UNIT I

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
 Computer means calculate. The term computer is derived from the word compute.
It is a device that operates upon data.
 A computer can store, process and retrieve data as and when desired.
 The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing. Data
processing consists of three sub activities.
o Capturing input data
o Manipulating the data
o Managing output results
 Characteristics of computers
o Automatic – an automatic machine works by itself without human
intervention. Computers are automatic machines because once started on a
job, they carry out the job until it is finished.
o Speed – a computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds,
the amount of work that a human being can do in an entire year.
o Accuracy – accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of
its accuracy depends upon its design. A computer performs every
calculation with the same accuracy.
o Diligence – unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours
without creating any error and without grambling.
o Versatility – versatility is one of the most wonderful things about a
computer. One moment it is preparing results of an examination, next
moment it is busy preparing electricity bills and in between it may be
helping an office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds.
o Power of remembering – as a human being acquires new knoeledge,
his/her brain subconsciously selects what it feels to be important retaining
in memory. A computer can store and recall any amount of information
because of its secondary storage capability.
o No I.Q. – a computer is not a magical device. It possesses no intelligence
of its own. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence.
o No feelings – comptuers have no feelings and no instincts because they are
machines.
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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
 At first man learned to count by making marks on wood and by using tally sticks.
 ABACUS – earliest known computing device originated in china around 3500
BC.
o Wooden frame with wires strung across it, carrying colored beads.
Counting is done by shifting the beads from one side to the other.
 In 1622, the English mathematician William Oughtred invented the slide rule,
used until recently by all engineers. A slide rule uses the idea of Logarithms and it
represents numbers by lengths.

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Generations of Computers
o Computer generations – several different stages of technological development.
This term widely used by sales personnel of computer manufacturers.
o Five generations of computers based on the processor used.
1. First Generation Computer (1945-55) : Vacuum Tubes
 As heavy as 7 tonnes in weight.
 Born with thousands of vacuum tubes.
 Used in old radios.
 Relied on binary coded language known as machine language to
perform operations.
 Unreliable and prone to frequent failures.
 By early 1950s Punched Cards were developed. It was now possible to
write programs on cards and read them.
 IBM (International Business Machines) Corporation, introduced the
computers IBM – 701 and IBM – 650 in 1954.
 The 650 model was the first digital computer.
2. Second Generation Computer (1955 – 65) : Transistor
 Came into being in 1960s using transistors.
 Transistor made up of semi-conductor material like silicon.
 These computers were
o Smaller in size.
o Faster in operation.
o More reliable.
o Cheaper than the vacuum tubes.
o Computational time very much reduced from milliseconds to
microseconds.
o Most important development of this generation was progress from
machine to assembly language.
o Assembly Language used mnemonics (mean abbreviations) for
instructions rather than numbers. Programming became easier.
o Early high level programming languages known as
 BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code).
 FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator).
 COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language).
o To run a job write program on paper in FORTRAN, then punch it
on cards. Then bring the card to input room and hand it over to one
of the operators and get the output.
3. Third Generation Computer (1965-80) : Integrated Circuits
 Integrated Circuits (IC) is also known as chip. Chip small slice of silicon
material, containing electronic components like transistors, capacitors,
resistors, diodes etc.
o Chip can replace hundreds of transistors.
 ICs had

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o Higher speed
o Small size
o Large storage capacity
o Low price
o Low heat protection
 Users interacted through keyboard and monitor and interfaced with
operating system.
 Computational time was reduced from microseconds to nanoseconds.
4. Fourth Generation Computers (1980 – Present) : Microprocessor and PC
 Microprocessor is a silicon chip consisting of millions of transistors.
o Size smaller than that of a postage stamp.
o It is considered to be the most up-to-date or state-of-the-art
electronic invention.
o It is more powerful, reliable, compact and cheaper than the earlier
third generation computers.
 This generation gave rise to Personnel Computer (PC) revolution.
 Microprocessor chip made possible for a single individual to have his/her
own personal computer.
 A minicomputer made it possible for a department in a company or
university to have its own computer.
 First microcomputer was produced with floppy disk by Intel. A suitable
operating system known as DOS (Disk Operating System) was evolved to
run the computer.
 Another important development of this era is that these computers could
be linked together to form networks, which resulted in the development of
Internet.
 Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) and mouse are also developed.
5. Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond)
 Starting point set in 1980. Research is going on developing a Fifth
Generation Computer that can talk, see, listen, understand and reason –
thus, processing Artificial Intelligence, which will not be far different
from that of human intelligence. Such a computer would learn from its
mistakes and posses the skill of an expert.
 Using recent engineering advances, computers may be able to accept
spoken word instructions and imitate human reasoning.
 Another engineering advance is super conductor technology. This
technology allows the flow of electricity with little or no resistance,
greatly improving the speed of information flow.
 Speed is extremely high in this generation. Apart from this it can perform
parallel processing.
 Expert Systems – assist doctors in making diagnoses, by applying the
problem-solving steps a doctor might use in assessing a patient’s needs.
 Japan and US devoted to work with large sums of money, time and energy
of leading IT experts in the world.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER

FIGURE : BLOCK DIAGRAM

INPUT UNIT
 It is like eyes and ears of the computer. Input data is fed into the computer using
keyboard/mouse/joystick/digitizer.
1. Keyboard
 Main input device for most computers.
 Used to input text or enter commands into PC.
 On keyboard, alphabets and number keys called Alphanumeric
keys are arranged like those on an English type-writer.
 There are also some extra keys called Function keys.
2. Mouse
 Used in graphical environments to let users provide simple ‘point
and click’ instructions to the computer.
 It is a graphic input device. As the mouse is moved on a flat
surface known as mouse pad, instructions are sent to the processor
to rapidly position the cursor on the screen.
 Main advantage of mouse is simplicity. There are many operations
that are much easier to perform with a mouse than a keyboard,
such as picking an item on a screen or choosing from a list of
options.
3. Joystick
 Another input device used for playing video-games.
4. Scanner
 Input device that allows information such as drawing to be input
into a computer.
 It is used to convert images into a stream of data.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 It is the brain of the computer. It is the place where computer does its thinking.

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 It executes the instructions one-by-one given in a program and performs millions

of arithmetic and logic operations within a fraction of a second.
 It has three units
1. Memory Unit
 It is the workspace for the computer’s processor. A program may
contain thousand of instructions. The CPU cannot carryout the
entire task at one go.
 The data and the instructions are stored in the memory unit.
 Two types of memory
 Main memory
o Also called as primary memory, is directly
connected to the processor.
o It is a temporary storage area where the programs
and data are operated by the processor.
o Temporary because the data and the programs will
remain there only as long as the computer has
electrical power or is not reset.
o Before being shutdown or reset, any data that has
been changed should be saved to a permanent
storage device called hard disk so that it can be
reloaded into the memory again in the future.
o Main memory is
 Faster in speed
 Small in size
 Expensive
o Two types are
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 It means that the CPU can find each
part of the memory straight away in
a fraction of microsecond.
 Similar to looking up a work in a
dictionary. RAM forgets everything
once the computer is switched off.
Save it on a disk, before turning off
your computer. The reason is that
RAM is volatile in nature.
 ROM (Read Only Memory)
 It stores sets of instructions required
to handle the different units of the
computer.
 It is referred to as non-volatile
memory, because any data stored in
ROM will remain even if power is
switched off.

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 ROM – an ideal place to put PCs

start-up instructions i.e. the software
that boots the system.
 If is permanently stored into the
computer that can only be read from.
 It is called read-only because it is
either impossible or difficult to write
to.
 Secondary memory
o Programs, data, etc., which may be needed for
future use may be conveniently stored in secondary
memory.
o Types of secondary memory units
 Hard Disk
 It is the primary storage memory in
the system.
 It is used to contain copies of all
programs and data not currently
active in the main memory.

 Floppy Disk
 It is the smallest and slowest form of
offline storage.
 It provides a simple and convenient
way to transfer information, install
new software and backup small
amounts of files.
 Compact Disk
 It has memory much higher than the
floppy disk.
 Registers
 Computers have several additional storage locations called
registers. These appear in control unit and ALU and make
processing more efficient.
 They are a sort of special high-speed staging areas that hold data
and instructions temporarily during processing.
 They are parts of control unit and ALU rather than the memory.
 Addresses
 To locate the characters of data or instructions in the main
memory, the computer stores them in locations known as
addresses.
 A unique number designates each address. Numbers stay the same,
but contents continuously change.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

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 In ALU, arithmetic calculations such as addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division etc., are carried out.
 It can also carry out logical operations like comparison of numbers,
whether less, greater etc.
 ALU works on the data transferred from the memory.

3. Control Unit (CU)

 It is like the nervous system of the human body. It is control section of
a computer.
 It sequences the operation of the computer, controlling the actions of
all other units.
 The control circuitry interprets the instructions which constitute the
program.
 It directs the movement of electronic signals between memory and the
ALU.
 It also directs the rest of the machine including the input and output
devices in its operation.
OUTPUT UNIT
 It is used to record the results obtained by the computer and presents them to the
outside world.
 Control unit controls as well as supplies the necessary information to the output
unit.
 Common output devices are Monitor, Disk Storage, Printer and Plotter.
o Monitor
 Visual display Unit and looks like T.V. Screen using a Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT).
 Size denoted by distance across corners (15”/17”). Displays can be
texts or graphics (pictures).
o Disk Storage
 Disks can be used both for input as well as output. Hence, they are
referred to as I/O Devices.
 Eg. Songs can be stored and played back whenever required on
tape.
o Printer
 It is an output device capable of accepting information from
computer’s memory and producing corresponding printed visual
record on paper, called the hardcopy.
 Types of printers are : Dot Matrix Ink Jet and Laser Printers.
o Plotter
 It is used to take hard copy of the large size drawings.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
COMPUTER SYSTEM

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 All digital computers, regardless of their sizes are used to transmit, store and
process information.
 Information means data. A computer can be treated as a system, consisting of a
number of interrelated components working together for the purpose of
converting data into information.
 In a computer system, processing of data is carried out electronically with no
intervention from the computer operator.
 Several types of data can be processed by computer. Eg. Numeric, character,
graphic etc.
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
 The hardware devices attached to the computer are called Peripheral Devices,
which include all input, output and secondary storage devices.
 Peripherals/components needed to assemble a basic modern PC system are
1. Mother board 8. CD-ROM drive
2. Processor 9. Keyboard
3. Memory (RAM) 10. Mouse
4. Case (Chassis) 11. Monitor
5. Power Supply 12. Video Card
6. Hard Disk Drive 13. Speakers
7. Floppy Disk Drive
1. Mother Board
 It is the core of the computer system. It really is the PC as everything
else is connected to it and it controls everything in the system.
 Available in different shapes. It contains
 Processor Socket
 Processor Voltage Regulator
 Motherboard Chipset : It is motherboard circuit. It controls
 The processor host bus interface
 Level 2 cache and main memory
 System bus slots
 System resources etc.
 It plays an important role in determining what sorts of
features a system can support.
 Level 2 cache
 Memory SIMM or DIMM Sockets
 Bus Slots
 ROM BIOS : contains the initial POST (Power-On Self Test)
program, bootstrap loader, Drivers for items built-in to the board
and usually a system setup program for configuring the system.
 Clock/CMOS battery.
 Super I/O chip.
 Processor
 It is the engine of the computer. It is known as Central Processing Unit
(CPU). It is a sophisticated piece of miniaturized electronics with
millions of transistors.

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 It reads the program instructions from memory which tell the

processor what it has to do to complete the work that the user wants.
The processor then executes them.
 It is one of smallest parts but most expensive.
 Processor specification : processors can be identified by two
parameters
o How fast they are
o How wide they are
 Memory (RAM)
 The system memory is called RAM (Random Access memory). It is
the main memory that holds all programs and data used by the
processor. It requires power to maintain storage.
 ROM (Read Only Memory) – memory where initial programs for
processor come. It cannot be erased. It contains instructions to get the
system to load an OS and other programs from one of the disk drives
into the main memory.
 Memory is purchased and installed in a system in SIMM (Single Inline
Memory Module) or DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module).
4. Case (Chassis)
 It is the other shell or box that houses most of the computer
components. It is not only cosmetic, but also protects the system
components and directs the cooling air flow.
5. Power Supply
 It feeds electrical power to every single part in the PC. It converts 110
volts a/c supply voltage into 3.3 volts, 5 volts and 12 volts power that
the system requires for operation.
6. Hard Disk Drive
 It is so named because it consists of spinning platters of aluminium
or ceramic coated with a magnetic media.
 It contains copies of all programs and data not currently active in
the main memory.
 Platters – available in various sizes. Hard drives – made with
different storage capacities based on density, size and number of
platters.
7. Floppy Disk Drive
 PCs manufactured in last 10 years use a standard 3.5 inch, 1.44 MB
capacity floppy drive. It has two read/write heads, one for each side of
the disk.
8. CD-ROM Drive
 Stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. It uses compact disk, it
is a read-only medium.
 Data can be entered in CD using CD writer. Computer companies
distribute applications and games in CDs.
9. Keyboard
 It is the main input device, used to input text or enter commands
into the PC.

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10. Mouse
 It is used in graphical environment.
11. Monitor
 It is a high-resolution screen similar to a high-quality television.
Monitor screen made up of red, green and blue dots that are
illuminated by an electron beam from behind.
 Video card controls what dots are lit-up and how bright they are,
which then determines the picture you see on the monitor.
12. Video Card
 It sends the contents of its video memory to your monitor at the
rate of 60 times/second. It controls the information you see on the
monitor.
13. Speakers
 It serves as a Voice Output Device. Using it with speech
synthesizer software, the computer can provide voice output.
 Voice output has become very common in many places. User can
also hear music/songs using voice output system.
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

FIGURE : CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

BASED ON PRINCIPLE OF WORKING

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 Based on the principles of operation, computers are classified into three types,
namely
1. Analog Computers
2. Digital Computers
3. Hybrid Computers
 Analog Computers
 In Analog computers, a number is represented in the machine by a
physical quantity as measured by some system of units.
 Physical quantity can be anything: electric voltage, electric current,
pressure, temperature, speed etc.
 To determine number more accurately measure quantity, to measure
the quantity more accurately either by making better physical
measurements or by changing our scale of measurement.
 To add, subtract, multiply or divide find some mechanism by which it
is changed in accordance with particular operation.
 For example, addition in an electronic analog computer performed by
arranging a circuit so that output voltage is sum of 2 input voltages.
 We might multiply voltage and current to get power in watts. Analog
computers utilize some sort of analogue or analogy, such as Ohm’s
Law, to get a solution.
 The analog computers give approximate results since they deal with
quantities that vary continuously.
 Digital Computers
 It operates on digital data such as numbers. It uses binary number
system which have only two digits 0 and 1. Each one is called a
bit.
 The binary number system transforms a number into a sequence of
0’s and 1’s, called its binary code and stores in the computer.
 Digital computer is designed using digital circuits.
 Analog computer cannot perform logical operations because of
minimal memory. Digital computer can perform logical operations
because of unlimited memory.
 Digital computer give results with more accuracy and at faster rate.
The precision of a digital computer can be made by allocating
memory space to hold additional digits in the numbers.
 Electronic digital computer is very well suited for solving complex
engineering and technology problems. Therefore digital computers
have an increasing use in the field of design, data processing and
research.
 Digital computers are made for both general and special purpose.
General Purpose Computers – used for any type of applications. It
can store different programs and do the jobs as per instructions
specified on those programs.
 Special purpose – specific application.
 Hybrid Computers

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 It is a combination of desirable features of both digital and analog

computers.
 It is used for automatic operations of complicated physical
processes and machines.
 Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are
used for transforming the data into suitable form for either type of
computations.
 Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized tasks. Eg.
Automated Intensive Care Unit.

BASED ON PROCESSING MODE

 Batch Processing
 Number of jobs are entered into the computer, stored internally and
then processed sequentially.
 Real Time
 Characterized by having time as a key parameter. Used in
industrial process control system – collect data about production
process and use it to control machines in the factory.

 Time Sharing
 Allows many different users to use a single computer
simultaneously.
 Host computer – mainframe, minicomputer or large desktop
computer.
 In modern timesharing network, PCs are used as time sharing
terminals.
BASED ON SIZE, PERFORMANCE AND COST
 Computers available in many types and sizes. Based on the size, performance and
cost, computers are generally classified as
1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Main Frame Computer
4. Super Computer
1. Micro Computer
 Technically, it is defined as the one which has a single microprocessor (or
a chip).
 Used for everything from a home computer to a powerful business
computer. It consists of a microprocessor, storage unit, input and output
devices, including power supply, connecting cables, an operating system
and other software programs.
 Advantages
o Smallest of computer family
o Several times cheaper than mini computer
o Highly reliable
o Requires less maintenance

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 Depending on use it is further classified as

(a) Personal Computers (PC)
(b) Work Stations
(c)Portable Computers – Laptop and hand-held computers
(a) Personal Computers (PC)
 Single user machine, also known as desktop computers. Used by
an individual, small group family or businessman for personnel,
business or recreational purpose.
 Word PC is used because world’s most successful micro computer
introduced by IBM is called a PC.
 PC consists of a
 System unit
 Keyboard
 Internal hard disk storage
 Display monitor and
 Other peripheral devices
 Egs. of major PC manufacturers IBM, Hewlett Packard (HP),
APPLE, etc.
(b) Work Stations
 Expensive and a powerful machine used by engineers,
scientists and other professionals who processed a lot of data.
 People who need to run complex programs and display both
work in progress and results graphically also use workstations.
 It use sophisticated display screens featuring high resolution
color graphics and Oss such as UNIX that permit multi-tasking.
 It also use powerful networking links to other computers. It is a
powerful processor. The processor could churn out results
faster than PCs.
 More powerful workstations are called super micros. Egs. they
are made by HP, IBM, Apollo and Sun.
(c) Portable Computers – Laptop and hand-held computers
 It is the one, a user can easily carry it around. Three categories
are available.
(i) Laptop/Notebook
(ii) Sub-notebook
(iii) Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
(i) Laptop/Notebook
o It resembles a notebook. Laptops may be AC-
powered, battery-powered or both.
o Ideal for user who has to work away from office.
User may be
 An executive on the move
 A sales person
 A student
 A journalist
o Eg.IBM Think pad

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(ii) Sub-notebook
o They are for frequent flyers and life-on-the-road
professionals. It has an external floppy disk drive and
monochrome monitor.
o Subnotebook users give up a full display screen and
keyboard in exchange for less weight.
(iii) Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
o Also known as Hand Held computer. Slightly bigger
than calculator and can be stored in a pocket.
o It has no disk drive, instead it uses small cards to store
program and data.
o It has a pen input. It is meant for executives and
business men for day-to-day activities – scheduling,
organization, marketing etc.
2. Mini Computer
 It is a small digital computer called mid-range computer. It is able
to process and store more data than a micro computer, but less than
a mainframe.
 Processing more rapid than micro but less rapid than main frame.
Size two-drawer filling cabinet.
 Designed to meet the computing needs of several persons
simultaneously in a small to medium size organizations.
3. Main Frame Computer
 They are capable of processing data at very high speeds, i.e.,
hundreds of million instructions per second.
 They are large in size and also expensive. Large organizations rely
on these room-size systems to handle large programs with lots of
data.egs. IBM – ES 300, VAX 8000.
 Users – Railway reservation systems, Banks, Insurance companies,
Airlines, etc.
4. Super Computer
 The mightiest and most expensive computers are known as super
computers.
 It process billions of instructions per second and operating at
speeds measured in nanoseconds and even in picoseconds – one
thousand to one million times as fast as micro computers.
 Users
o Government agencies
o Applications requiring very large programs and huge
amounts of data that must be processed quickly.
o Egs. weather forecasting, oil exploration, aerodynamics,
metrology, special animation effects in movies, simulation
of defense scenarios by military strategists, etc.

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HARDWARE
 It is the physical part of the computer system. It includes all physical parts,
namely,
o CPU
o Memory units
o I/O devices
o Display Unit
o Storage Devices
o Power Supply etc.
 The CPU, memory and I/O devices are all connected by a system bus and
communicate with one another over it.
CPU
 Brain of the computer. It fetches instructions from memory and executes
them.
 The basic cycle of CPU is
o To fetch the first instruction from memory
o Decode it to determine its types and operands
o Execute it and
o Then fetch, decode and execute subsequent instructions
 Each CPU has a specific set of instructions that it can execute.
 Instruction set contains instructions to load and store a word to and from
register and memory.
 Other instructions combine two operands from registers, memory or both
into a result.
MEMORY
 Second major component in any computer. Electronic holding area for
instructions and data, where computer’s microprocessor can quickly
reach.
 It should be
o Extremely fast
o Abundantly large
o Very cheap
 Memory system is constructed as hierarchy of layers.

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FIGURE : MEMORY HIERARCHY

 Register
o Top layers consists of registers internal to CPU. Made of same
material as CPU, so fast as CPU.
o There is no delay in accessing them.
o Storage capacity 32 X 32 bits on 32 bit CPU and 64 X 64 bits
on a 64 bit CPU.
o It is less than 1 KB in both cases.
 Cache Memory
o Controlled by hardware. Main memory is divided into cache
lines, typically 64 bytes, with address 0 to 63 in cache line 0,
addresses 64 to 127 in cache line 1 and so on.
o The most heavily used cache lines are kept in a high speed
cache located inside or very close to the CPU.
o When program needs to read a memory word, the cache
hardware checks to see if the line needed is in the cache. If it is,
it is called a cache hit and request is satisfied.
o Cache memory is limited in size due to its high cost.
 Main Memory
o Workhorse of the memory system. It is called RAM (Random
Access Memory).
o All CPU requests, that cannot be satisfied out of the cache, go
to main memory.
 Magnetic Disk (Hard Disk)
o Disk storage two times of magnitude cheaper than RAM per bit
and two times of magnitude larger.
o Problem – time to randomly access data is close to 3 times of
magnitude slower, low speed is due to the fact that disk is a
mechanical device.
 ROM (Read Only Memory)
o Computers have a small amount of non-volatile random access
memory. It does not lose its contents when the power is
switched off.
o It is programmed at the factory. It cannot be changed
afterwards. It is fast and inexpensive.

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I/O DEVICES
 Consist of two parts
o A controller – the chip or set of chips on a plug-in board that
physically controls the device. It accepts commands from the
OS. Each type of controller is different. Therefore, different
software is needed to control each one.
o Device itself – the software that talks to a controlled, giving it
commands and accepting responses is called a Device Driver.
Each controller manufacturer has to supply a driver for each
OS it supports. Eg. Scanner come with drivers for Windows
XP and UNIX.

BUSES
 What is a Bus?
o It is the heart of every motherboard. A bus is nothing but a
common pathway, across which data can travel within a
computer. This pathway is used for communication.
Communication can be established between two or more
computer components.
o PC has hierarchy of different buses. Modern PCs have three,
four or more different buses. They are hierarchical because
each slower bus is connected to the faster one above it.
o Each device in the system is connected to one of the buses.
Some devices act as bridges between the various buses. Eg.
Chipset.
 Types of Buses
o The main buses in the modern system are
 Processor bus – it is the communication pathway
between the CPU and the motherboard chipset
 Highest-speed bus in computer system. It is the
core of the chipset and motherboard
 It is used by processor to pass information to
and from cache or main memory and the
chipset.
 Memory bus – used to transfer information
between the CPU and main memory the RAM.
It is connected to the motherboard chipset.
 Accelerated Graphics port (AGP) Bus
 High speed bus specifically for video card.
Connected to the chipset. Manifested as a single
AGP slot in systems that support it.
 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Bus
 This is found in all Pentium and higher
processor systems. This bus is generated by the
chipset, which acts as the PCI controller.
 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Bus

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 It is a slow-speed bus, but still ideal for certain

slow-speed or older peripherals.

**********

SOFTWARE
Definition
 For computer to do something useful, it has to be given a set of
instructions. These instructions are called programs, collectively,
programs are termed as software.
 Software means computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored
electronically is software. A computer without software is like a tape
recorder without cassette.
 Computer programs – computer needs to be instructed to perform any
task. These instructions are given in the form of computer programs.
 Computer programming languages – computer programs are written in
computer programming languages.
 Running or executing a program – a computer program controls the
activity of the CPU. The moment the hardware acts as per the instructions
of a program, the program is said to be run or executed.
 Software package – a set of programs written specifically to provide the
user a precise functionality such as solving a specific problem is known as
a software package.
Hardware Vs Software
 Hardware is the actual machine eg. Car. Software is a set of instructions or
programs to run the hardware eg. driver. If hardware is the heart of a
computer system, the software is its soul.
 Hardware – physical components of the computer system that you can see
and touch. Software – part of computer system that you cannot see or
touch.
 Hardware – one time expense. Software – continuing expense.
 Both are complimentary to each other. Each is useless without the other.
How well a program would be executed is depended on both hardware and
software.
 If a computer is a kitchen, the software is the recipe.
 Software communicates with the hardware by organizing the control
sequences. The hardware carries out the instructions defined by the
software.
**********
CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE
 Computer Software is classified into two broad categories are
1. System Software
2. Application Software
1. System Software
 It refers to computer programs which help the user to run
the computer system. It consists of many programs which

18
 UNIT I

are used to control, integrate and manage the individual

hardware elements of the computer system.
 They are supplied by the computer manufacturer. Stored
permanently in memory or in CD or Floppy.
 Computer user or programmer cannot change it. It provides
basic functionality like keyboard input, visual display, file
management etc.
 They are used by Application Software to fulfill these
functions. Interface between the computer hardware and the
software applications
 The system software provides a programming environment
in which the programmer can create applications to fulfill
their requirements.
 This environment provides functions which are not
available with the hardware. Performs the tasks pertaining
to the execution of an application program.
 Thus, the system software acts as an interface between the
computer hardware and software applications.
 Examples of system software – Operating System, System
Utility Programs, Language Translators and Device
Drivers.
(i) Operating System
o It is an integrated set of specialized programs that is
used to manage the overall operations of a computer.
Acts like an interface between the user, computer
hardware and software.
o To run the computer we need operating system. When
computer starts it first loaded into memory.
o Functions
o User interface
o Process management
o File management
o Memory management
o Device management
o Security management
(ii) System Utility Programs
o They are small programs performing very specific
tasks. They perform day-to-day tasks pertaining to the
maintenance of the computer system.
o They are used to support, enhance and secure the
existing programs and data in the system.
o The utility programs are provided within the operating
system.
o Functions of system utilities

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o Disk management programs – eg. Disk

formatting tools, data compressor, disk
defragmenter.
o File management programs – helps the users to
find the files, create directories, copy, move and
delete the files.
o Data recovery – help to recover or retrieve
inaccessible or deleted data caused by the
failure of the storage media.
o Backup utility – used to keep data in tact if files
are corrupted or deleted accidentally.
o Anti-virus system utility programs – help the
security to the system from viruses.
(iii) Language Translators
o Computer understands machine language. We develop
program using high-level language. Language translator
translate a program written in a high-level
programming language to machine language. It is
developed for every programming language.
o Language translators are of the following types
o Assembler – translate an assembly language
program (symbolic representation) into a
machine language program.
o Compiler – translate a high-level language
program into a machine language program. It
translates source code into object code.
o Interpreter – translate a high-level language
program into a machine language program. It
translates and also executes the source code
line-by-line.
o Loader – it is a system program used to store the
machine language program into the memory of
the computer.
(iv) Device Drivers
 Each device has a driver program for proper
functioning. Device driver is defined as the system
program responsible for its proper functioning. A
driver acts like a translator between the device and
the program, i.e. the operating system.
2. Application Software
 It is the set of programs necessary to carry out operations
for a specific application.
 It may consist of single program – notepad, collection of
programs – software package.

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 UNIT I

 It is controlled by system software, which manages

hardware devices and performs background tasks for them.
It ranges from calculators, word processors, games etc.
 If includes
i. Word Processor
 It is a program that enables you to perform word
processing functions.
 It enables you to create a document, store it
electronically on a disk, display it on a screen,
modify it by entering commands and characters
from the keyboard and print it on a printer.
 Commonly used word processors – Microsoft
Word, Word Perfect etc.
ii. Spreadsheets
 It is a table of values arranged in rows and
columns.
 Each value can have a predefined relationship to
the other values. If you change one value, you
may need to change other values as well.
 Commonly used spreadsheets – Microsoft Excel,
Lotus 123, etc.

iii. Database Management Systems (DBMS)

 It is a collection of programs that enable you
to store, modify and extract information from
a database.
 Commonly used DBMS – Foxpro, MS SQL
Server, Oracle, MS Access etc.
iv. Presentation Software
 It includes functions for creating charts and
graph and for inserting text to present one’s
work orally in the presence of audience.
 It allows user to create presentations by
producing slides or handouts for presentation
of projects.
 Commonly used Presentation Software –
Microsoft Powerpoint, Harvard Presentation,
Graphics, etc.
v. DeskTop Publishing (DTP) Software
 It is used for preparing books, magazines,
newsletters, etc.
 The term DTP is used to describe the creation
of printed documents using a desk top
computer.
 Desktop – very similar to table top.

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 UNIT I

 Commonly used DTP software – Adobe Page

Maker, Quark Express, etc.
vi. Image Processor
 It enables you to create, edit, manipulate and
special effects, view, print and save images.
 Using it you can darken or lighten an image,
rotate it, adjust its contrast etc.
 Commonly used image editing softwares –
CorelDraw, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe
Illustrator etc.

**********

OPERATING SYSTEM
 It is an integrated set of programs that controls the resources of a computer system
and provides its users with an interface or virtual machine that is easier to use
than the bare machine.
 Primary objectives
o Make a computer system easier to use.
o Manage the resources of a computer system.
 Its function is to manage all devices and provide user programs with a simpler
interface to the hardware.

FIGURE : COMPUTER SYSTEM

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 UNIT I

 Figure shows placement of the operating system. At bottom hardware composed

of two or more levels (or layers). Lowest level contains physical devices
consisting of
o Integrated Circuit Chips
o Wires
o Power Supply
o Cathode Ray Tube
o Similar Physical Devices
 Micro-Architecture Level – Here physical devices are grouped together to form
functional units.
o This level contains registers internal to CPU and data path containing an
ALU. Purpose of data path is to execute some set of instructions.
 The hardware and the instructions visible to an Assembly Language Programmer
form the ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) level. This is termed as Machine
Language.
o Machine Language has about 50 to 300 instructions for moving data
around the machine, doing arithmetic and comparing values.
o Highly complex to read or write instructions.
 To hide the above complexity an Operating System is provided.
o It consists of a layer of software that hides the hardware and gives the
programmer a more convenient set of instructions to work with.
 On top of the OS is the rest of the system software. Here we find the
o Command Interpreter
o Windows Systems
o Compilers
o Editors
Similar Application – independent programs
o They are not part of OS, supplied by computer manufacturer.
 Finally above the system programs we have Application Programs.
o Purchased or written by users to solve their particular problems.
o Eg. Word Processing, Spreadsheets, Engineering Calculations or storing
data in a Database.
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Several types are available. They are
(i) Mainframe Operating System
(ii) Server Operating System
(iii) Multi-Processor Operating System
(iv) Personnel Computer Operating System
(v) Real-Time Operating System
(vi) Embedded Operating System
(vii) Smart Card Operating System
(i) Mainframe Operating System
 Oriented towards processing many jobs at a time, most of which
need huge amounts of I/O. Offer three kinds of services.

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o Batch – allows only one program to run at a time. Work on

jobs held in queue. Function is to schedule the jobs
according to priority and resources required.
o Transaction Processing – handle large numbers of small
requests. Eg. Cheque processing at a bank.
o Time Sharing – allow multiple remote users to run jobs on
the computer at a time, querying big database.
(ii) Server Operating System
 Runs on servers which are either very large PC, workstation or
even mainframe.
 Servers multiple users at a time over a network and allow the users
to share hardware and software resources.
 It provide print service, file service or web service.
 Eg. UNIX, Windows 2000.
(iii) Multi-Processor Operating System
 For large computing power, connect multiple CPUs into a single
system. These systems are called parallel computers, mini-
computers or multi-processors depending on how they are
connected and what is shared.
 They need special Operating Systems. They are variations on
server OS with special features for communication and
connectivity.
(iv) Personnel Computer Operating System
 Its function is to provide a good interface to a single user. Widely
used for Word Processing, Spreadsheets and Internet access.
 Eg. Windows 98, Windows 2000, Linux and Macintosh OS.
(v) Real-Time Operating System
 This system is characterized by having time as a key parameter.
Eg. Car manufacturing. Two types are available
o Hard real-time system – action absolutely must occur at a
certain moment.
o Soft real-time system – missing an occasional deadline is
acceptable.
(vi) Embedded Operating System
 Run on computers that control devices that are not generally
thought of as computers such as TV sets, Microwave Ovens and
Mobile Telephones.
 These have some characteristics of real-time systems, but also have
size, memory and power restrictions.
 Egs. Windows CE (Consumer Electronics) and PalmOS.
(vii) Smart Card Operating System
 It runs on smart cards, which are credit card-sized devices
containing a CPU chip.
 It has severe processing power and memory constraints.

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 Some of this system can handle only a single function such as

electronic payments. But others can handle functions on the same
smart card.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING STSTEM
(i) Process Management
(ii) Memory Management
(iii) File Management
(iv)Device Management
(v) Security Management
(vi)User Interface
(i) Process Management
 Process – key concept in all operating system. It basically a
program in some stage of execution.
 As a process manager, the operating system handles the creation
and termination of process, suspension and resumption of
processes and scheduling and synchronization of processes.
(ii) Memory Management
 Main memory hold executing programs. In a simple OS, only one
program at a time is in memory. To run a second program, the first
one has to be removed and the second one placed in memory.
 The part of the OS that handles the management of main memory
is called the memory manager.
(iii) File Management
 The OS is responsible for File Management meaning that creation,
deletion, reading and writing of files.
 Before a file can be read, it must be located on the disk and
opened. After it has been read, it should be closed.
 To provide a place to keep files, the OS has a Directory as a way of
grouping files together.
(iv) Device Management
 Every OS has an I/O subsystem for managing I/O Devices. It
detects device failures and notifies the same to the user.
 The device manager manages the hardware resources. It provides
an interface to hardware for application programs.
(v) Security Management
 Computer contain large amounts of confidential information. Eg.
Electronic mail, business plans, tax returns.
 It is up to the Operating System to manage the system security so
that files are accessible to authorized users only.
 In addition OS protects the system from unwanted intruders, both
human and non-human (e.g. Viruses).
(vi) User Interface
 It is a set of commands or menus through which a user
communicates with the system hardware.

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 UNIT I

 It is the layer that actually interacts with the computer operator. OS

organized applications so that users can easily access them, use
them and store application data.

**********
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
 Computer is a very versatile tool. Computer technology has revolutionized all
aspects of human life all over the world.
 Computer not only saves the time and labour, but also saves paper work.
Applications of computer in various fields
BUSINESS
MARKETING :- Computer is mainly used for sales promotion, e.g. designing of
advertisements.
Internet marketing (e-marketing).
Comparing the sales figure.
Studying the demand graph.
PRODUCTION :-It is used for making design of product.
CAD (computer aided design)
HUMAN RESOURCE :- Computer is used in keeping the records of all the
employees.
Recruitment and Selection.
FINANCE :- Helps in making the financial statement.
Comparing the financial statement of two year.
Preparing the “BUDGETS”.
MEDICAL
Research :-Used in different pharmaceutical companies.
Hospitals :- Mainly computer is used for keeping the record of patients.
Inventory of medicines.
Surgeries.
Diagnosis :-
CT scan.
Ultra-sound.
Blood test.
Electro-cardio gram.
BANKING SECTOR
Maintaining the record and storing the files instead of manual record.
Internet banking (e-banking).
Transaction from ATMs.
Bank sell their insurance online.
Bank provides 24×7 online services.
EDUCATION
Higher education :- All the universities and colleges are furnished with computer
labs.
Online education :- This can done with the help of computer and internet.
Self-Learning.
Faculty usage.

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 UNIT I

School library.
Used to generate letters and documents.
SERVICE SECTOR
Railways :- Computerized reservation and cancellation is done.
Online reservation, Schedule, Availability and fare, Position of the train
Transportation.
Airways
Hotels.
DEFENCE
Air force :- All the fighter plane are equipped with computer system for targeting
and navigation.
With the help of computer only “PREDATOR” an unmanned fighter can be
controlled.
Army :- Gentle men uses computerized “ROBOT” in the battle field.
Tanks are also installed with computer.
Navy :- Today all the submarines uses computer far navigation and targeting.
ENGINEERING AND ROBOTICS
Software.
Design of buildings and maps.
Designing VLSI chip and many more.
Robotics research.
ENTERTAINMENT
Chatting /browsing.
Music/Videos, Games etc..
COMPUTERS AT HOME
Computers are used at home for playing games, listening to music, watching movies,
drawing pictures, writing letters etc.
COMPUTERS IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY
A number of satellites linked with computers provide a lot of information important
for space research.
COMPUTERS IN LIBRARIES
Computers are used in libraries to keep records of the books by entering data
COMPUTERS FOR AIRLINE AND RAILWAY RESERVATION
Computers are used in booking counters where each computer is connected through a
common network
Computers help in reservation and cancellation of tickets.
Computers help in keeping records of flights arrival and departures
COMPUTERS IN SHOPS
Shopkeepers use computers to prepare bills for customers.
Computers maintain record of the stocks and prices of different items.
COMPUTERS IN DESIGNING
Computers help architects in designing buildings and houses.
Computers help engineers in designing cars, aeroplanes and many others machines.
Computers help in designing clothes.
**********
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

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 UNIT I

 Information is the collection of facts or processed data gathered by various means

of communication, that is being used for decision making.
 Technology is the study of applied science and engineering. It comprises
information and knowledge that can be in physical forms such as drawings,
manuals, models or in non-physical forms.
 Information combined with technology has created a new branch in engineering
called Information Technology (IT). It comprises people, data, hardware and
software.
 IT refers to the scientific, engineering, technological and management disciplines
used in handling information, communication, processing, their applications and
associated software, hardware and their interaction.
 IT deals with the use of electronic computes and computer software to convert,
store, protect, process, transmit and retrieve information. For that reason,
computer professionals are often called IT specialists.
 It plays a vital role in today’s global economy it has made a significant impact in
research & development. The research is being carried out in networking,
computing, data representation & many other areas for exploring the existing
methodoligies.
 The major areas impacted by the advent of it include business, media, education
& so forth.
Information technology in business
 It plays an important role in business environment as every organisation adopts it
in some form or the other to perform the tasks in effective manner. It contributes
towards new & effective ways of processing business transactions, integrating
business processes, transferring payments, & delivering services electronically.
 It includes buying & selling over the internet, electronic fund transfers, smart
cards, digital cash & all other ways of doing business over digital networks.
 It has effected business in following ways:
o Competitiveness
o Security
o Cost benefits
o Marketing
Information technology in manufacturing
 corporates are developing a manufacturing society to provide
manufacturers,distributors and researchers with structured methods and practices
for implementing technologies in manufacturing environments.
 Using it ,simulation systems have been developed,which enable manufacturers to
virtually prepare proto type plant layouts,optimise raw material usage,and assess
ergonomic factors prior to investing in plant redesigns or new factories .
 Researchers are developing natural language interfaces that can help simulate
human tasks in a manufacturing operations environment.
Information technology in public sector
 There is a great requirement to automate services such as booking of railway
tickets & payment of electricity bill. It sector has become a boon for public sector
companies by helping them to increase their output & efficiency.

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It has enabled the companies to have a greater quality control so that they are able
to meet the laid standards. This has been possible as it has been able to:
i) minimize duplication & sharing of scarce resources.
ii) promote & insure that it solutions are cost effective, efficient & business
driven.
iii) promote transperancy & accountability in the public service by facilitating the
availability, accessibility & sharing of information.
Information technology in defence services
 To help the military improve readiness & response.
 more flexible, timely & dependable access to information is needed.
 It capability allows military personnel to literally converse with computers to
create , access & manage information & solve problems.
 It helps to gain relevant information in an organised & integrated manner that is
readily useable by military personnel.
Information technology in media
 some examples of it used in media include audio visual equipments like
television, radio, vcr, video cameras & computers.
 the media can be broadly classified into 2 categories:
 Print media: it is the most wide spread of the media technology. It remains the
most widely adopted, portable, flexible & economical media. Thr presence of it
has greatly enhanced print medias effectiveness, making it an important source of
information.
 Electronic media: electronic media such as television & radio are much ahead as
compared to the other types of media. Multimedia applications ( sounds, videos &
images ) are increasingly been used as part of global reveloution in electronic
media.internet also forms the part of this media.
Information technology in education
 The emerging technologies affected the way of learning and the way of
processes(like transaction) are carried out.the present eduction sysyem is facing
substainstial pressure to prepare the student to learn,live and work in the digital
age.it has helped learners to develop problem solving,analytical & reasearch
skills.
 Electronic learning:- students and teachers both gain consideriable benefit by
utilizing e-learning tools.e-learning includes computer based training(cbt) & web
based training(wbt)
 Cbt is the training where a computer program provides motivation and feedback
in place of a live instructor.it can be delivered through cd-rom, lan or internet.
 wbt is the training,which delivers educational content through a web browser
over the public internet, or a private intract.
 Virtual classroom:-this concept intractivity invloves a student with software with
reacts and intrests ,unlike a book.with the help of virtual learning, students can;
 Search the database for their views and of other students.
 Listen to pre-recorded audio comments to enhance knowledge.
 Converse about the subject or related matters with the teacher and other students
through e-mail and discussion groups.
 Use appropriate resources to seek, access and apply knowledge.

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 through virtual calssrooms students can get online education from remote places
Information technology in transportation
 in india with the issue of computerised railway tickets,the errors have been
minimized a passenger can book the train ticket from any part of the country.
 The cinema theatres in order to avoid queues an unneccessary rush follow the
system of online ticket booking so that through the internet any one can book
tickets at their convenient places
 the application of it in the two most important transport namely railways and air
transport are following:
 railways
 It has been used extensively in the area of railway transport by the developed
nations only
 it has led to the development of computerised wagons,locomotives and train
reporting systems that tracks cargo and wagons throughout their movement which
has enhanced the efficiency and speed of freight opreations enabling railways to
plan the movement of wagons much more effectively
 It has also improved considerably short term train planning
 Railways can now publish automated time-table giving details of trains operating
between different stations,train timings etc.
 Air transport
 The business values of it application in airport is in the form of cost
cutting,increased operational efficiency and enhanced security among the benefits
that it offers.
 the concept of e-ticket also beneficial for both the customers and the carrier.
 wireless communication can enable airports processes to be effective earlier in
the travel chain without any physical service desk.
 Gis (geographical information system) adds value & offer considerable cost
benefits.
 Decision support system (dss) are essential tools of airport management.
Information Technology in banking in financial sector
 tremendous improvement has taken place in the Indian banking sector because of
the it revolution. All the private & foreign banks have gone for 100%
computerization.
 With the help of computerization the transaction take place at a faster rate & the
wating time of a customer in a queue is getting minimized.
 The cost incurred on infrastructure, furniture & employees has got decreased
because of application of it.
 In the financial sector, other services such as insurance, leasing companies,
mortgage companies, investment consistency, stock exchanges, share registery &
custodial services like depositaries process large volume of data.
 The banking & insurance companies use the it to keep track of their customers,
transactions & financial needs.
 Stock market use it for on line trading with the help of computer based terminals
connected to ‘trading servers’.
 Investment consultancy services use computer based systems for analysis of
financial positions, investment oppurtunities available to their customers.

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 it is changing the very concept of cash & credit throught the world. The
following technological advancements have taken place in world of business
payments:
 Electronic funds transfer (eft) : it covers a wide range of transaction services
Automated teller machines (atm)
 Atms, though operational in the country for quite some time, are expected to
make a big head-way in india.
'Virtual' bank
 Multimedia technology has been quite effective in bringing the banking services
to the door-step of its customers.
Electronic funds transfer at point of sale (eftpos)
 While travellers' cheques meant 'pay-now-buy-later' and credit cards had 'buy-
now-pay-later' advantages, eftpos or debit cards signify 'buy-now-pay-now' but
without cash transaction. The user presents his atm card when he buys goods and
the eftpos system immediately debits his bank account.

Electronic data interchange (edi)

 Edi typically denotes paperless financial transactions across the locations. Edi is
fast becoming the norm for inter-company transactions and also for procurement
of boughtout items from the suppliers. The companies can now operate their bank
accounts through corporate banking terminals in their own offices which are
linked to the bank computers. Companies can thus carry out transactions like
transferring funds, managing its cash flow, opening letters of credit,etc.
Smart cards
 The 'processor' type smart cards with in-built integrated circuits (ics) or micro-
chips offer a wide range of transactional opportunities even from remote areas.
The smart cards are extensively being used for employee 'clocking in',
withdrawing cash from atm, using pay-phones, payment of various bills, etc.
********
INTERNET SERVICES
Introduction
WWW Terminology
 Home page
• The cover page for a Web site that has graphics, titles, coloured
text, etc.
 Hypermedia
• Tools that connect the data on Web pages, allowing users to access
topics in whatever order they wish
 Hypertext markup language (HTML)
• The standard page description language for Web pages
The internet
 A network of networks
 The internet transmits data from one computer (called a host) to another
 Internet networks

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 Linked networks that work much the same way -- they pass data around in
packets, each of which carries the addresses of its sender and receiver
 A global network connecting millions of computers. As of 1999, the Internet has
more than 200 million users worldwide, and that number is growing rapidly.
More than 100 countries are linked into exchanges of data, news and opinions.
Steps to connect to internet
 1. Goto Network connections>create new connection in control Panel.
2. Select connect to internet between the options provided.
3. Select Broadband in the sub-menu.
4. Enter user-name and password for your connection, you can also give the
name to the connection as you want.
5. Click on Connect/Finish.

INTERNET SERVICES
 Internet telephony
 Also called voice-over-IP (VOIP)
 Technology that enables network managers to route phone calls
and fax transmissions over the same network they use for data
 Content streaming
 A method for transferring multimedia files over the Internet so that
the data stream of voice and pictures plays continuously, without a
break, or very few of them
 It also enables users to browse large files in real time
 World Wide Web
 The World Wide Web (WWW), or just “the Web”, is a repository of
linked information spread all over the world. The WWW has a unique
combination of flexibility, portability and user-friendly features that
distinguish it from other services provided by the Internet. The WWW
today is a distributed client-server service in which a client using a
browser can access a service using a server. However, the service
provided is distributed over many locations, called web sites.
 Electronic-mail
 Let us first discuss electronic mail (e-mail). Ironically, this first
application that we discuss in this section cannot be supported by one
client process and one server process. The reason is that e-mail is
exchange of messages between two entities. Although the sender of the e-
mail can be a client program, the receiver cannot be the corresponding
server, because that implies that the receiver must let their computer run
all the time, as they do not know when an e-mail will arrive. For this
purpose, e-mail architecture is designed as shown in Figure 6.20.
 Mail access protocols
 Stored e-mail remains on the mail server until it is retrieved by the
recipient through an access protocol. Currently two e-mail access
protocols are in common use: Post Office Protocol, Version 3
(POP3) and Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP).
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

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File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism for one of the
most common tasks on the Internet, copying a file from one computer to
another.
 Remote login – TELNET
 The main task of the application layer is to provide services for users. One
way to satisfy these demands is to create different client-server application
programs for each desired service. Programs such as file transfer programs
(FTP and SMTP), and so on are already available. However, it would be
impossible to write a client-server program for each specific application.
 TELNET is a general-purpose client-server program that lets a user
access any application program on a remote computer. In other words, it
allows the user to log onto a remote computer. After logging on, a user can
use the services available on the remote computer and transfer the results
back to the local computer.
 Videoconferencing
 Videoconferencing can eliminate the cost of traveling, and save time and
energy, by providing communication between two or more groups of
participants or a set of individual participants.
 Group discussion Listservs

 Another popular class of applications is listservs, which allow a group of

users to discuss a common topic of interest.
 Chat
o Another popular class of Internet application is chat. This is a real-time
application like videoconferencing, in which two or more parties are
involved in an exchange of text and optionally audio and video. The two
parties can send text to each other, talk to each other (the same way as
they might talk on the phone), and even see each other with suitable
cameras.
 Electronic Commerce
• Conducting of business communication and transactions over networks
and through computers.
• Electronic commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services, and
the transfer of funds, through digital communications.
• EC also includes all inter-company and “intra-company functions” (such
as marketing, finance, manufacturing, selling, and negotiation)
 Mailing List
o A mailing list is a collection of names and addresses used by an
individual or an organization to send material to multiple recipients.
The term is often extended to include the people subscribed to such a
list, so the group of subscribers is referred to as "the mailing list", or
simply "the list".
 Usenet
o Usenet resembles a bulletin board system (BBS) in many respects, and
is the precursor to the various Internet forums that are widely used

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today. Usenet can be superficially regarded as a hybrid between email

and web forums. Discussions are threaded, with modern news reader
software, as with web forums and BBSes, though posts are stored on
the server sequentially.
**********
INTRANET
 An internal corporate network built using Internet and World Wide Web
standards and products that allows employees of an organization to gain access to
corporate information
 A network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet) belonging to an organization,
usually a corporation, accessible only by the organization's members, employees,
or others with authorization. An intranet's Web sites look and act just like any
other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized
access.
 Like the Internet itself, intranets are used to share information.
 Secure intranets are now the fastest-growing segment of the
 Internet because they are much less expensive to build and manage than private
networks based on proprietary protocols.

Characteristics of Intranet
1. An open, multi-way communication vehicle: Top Down, Bottom Up, Peer-to-Peer
2. A facilitator of enterprise collaboration
3. An executor of business transactions
4. A tool that positively impacts every job in your company
5. A gateway to business knowledge
6. A digital reflection of the values of the company
7. Serves to build enterprise community
8. Transparent governance, management and strategy
9. An engaging space
10. Available where your employees need it

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STUDY OF WORD PROCESSOR

What it is ?
 The term word-processing describes use of hardware and software to create, edit,
view, format,store,retrieve and print documetns. A word-processing package
enables us to do all these on a computer system.
Commonly Supported Features
 Today’s work processing packages normally support the features as follow:
o Entering Text
 allows you to enter text with computer’s keyboard. Every character
displayed immediately on screen.
 Word-wrap – when current line is full and text that follows is
moved automatically to next line.

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o Editing Text
 Allows you to make changes in an already entered document. Two
modes are possible.
 Insert mode – new characters types are inserted in the text
ar cursor’s posigion.
 Type-over mode - new characters typed, replace the
existing characters at cursor’s position.
 Delete key
 to delete characters to the right of cursor.
 Backspace key
 To delete characters to the left of cursor.
 Cut-and-paste facility
 Allows you to move a block of text from one place to
another within a document or ven between documents.
o Formatting Page Style
 Allows you to define page layout format for a document.
Definition of a page layout format may include
 Space to be left for left, right, top and bottom page margins.
 Default spacing between two lines.
 Automatic numbering of pages with page number style and
page number position.
 Automatic placement of header and footer labels on each
page.
 Setting text in multiple columns on a single page. Used by
newsletter and newspaper printing.
 Style sheets – create and store multiple standard page
format styles like memos, letters, reports, books, etc.
o Formatting Text
 Allows you to format portions of text in a document to improve its
general appearance and readability. It normally includes
 Selection of an appropriate font – a font is a complete set of
characters with same style and size. Different fonts may be
applied to different portions of the same document.
 Selection of an appropriate font size – font size is measured
in points. Different font sizes may be applied to different
portions of the same document.
 Selecting an appropriate font style – used to highlight
individual words, phrases or portions of text in a document.
(italic, bold, underline).
 Selecting an appropriate justification – alignment of text on
left or right margin, or on both margins.
o Left-justification – beginning of lines are aligned
with left margin.
o Right-justification – end of lines are aligned with
right margin.

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o Full-justification – all lines are aligned properly

with both left and rignt margins.
o Center- justification – lines are placed at the center
of a line with equal spacing on both its left and right
ends.
 Indenting text appropriately wherever desired
o Used often at the beginning of a paragaraphy or to
set aside some portion of text from the main text in
a document or to enter text in tabular form. (Tab
stops are used).
 Creating numbered or bulleted list of items
o Allows descriptive items to be presented as a
numbered or bulleted list for better comprehension
and readability.
o Entering Mathematical Symbols
 Several scientific and engineering documents often use
mathematical symbols. This feature allows you to enter complex
mathematical equations using mathematical symbols.

o Displaying Documents
 Alows you to display contents of a document on computer’s
monitor screen. For editing the displayed text, you can move text
cursor to the desired position in the document (scrolling).
 Word-processing packages are of two types
 WYSIWYG facility – What You See Is What You Get –
display a document in a form that closely resembles what
printed document will look like.
 Ordinary text display facility – display ordinary text only.
 Preview facility – permits you to see what the document will look
like when printed.
o Saving, Retrieving and Deleting Documents
 Allows you to save a document on a secondary storage and retrieve
it later for reuse. First time saving requires name.
 Deleting permanently remove the document from secondary
storage.
 Retrieving – resuse the document by spefying its file name.
o Printing Documents
 Allows you to pring a document on a printer. Facilities are
 Selective printing
 Single-sided or double-sided printing
 Portrait and landscpe modes of printing
 Previewing a document before printing it
o Importing Text, Graphics and Images
 Allows you to import text, graphics and images from some other
document into a document that you are working on currently.

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o Searching and Replacing Text String

 Searching enables you to quickly search for all occurrences of a
specific word, phrase or group of characters in a document.
 Search and replace feature enables you to perform selective or
global replacement of a specific word, phrase or group of
characters with a new set of characters.
o Checking Spelling
 Allow you to ensure your document does not contain any
misspelled word. A spell checker compares every word in your
document with pre-stored words in its electronic dictionary and
alerts you if no match is found.
 You choose any of the following
 Correct the cpelling
 Ask the spell checker to give you a list of words with
similar spelling.
 Word spelt correctly, but not in dictionary.
o Checking Grammar and Style
 Enables you to correct grammatical mistakes and use of improper
writing styles in yout document. Features are
 Highlighting use of double words
 Highlighting phrases with redundant words
 Highlighting misuse of capital letters
 Highlighting text with subject and verb mismatches
 Highlighting punctuation errors
 Highlighting sentences written in passive voice rather than
active voice
Mail Merge
Start a mail merge. To do this, follow these steps, as appropriate for the version of Word
that you are running.
Microsoft Word 2002
On the Tools menu, click Letters and Mailings, and then click Mail Merge Wizard.
Microsoft Office Word 2003
On the Tools menu, click Letters and Mailings, and then click Mail Merge.
Microsoft Office Word 2007
On the Mailings tab, click Start Mail Merge, and then click Step by Step Mail Merge
Wizard.
Select document type
1. In the Mail Merge task pane, click Letters. This will allow you to send letters to a
group of people and personalize the results of the letter that each person receives.
2. Click Next: Starting document.
Select the starting document
1. Click one of the following options:
o Use the current document
o Start from a template
o Start from existing document
2. In the Mail Merge task pane, click Next: Select recipients.

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Select recipients
When you open or create a data source by using the Mail Merge Wizard, you are telling
Word to use a specific set of variable information for your merge. Use one of the
following methods to attach the main document to the data source.
Method 1: Use an existing data source
To use an existing data source, follow these steps:
1. In the Mail Merge task pane, click Use an existing list.
2. In the Use an existing list section, click Browse.
3. In the Select Data Source dialog box, select the file that contains the variable
information that you want to use, and then click Open.
4. Click OK to return to the main document.
5. Save the main document.
6. Type the name that you want to give to your main document, and then click Save.
Method 2: Use names from a Microsoft Outlook Contacts List
To use an Outlook Contact List, follow these steps:
1. In the Mail Merge task pane, click Next: Select recipients.
2. Click Select from Outlook contacts.
3. In the Select from Outlook contacts section, click Choose Contacts Folder.
4. In the Select Contact List Folder dialog box, select the Outlook contacts folder
that you want, and then click OK.
Word displays the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box. You can sort and edit your
data if you want.
5. Click OK to return to the main document.
Method 3: Create a database of names and addresses
To create a new database, follow these steps:
1. In the Mail Merge task pane, click Next: Select Recipients.
2. Click Type a new list.
3. Click Create.
4. After you type the information for a record, click New Entry to move to the next
record.
5. In the New Address List dialog box, click OK. In the Save Address List dialog
box, type the name that you want to give to your data source in the File name box,
and then click Save.
6. In the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box, make any changes that you want, and
then click OK.
7. Click Next: Write your letter to finish setting up your letter.
8. Save the main document.
9. Type the name that you want to give to your main document, and then click Save.
To proceed to the next step, click Next: Write your letter.
Write your letter
In this step, you set up your main document.
1. Type or add any text and graphics that you want to include in your letter.
2. Add the field codes where you want the variable information to appear. In the
Mail Merge task pane, you have four options:
o Address block: Use this option to insert a formatted address.
o Greeting line: Use this option to insert a formatted salutation.

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o Electronic postage: Use this option to insert electronic postage.

o More items: Use this option to insert individual merge fields. When you
click More Items, the Insert Merge Field dialog box appears.
In the Insert Merge Field dialog box, click the merge field that you want to
use, and then click Insert.
3. When you finish editing the main document, click Save or Save As on the File
menu.
Name the file, and then click Save. To proceed to the next step, click Next:
Preview your letters.
Preview your letters
This step allows you to preview your merged data, one letter at a time. You can also
make changes to your recipient list or personalize individual letters.
To proceed to the next step, click Next: Complete the merge.
Complete the merge
This step merges the variable information with the form letter. You can output the merge
result by using either of the following options:
 Print: Select this option to send the merged document directly to the printer. You
will not be able to view the document on your screen.
 Edit individual letters: Select this option to display the merged document on
your screen.
To print the file, on the File menu, click Print.
********

SPREADSHEET
What it is ?
o Spreadsheet is a numerical data analysis tool that allows us to create a
computerized ledger. A manual ledger is a book having rows and columns
that accountants use for keeping record of financial transactions and
preparing financial statements.
o Accountants use pencil, erasure and hand calculator to prepare financial
statements using manual ledger. This is a tedious task and often takes a
long time to come out with an acceptable and satisfactory financial
statement, due to several iterations of formula calculations.
o A spreadsheet offers considerable ease of performing such tasks by
automating all arithmetic calculations and making it easier to change
certain numerical values and seeing the effect of these changes across the
worksheet immediately.
o Whereas paper ledgers were tools for accountants, spreadsheets are tools
for anyone who needs to record, organize or analyze numbers as rows and
columns of data. Some typical uses of spreadsheets are:
 For maintaining and analyzing inventory, payroll and other
accounting records by accountants
 For preparing budgets and bid comparisons by business analysts
 For recording grades of students and carrying out various types of
analysis of grades by educators

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 For analyzing experimental results by scientists and researchers

 For tracking stocks and keeping records of investor accounts by
stockbrokers
 For creating and tracking personal budgets, loan payments etc. by
individuals
Commonely Supported Features
 Rows and columns
o A spreadsheet is organized in a tabular form with rows and columns,
numbers are used to identify rows, whereas letters are used to identify
columns. A large spreadsheet may have hundreds of rows and columns.
 Cells
o The intersection of a row and a column is called a cell, it identified by its
address, which is a combination of its column letter and row number. Data
are stored in cells.
 Range of Cells
o A range of cells may involve many cells and entering every individual cell
address for an operation to be performed on them may be cumbersome and
time taking.
o Types of cell ranges
 Row Range – include a set of adjacent cells in the same row
 Column Range – include a set of adjacent cells in the same column
 Block Range – include a set of adjacent cells in a rectangular group
of cells
 Cell Contents
o Different types of data can be entered in a cell. The four commonly used
types of cell data are
 Label – any string of alphanumeric text. Used to enter either
alphanumeric values in cells or descriptive data or titles to make
the contents easier to understand.
 Numeric Value – it is a number on which the spreadsheet can
perform calculations.
 Formula – include numbers, mathematical operators and
mathematical fucntions.
 Date and Time – used in a spreadsheet to display the actual date
and time, whenever the spreadsheet is opened for use, or if
calculations are to be made based on date or time.
 Relative and Absolute Cell Addresses
o When a formula entered in a cell has references to other cells, by default,
the references are relative to the cell having the formula.
o If a formula requires a cell address that should not change even when the
formula is copied to other cells, absolute cell addressing is used.
o Depending on the requirement, a cell reference can be made fully or
partially absolute
 Precede both the column and letter and row number of the cell with
a dollar sign to make both column and row references asolute.

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 Precede only the column letter of the cell with a dollar sign to
make only the column reference absolute.
 Precede only the row number of the cell with a dollar sign to make
only the row reference absolute.
 Spreadsheet Commands
o Spreadsheet packages provide a set of commands to enable you to perform
many different operations.
 Copy and move commands enable you to copy/move the contents
of one or more cells to some other cells.
 Insert and delete commands enable you to add/remove a column or
row anywhere in your spreadsheet.
 Format commands enable you to control the way cell contents are
displayed.
 Save and retrieve commands enable you to store the format and
data of an already created spreadsheet on a disk and to retrieve it
later for updates and analyses.
 Print command enables you to generate a hard copy of all or part
of a spreadsheet.
 Spreadsheet Graphics
o Enables you to create graphs and charts from numerical data stored in a
spreadsheet. Useful in presenting spreadsheet data in easier to understand
vidual forms, because most people find it difficult to interpret a table of
numbers.
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