (BIP) format. This format treats pixels as the separate storage unit. Brightness values
for each pixel are stored one after another.

BIL - Band Interleaved by Line: All four bands are written to the tape before values for the
next pixel are represented. Any given pixel located on the tape contains values for all four bands
written directly in sequence. This format may be awkward to use if only certain bands of the
imagery are needed. Often data in BIP format is organized into four separate panels, or tiles,
consisting of vertical strips each 840 lines wide in the x direction and 2,342 lines long in the y
direction. In order to read all four bands of the image, all four panels must be pieced together to
form the entire scene (Campbell, 1987). Band Interleaved By Line Format (BIL) Just as the BIP
format treats each pixel of data as the separate unit, the band interleaved by line (BIL) format is
stored by lines

BSQ - Band Sequential: Each line is represented in all four bands before the next line is
recorded. Like the BIP format, it is a useful to use if all bands of the imagery are to be used in
the analysis. If some bands are not of interest, the format is inefficient if the data are on tape,
since it is necessary to read serially past unwanted data. Band Sequential Format The band
sequential format requires that all data for a single band covering the entire scene be written as
one file .Thus, if an analyst wanted to extract the area in the center of a scene in four bands, it
would be necessary to read into this location in four separate files to extract the desired
information.

3. Explain about energy interaction with the atmosphere with neat sketch.
Energy interaction with the atmosphere is a complex process involving the absorption,
scattering, reflection, and transmission of electromagnetic radiation, primarily from the Sun.
This interaction is crucial for understanding weather patterns, climate dynamics, and the
behavior of Earth's systems. Here’s a detailed explanation along with a neat sketch:
Types of Energy Interaction
1. Absorption:
o Description: When solar radiation encounters atmospheric gases, water vapor, and
aerosols, some of the energy is absorbed. Different gases absorb different wavelengths
of radiation.
2. Scattering:
o Description: Scattering occurs when particles or molecules in the atmosphere redirect

incoming solar radiation. This process influences the color of the sky and the visibility
of distant objects.
o Types:
▪ Rayleigh Scattering: Responsible for the blue color of the sky; it occurs when

the particles are much smaller than the wavelength of light.

▪ Mie Scattering: Occurs with larger particles, such as dust and water droplets,
affecting the appearance of clouds and haze.
3. Reflection:
o Description: Some solar energy is reflected back into space by clouds, aerosols, and
the Earth's surface (like ice and water).
4. Transmission:
o Description: Some radiation passes through the atmosphere without being absorbed or
scattered. The transmitted energy can reach the Earth’s surface.
4. Explain about energy interaction with the Surface with neat sketch.
Energy interaction with the Earth's surface plays a vital role in determining temperature, weather
patterns, and climate dynamics. This interaction primarily involves the absorption, reflection,
and emission of solar and terrestrial radiation. Below is a detailed explanation of these
interactions, along with a neat sketch.
Types of Energy Interaction with the Surface
1. Absorption:
o Description: When solar radiation reaches the Earth's surface, a portion of this
energy is absorbed. The amount of energy absorbed depends on the surface material
and its properties, such as color, texture, and moisture content.
2. Reflection:
o Description: Some solar energy is reflected back into the atmosphere instead of
being absorbed. The fraction of reflected energy is known as albedo, which varies
significantly depending on surface type.
3. Transmission:
o Description: While less common for solar radiation, some energy can be transmitted
through certain materials, particularly in cases like greenhouse glass, where sunlight
enters but infrared radiation struggles to escape.
4. Emission:
o Description: The Earth’s surface emits longwave (infrared) radiation as it loses heat,
particularly during the night. This emission contributes to the surface energy
balance.
5. Explain Absorption with neat sketch
Absorption is the process by which energy, particularly solar radiation, is taken up by materials
when it strikes their surface. This interaction converts electromagnetic energy into internal
energy, often resulting in a temperature increase. Different materials absorb varying amounts of
energy depending on their properties, such as color, texture, and composition.

UNIT-2: 5,1,5
1. Define the term image interpretation and illustrate about different types of visual
interpretations:
Image Interpretation refers to the process of examining and analyzing visual data captured in
images, particularly in remote sensing and photography. This process involves recognizing,
understanding, and deriving meaningful information from the visual representations of
landscapes, objects, and phenomena. Image interpretation is crucial in fields like geography,
environmental science, urban planning, and resource management.
Image interpretations employ combination of the following eight elements
Tone
• Definition: Tone refers to the brightness or color intensity of a feature in an image. It is an
essential visual cue used to distinguish between different materials or land cover types.
2. Size
• Definition: Size refers to the physical dimensions of an object or feature in the image. It
can be measured in absolute terms (e.g., meters) or relative terms (e.g., compared to
surrounding features).
3. Shape
• Definition: Shape refers to the outline or geometric configuration of an object or feature. It
includes attributes like the roundness, linearity, or irregularity of features.
4. Texture
• Definition: Texture describes the visual surface quality of an area in an image, indicating
how smooth or rough a feature appears. It can be assessed based on the arrangement of
tone variations within an area.
5. Association
• Definition: Association refers to the spatial relationship or proximity of a feature to other
features in an image. It considers how features are grouped together or arranged.
6. Shadow
• Definition: Shadow refers to the dark areas produced by the obstruction of light by objects
in the image. Shadows can reveal information about the height and shape of objects.
7. Site
• Definition: Site refers to the specific physical location of a feature or area, considering its
geographical and environmental context.
8. Pattern
Definition: Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of features within an image, including the
distribution, repetition, and organization of objects or land uses.
2. What is image enhancement technique?
Explain a) Image magnification b) Density slicing
c) Image reduction d) Contrast enhancement
Image Enhancement Techniques
Image enhancement techniques in remote sensing and GIS are methods used to improve the
visual quality of images, making it easier to interpret and analyze the data. These techniques help
highlight specific features, improve contrast, or adjust the size of images for better visualization.
Below are explanations of four common image enhancement techniques:
a) Image Magnification
Definition: Image magnification refers to the process of increasing the size of an image or a
specific region of interest within an image. This technique allows for a more detailed
examination of features that may not be clearly visible at the original scale.
b) Density Slicing
Definition: Density slicing is a technique used to classify pixel values into discrete ranges (or
"slices") and assign different colors or shades to each range. This method helps in visualizing
specific attributes, such as land cover types or elevation levels.
c) Image Reduction
Definition: Image reduction involves decreasing the size of an image or dataset, either by
downsampling or aggregating pixel values. This technique can reduce storage requirements and
processing times while maintaining essential information.
d) Contrast Enhancement
Definition: Contrast enhancement refers to techniques used to improve the difference between
light and dark areas in an image, making features more distinguishable. Methods like histogram
equalization or linear stretching can be applied to increase contrast.
3. List the types of image classification? Explain types with neat sketch.
Image Classification is a procedure to automatically categories all pixel in an image of a terrain
into land use and land cover classes. This concept is dealt under broad subject, namely, “pattern
recognition”. Spectral pattern recognition refers to the family of classification procedures that
utilizes this pixel-by-pixel spectral information as the basis for automated land cover
classification.
1. Supervised Classification:
Supervised classification, as the name implies, requires human guidance. An analyst select a
group of contiguous pixels from part of an image known as training area that defines DN values
in each channel for a class. A classification algorithm computers certain properties of set of
training pixels, for example, mean DN for each channel. Then, DN values of each pixel in the
image are composed with the attributes of the training set.
a)Parallelepiped classifier
Parallelepiped classifier uses the class limits stored in each class signature to determine if a
given pixel falls within the class or not. The class limits specify the dimensions of each side of a
parallelepiped surrounding mean of the class in feature space. If the pixel falls inside
parallelepiped, it is assigned to the class. However, if pixel falls within more than one class, it is
put in the overlap class. If the pixel does not fall inside any class, it is assigned to the null class.
b) Maximum Likelihood classifier
Maximum likelihood classifier is one of the most widely used classifiers in the remote
sensing. In the method, a pixel is assigned to the class for which it has maximum likelihood of
membership. This classification algorithm uses training data to estimate means and variances of
the class, which are the used to estimate probabilities of pixels to belong to different classes.
Maximum likelihood classification considers not only mean or average values in assigning
classification but also the variability of brightness values in each class around the mean. It is the
most powerful of the classification algorithms as long as accurate training data is provided and
certain assumptions regarding the distributions of classes are valid.
2. Unsupervised Classification
 As the name implies, this form of classification is done without interpretive guidance from
an analyst. An algorithm automatically organizes similar pixel values into groups that become
the basic for different classes. This is entirely based on the statistics of the image data
distribution and is often called clustering.
The result of an unsupervised classification is an image of statistical clusters, where the
classified image still needs interpretation based on knowledge of thematic contents of the
clusters.

a) K-Means Clustering
K-means algorithm assigns each pixel to a group based on an initial selection of mean values.
The iterative re definition of groups continues till the means reach a threshold beyond which it
does not change. Pixels belonging to the groups are then classified using a minimum-distance to
means or other principle. K-means clustering algorithm, thus, helps split a given unknown
dataset into a fixed number (k) of user defined clusters. The objective of the algorithm is to
minimize variability within the cluster.
UNIT-3
1. Define GIS? Explain about various components of GIS?
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a technology that allows for the collection, storage,
analysis, and visualization of spatial and geographic data. GIS integrates various types of data,
including maps, satellite imagery, and other spatial information, enabling users to analyze
patterns, relationships, and trends within the context of geographic locations. It is widely used in
fields such as urban planning, environmental management, transportation, and public health to
support decision-making and problem-solving.
Components of GIS
A GIS is composed of several key components that work together to manage and analyze spatial
data. These components can be categorized into five main categories:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. People
5. Methods
1. Hardware
• Description: The hardware component includes the physical devices required to run GIS
software and manage data. This encompasses computers, servers, GPS devices, and
peripheral equipment such as printers and plotters.
2. Software
• Description: GIS software is used to analyze and visualize spatial data. This includes tools
for data input, processing, analysis, and output. Examples of popular GIS software include
ArcGIS, QGIS, and ERDAS Imagine.
3. Data
• Description: Data is a crucial component of GIS, comprising both spatial data (geographic
coordinates and locations) and attribute data (information related to the spatial features).
Spatial data can be represented in vector (points, lines, polygons) or raster (grids) formats.
4. People
• Description: This component includes the users and professionals who operate the GIS.
These individuals may include GIS analysts, cartographers, scientists, and decision-makers
who utilize GIS for various applications.
5. Methods
• Description: Methods refer to the techniques and procedures used in GIS to collect,
analyze, and interpret spatial data. This includes data modeling, analysis techniques, and
visualization methods.
2. Discuss about applications of GIS.
1.Transportation
• Point: GIS is used for route optimization, enabling logistics companies to determine the
most efficient paths for delivery vehicles, reducing travel time and fuel costs while
improving overall service delivery.
2. Water Resource Engineering
• Point: GIS assists in watershed management by mapping and analyzing water flow
patterns, helping engineers design effective drainage systems and assess the impact of land
use changes on water quality.
3. Urban Planning
• Point: GIS facilitates the visualization of urban growth patterns, allowing planners to
analyze land use, population density, and infrastructure needs to develop sustainable urban
development strategies.
4. Construction
• Point: In construction, GIS is utilized for site analysis and selection, helping engineers and
architects evaluate geographic features, zoning regulations, and environmental constraints
before project initiation.
5. Analysis
• Point: GIS enables spatial analysis, allowing researchers to identify trends and patterns
within spatial data, such as assessing the correlation between socioeconomic factors and
health outcomes in different regions.