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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

17 views122 pages

My Sqleeeeeeeeeeee

dffffffffffddcdcdcdcdvcfdvcfv

Uploaded by

Vijay Putta

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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23/09/2021, 17:52 Revolutionizing the Job Market | NxtWave

Introduction > Introduction to Databases Cheat Sheet

Introduction to Databases

Concepts in Focus

Data
Database
Database Management System(DBMS)
Advantages
Types of Databases
Relational Database
Non-Relational Database

Data

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Any sort of information that is stored is called data.

Examples:

Messages & multimedia on WhatsApp

Products and orders on Amazon

Contact details in telephone directory, etc.

Database

An organised collection of data is called a database.

Database Management System (DBMS)

A software that is used to easily store and access data from the database in a secure way.

Advantages

Security: Data is stored & maintained securely.

Ease of Use: Provides simpler ways to create & update data at the rate it is generated and updated
respectively.

Durability and Availability: Durable and provides access to all the clients at any point in time.
Performance: Quickly accessible to all the clients(applications and stakeholders).

Types of Databases

There are different types of databases based on how we organize the data.

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Relational Database

In relational databases, the data is organised in the form of tables.

Non-Relational Database

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These four types are commonly referred as non-relational databases.

Note

Choice of database depends on our requirements.

Relational database is the most commonly used database.

Relational DBMS

is a DBMS designed specifically for relational databases. Relational

Relational DBMS
databases organise the data in the form of tables.

Examples: Oracle, PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQLite, SQL Server, IBM DB2, etc.

Non-Relational DBMS

is a DBMS designed specifically for non-relational databases. Non-

Non-relational DBMS
relational databases store the data in a non-tabular form.

Examples: Elasticsearch, CouchDB, DynamoDB, MongoDB, Cassandra, Redis, etc.

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Introduction to SQL

We have already learnt that databases and DBMS are key to organising and analysing data for business uses.
From here on, let’s get busy working around with databases using SQL!

SQL stands for Structured Query Language

SQL is used to perform operations on Relational DBMS.
SQL is declarative. Hence, easy to learn.

SQL provides multiple clauses (commands) to perform various operations like create, retrieve, update and delete the data.

The first step towards working with the database would be creating a table.

Create Table

Creates a new table in the database.

Syntax

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE table_name (
2 column1 type1,
3 column2 type2,
4 ...
5 );

Here,

type1 and type2 in the syntax are the datatypes of column1 and column2 respectively. Datatypes that are supported in SQL
are mentioned below.

Example

Create a

player table to store the following details of players.

column_name data_type

name VARCHAR(200)

age INT/INTEGER

score INT/INTEGER

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE player (
2 name VARCHAR(200),
3 age INTEGER,
4 score INTEGER
5 );

We can check the details of the created table at any point in time using the

PRAGMA command (mentioned below).

Try it Yourself!

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Assume that we have to build a database that stores all the information about the students in a school, subjects, exam schedules, etc. Lets build a
few tables to store the data!

1. Create a student table to store the following details of students.

details data_type

name VARCHAR(200)

date_of_birth DATE

address TEXT

2. Create an exam_schedule table to store the information about exams.

details data_type

name VARCHAR(200)

course VARCHAR(200)

exam_date_time DATETIME

duration_in_sec INT

pass_percentage FLOAT

Data Types

Following data types are frequently used in SQL.

Data Type Syntax

Integer INTEGER / INT

Float FLOAT

String VARCHAR

Text TEXT

Date DATE

Time TIME

Datetime DATETIME

Boolean BOOLEAN

Note

1. Boolean values are stored as integers 0 (FALSE) and 1 (TRUE).

2. Date object is represented as: ‘YYYY-MM-DD’
3. Datetime object is represented as: ‘YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS’

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PRAGMA

PRAGMA TABLE_INFO command returns the information about a specific table in a database.

Syntax

SQL
1 PRAGMA TABLE_INFO(table_name);

Example

Let's find out the information of the

employee table that's present in the database.

SQL
1 PRAGMA TABLE_INFO(employee);

Output

cid name type notnull dflt_value pk

0 employee_id INTEGER 0 0

1 name VARCHAR(200) 0 0

2 salary INTEGER 0 0

Note

If the given table name does not exist, PRAGMA TABLE_INFO doesn’t give any result.

Try it Yourself!

Try checking out the information of the tables that you have created above.

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Inserting Rows

INSERT clause is used to insert new rows in a table.

Syntax

SQL
1 INSERT INTO
2 table_name (column1, column2,..., columnN)
3 VALUES
4 (value11, value12,..., value1N),
5 (value21, value22,..., value2N),
6 ...;

Any number of rows from 1 to n can be inserted into a specified table using the above syntax.

Database
Let's learn more about the INSERT clause by going hands-on on the

player and match_details tables that store the details of players and matches in a tournament respectively.
player table stores the name, age and score of players.

match_details table stores name of team, opponent team name, place, date and match result

Examples

1. Insert name , age and score of 2 players in the player table.

SQL
1 INSERT INTO
2 player (name, age, score)
3 VALUES
4 ("Rakesh", 39, 35),
5 ("Sai", 47, 30);

Upon executing the above code, both the entries would be added to the

player table.

Let's view the added data!

We can retrieve the inserted data by using the following command.

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM player;

We shall know more about retrieving data in further cheat sheets.

2. Similarly, let's insert the details of 2 matches in the match_details table.

SQL
1 INSERT INTO
2 match_details (team_name, played_with, venue, date, is_won)
3 VALUES
4 ("CSK", "MI", "Chennai", "2020-04-21", true),
5 ("SRH", "RR", "Hyderabad", "2020-04-23", true);

Note

1. Boolean values can be either given as (TRUE or FALSE) or (1 or 0). But in the database, the values are stored
as 1 or 0.
2. Date object is represented as: ‘YYYY-MM-DD’
3. Datetime object is represented as: ‘YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS’

Possible Mistakes

Mistake 1

The number of values that we're inserting must match with the number of column names that are specified in the query.
SQL
1 INSERT INTO
2 player(name, age, score)
3 VALUES
4 ("Virat", 31);

SQL
1 Error: 2 values for 3 columns

Mistake 2

We have to specify only the existing tables in the database.

SQL
1 INSERT INTO
2 players_information(name, age, score)
3 VALUES
4 ("Virat", 31, 30);

SQL
1 Error: no such table: players_information

Mistake 3

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Do not add additional parenthesis

() post VALUES keyword in the code.

SQL
1 INSERT INTO
2 player (name, age, score)
3 VALUES
4 (("Rakesh", 39, 35), ("Sai", 47, 30));

SQL
1 Error: 2 values for 3 columns

Mistake 4

While inserting data, be careful with the datatypes of the input values. Input value datatype should be same as the
column datatype.
SQL
1 INSERT INTO
2 player(name, age, score)
3 VALUES
4 ("Virat", 31, "Hundred");

Warning

If the datatype of the input value doesn't match with the datatype of column, SQLite doesn't raise an error.

Try it Yourself!

Three new players have joined the tournament. Try inserting the players' data in the player table.

name age score

Ram 28 70

Sita 25 30

Ravi 30 53

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Retrieving Data

SELECT clause is used to retrieve rows from a table.

Database
The database consists of a

table that stores the details of players who are a part of a tournament.
player player table stores the
name, age and score of players.

Let's explore more about the SELECT clause using the database!

Selecting Specific Columns

To retrieve the data of only specific columns from a table, add the respective column names in the SELECT clause.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 column1,
3 column2,
4 ...,
5 columnN
6 FROM
7 table_name;

Example

Let's fetch the

name and age of the players from the player table.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 age
4 FROM
5 player;

Output

name age

Virat 32

Rakesh 39

name age

Sai 47

--- ---

Selecting All Columns

Sometimes, we may want to select all the columns from a table. Typing out every column name, for every time we have
to retrive the data, would be a pain.
We have a shortcut for this!

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table_name;

Example

Get all the data of players from the

player table.
SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM player;

Output

name age score

Virat 32 50

Rakesh 39 35

Sai 47 30

--- --- ---

Selecting Specific Rows

We use WHERE clause to retrieve only specific rows.

Syntax

SQL
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SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table_name
3 WHERE condition;

WHERE clause specifies a condition that has to be satisfied for retrieving the data from a database.

Example

Get

name and age of the player whose name is "Ram" from the player table.
SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM player
3 WHERE name="Sai";

Output

name age score

Sai 47 30

Try it Yourself!

The database consists of an

employee table that stores the employee_id , name and salary of employees. Let's fetch data for the
following queries.

1. Get all the data from the employee table.

2. Get name and salary of all the employees from the employee table.
3. Get employee_id and salary whose name is "Raju" from the employee table.

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Concepts in Focus

Update Rows
SQL – Case Insensitive

Database
The database consists of a

player table that stores the details of players who are a part of a tournament. player table stores the
name, age and score of players.

Update Rows

UPDATE clause is used to update the data of an existing table in database. We can update all the rows
or only specific rows as per the requirement.
Update All Rows

Syntax

SQL
1 UPDATE
2 table_name
3 SET
4 column1 = value1;

Example:

Update the

score of all players to 100 in the player table.

SQL
1 UPDATE
2 player
3 SET
4 score = 100;

Update Specific Rows

Syntax

SQL
1 UPDATE
2 table_name
3 SET
4 column1 = value1
5 WHERE
6 column2 = value2;

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Example

Update the

score of "Ram" to 150 in the player table.

SQL
1 UPDATE
2 player
3 SET
4 score = 150
5 WHERE
6 name = "Ram";

Try it Yourself!

The database contains a

student table that stores the information of name, percentage and scholarship amount of students.

1. Update the scholarship_amount of all students to 15000 in the student table.

2. Update the scholarship_amount of "Raju" to 25000 in the student table.

SQLite is Case Insensitive!

Query 1
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 player;

Query 2
SQL
1 select
2 *
3 from
4 player;

Note

Best Practice: Both Query 1 and Query 2 gives the same output. But, it is recommended to write keywords in upper case to
make the query more readable. Prefer Query 1 format over Query 2.

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Concepts in Focus

Delete Rows
Drop Table

Database
The database consists of a

player table that stores the details of players who are a part of a tournament. player table stores the name,
age and score of players.

Delete Rows

DELETE clause is used to delete existing records from a table.

Delete All Rows

Syntax

SQL
1 DELETE FROM
2 table_name;

Example

Delete all the rows from the

player table.
SQL
1 DELETE FROM
2 player;

Delete Specific Rows

Syntax

SQL
1 DELETE FROM
2 table_name
3 WHERE
4 column1 = value1;

Example

Delete "Shyam" from the

player table. Note: We can uniquely identify a player by name.

SQL
1 DELETE FROM

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2 player
3 WHERE
4 name = "Shyam";

Warning

We can not retrieve the data once we delete the data from the table.

Drop Table

DROP clause is used to delete a table from the database.

Syntax

SQL
1 DROP TABLE table_name;

Example

Delete

player table from the database.

SQL
1 DROP TABLE player;

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Alter Table

ALTER clause is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table. Let's learn more about ALTER
clause using the following database.

Database
The database consists of a

playertable that stores the details of players who are a part of a tournament. player table stores the name,
age and score of players.

Add Column

Syntax

SQL
1 ALTER TABLE
2 table_name
3 ADD
4 column_name datatype;

You can use PRAGMA TABLE_INFO(table_name) command to check the updated schema of the table.

Example

Add a new column

jersey_num of type integer to the player table.

SQL
1 ALTER TABLE
2 player
3 ADD
4 jersey_num INT;

Note

Default values for newly added columns in the existing rows will be NULL.

Rename Column

Syntax

SQL
1 ALTER TABLE
bl
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2 table_name RENAME COLUMN c1 TO c2;

Example

Rename the column

jersey_num in the player table to jersey_number .

SQL
1 ALTER TABLE
2 player RENAME COLUMN jersey_num TO jersey_number;

Drop Column

Syntax

SQL
1 ALTER TABLE
2 table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

Example

Remove the column

jersey_number from the player table.

SQL
1 ALTER TABLE
2 player DROP COLUMN jersey_number;

Note

DROP COLUMN is not supported in some DBMS, including SQLite.

Try it Yourself!

1. Add a new column id of type int to the player table.

2. Update the name of column id to player_id in the player table.

MARKED AS COMPLET

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Comparison Operators

In a typical e-commerce scenario, users would generally filter the products with good ratings, or want to purchase the
products of a certain brand or of a certain price.
Let's see how comparison operators are used to filter such kind of data using the following database.

Database
The database contains a

table that stores the data of products like name, category, price, brand and rating. You can check the
product
schema and data of product table in the code playground.

Comparison Operators

Operator Description

= Equal to

<> Not equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

Examples

1. Get all the details of the products whose category is "Food" from the product table.
SQL
1 SELECT

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2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 category = "Food";

Output

name category price brand rating

Chocolate Cake Food 25 Britannia 3.7

Strawberry Cake Food 60 Cadbury 4.1

Chocolate Cake Food 60 Cadbury 2.5

... ... ... ... ...

2. Get all the details of the products that does not belong to Food category from the product table.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 category <> "Food";

Output

name category price brand rating

Blue Shirt Clothing 750 Denim 3.8

Blue Jeans Clothing 800 Puma 3.6

Black Jeans Clothing 750 Denim 4.5

... ... ... ... ...

Similarly, we can use other comparison operators like greater than (>), greater than or equal to (>=), less than (<), less
than or equal to (<=) to filter the data as per the requirement.

Try it Yourself!

Put your learning into practice and try fetching the products based on the conditions mentioned.

Write a query for each of the below conditions.

1. rating greater than 4.5

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2. price is less than or equal to 1000

3. brand is "Puma"

4. that does not belong to "Gadgets" category

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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String Operations

Consider the case of e-commerce platforms. We generally search for the products on the basis of product name. But while
searching, we need not enter the full name. For example, typing “mobiles” in a search bar will fetch thousands of results. How
to get the data on the basis of only a part of the string? Let’s learn about it!

Database
The database contains a

table that stores the data of products like name, category, price, brand and rating. You can check the
product
schema and data of product table in the code playground.

LIKE Operator

LIKE operator is used to perform queries on strings. This operator is especially used in WHERE clause to
retrieve all the rows that match the given pattern.

We write

patterns using the following wildcard characters :

Symbol Description Example

Percent sign ( % ) Represents zero or more characters ch% finds ch, chips, chocolate..

Underscore ( _ ) Represents a single character _at finds mat, hat and bat

Common Patterns

Pattern Example Description

WHERE name LIKE

Exact Match Retrieves products whose name is exactly equals to "mobiles"
"mobiles"
WHERE name LIKE
Starts With Retrieves products whose name starts with "mobiles"
"mobile%"
WHERE name LIKE
Ends With Retrieves products whose name ends with "mobiles"
"%mobile"
WHERE name LIKE
Contains Retrieves products whose name contains with "mobiles"
"%mobile%"
Pattern WHERE name LIKE Retrieves products whose name starts with "a" and have at least 2
Matching "a_%" characters in length

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 table name
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4 table_name
5 WHERE
6 c1 LIKE matching_pattern;

Examples

1. Get all the products in the "Gadgets" category from the product table.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 category LIKE "Gadgets";

Output

name category price brand rating

Smart Watch Gadgets 17000 Apple 4.9

Smart Cam Gadgets 2600 Realme 4.7

Smart TV Gadgets 40000 Sony 4.0

Realme Smart Band Gadgets 3000 Realme 4.6

2. Get all the products whose name starts with "Bourbon" from the product table.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 name LIKE "Bourbon%";

Here

% represents that, following the string "Bourbon", there can be 0 or more characters.

Output

name category price brand rating

Bourbon Small Food 10 Britannia 3.9

Bourbon Special Food 15 Britannia 4.6

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name category price brand rating

Bourbon With Extra Cookies Food 30 Britannia 4.4

3. Get all smart electronic products i.e., name contains "Smart" from the product table.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 name LIKE "%Smart%";

Here,

% before and after the string "Smart" represents that there can be 0 or more characters succeeding or
preceding the string.

Output

name category price brand rating

Smart Watch Gadgets 17000 Apple 4.9

Smart Cam Gadgets 2600 Realme 4.7

Smart TV Gadgets 40000 Sony 4

Realme Smart Band Gadgets 3000 Realme 4.6

4. Get all the products which have exactly 5 characters in brand from the product table.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 brand LIKE "_____";

Output

name category price brand rating

Blue Shirt Clothing 750 Denim 3.8

Black Jeans Clothing 750 Denim 4.5

Smart Watch Gadgets 17000 Apple 4.9

... ... ... ... ...

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Note

The percent sign(%) is used when we are not sure of the number of characters present in the string.
If we know the exact length of the string, then the wildcard character underscore(_) comes in handy.

Try it Yourself!

Put your learning into practice and try fetching the products based on the different patterns:

Write a query for each of the below patterns.

category is exactly equal "Food".

name containing "Cake".
name ends with "T-Shirt".

name contains "Chips".

category contains exactly 4 characters.

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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Logical Operators

So far, we've used comparison operators to filter the data. But in real-world scenarios, we often have to retrieve the data
using several conditions at once. For example, in the case of e-commerce platforms, users often search for something like:
Get shoes from the Puma brand, which have ratings greater than 4.0 and price less than 5000.

With logical operators, we can perform queries based on multiple conditions. Let's learn how with the following database.

Database
The database contains a

producttable that stores the data of products like name, category, price, brand and rating. You can check
the schema and data of product table in the code playground.

AND, OR, NOT

Operator Description

AND Used to fetch rows that satisfy two or more conditions.

OR Used to fetch rows that satisfy at least one of the given conditions.

NOT Used to negate a condition in the WHERE clause.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 table_name
5 WHERE
6 condition1
7 operator condition2
8 operator condition3
9 ...;

Examples

1. Get all the details of the products whose

category is "Clothing" and

price less than or equal to 1000 from the product table.

SQL
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SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 category = "Clothing"
7 AND price <= 1000;

Output

name category price brand rating

Blue Shirt Clothing 750 Denim 3.8

Blue Jeans Clothing 800 Puma 3.6

Black Jeans Clothing 750 Denim 4.5

... ... ... ... ...

2. Ignore all the products with name containing "Cake" from the list of products.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 NOT name LIKE "%Cake%";

Output

name category price brand rating

Blue Shirt Clothing 750 Denim 3.8

Blue Jeans Clothing 800 Puma 3.6

Black Jeans Clothing 750 Denim 4.5

--- --- --- --- ---

Try it Yourself!

Fetch all the products with price less than 20000 and brand is "Apple".
Fetch all the products with rating greater than 4.0 or brand is "Britannia".
Ignore all the products with category containing "Food" in product table.

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Multiple Logical Operators

We can also use the combinations of logical operators to combine two or more conditions. These compound conditions
enable us to fine-tune the data retrieval requirements.

Precedence

When a query has multiple operators, operator precedence determines the sequence of operations.

Order of precedence:

NOT

AND

Example

Fetch the products that belong to

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Redmi brand and rating greater than 4 or

the products from OnePlus

brand

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 brand = "Redmi"
7 AND rating > 4
8 OR brand = "OnePlus";

In the above query,

AND has the precedence over OR . So, the above query is equivalent to:

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 (brand = "Redmi"
7 AND rating > 4)
8 OR brand = "OnePlus";

Quick Tip

It is suggested to always use parenthesis to ensure correctness while grouping the conditions.

Try it Yourself!

Fetch all the products from "Clothing" category whose name does not contain "Jeans".
Fetch all the products from "Puma" and "Denim" brands excluding the products with name containing "Shirts".
Fetch all the products with price less than 100 or the products from "Food" category excluding the ones
with name containing "Chocolate".

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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IN and BETWEEN Operators

Consider the case of a typical e-commerce scenario. Users generally search for the products that belong to a list of brands, or
the products that lie within a particular price range.

In such scenarios, we use the IN operator to check if a value is present in the list of values. And, BETWEEN operator is used
to check if a particular value exists in the given range.

Let’s learn about these operators in detail using the following database.

Database
The database contains a

table that stores the data of products like name, category, price, brand and rating. You can check the
product
schema and data of product table in the code playground.

IN Operator

Retrieves the corresponding rows from the table if the value of column(c1) is present in the given values(v1,v2,..).

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 table_name
5 WHERE
6 c1 IN (v1, v2,..);

Example

Get the details of all the products from

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product table, where the brand is either "Puma", "Mufti", "Levi's", "Lee" or "Denim".
SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 WHERE
6 brand IN ( "Puma", "Levi's", "Mufti", "Lee", "Denim");

Output

name category price brand rating

Blue Shirt Clothing 750 Denim 3.8

Blue Jeans Clothing 800 Puma 3.6

Black Jeans Clothing 750 Denim 4.5

... ... ... ... ...

Try it Yourself!

Get all the products from product table, that belong to "Britannia", "Lay's", "Cadbury" brands from the "Food" category.

BETWEEN Operator

Retrieves all the rows from table that have cloumn(c1) value present between the given range(v1 and v2).

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 table_name
5 WHERE
6 c1 BETWEEN v1
7 AND v2;

Note

BETWEEN operator is inclusive, i.e., both the lower and upper limit values of the range are included.

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Example

Find the products with

price ranging from 1000 to 5000.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 price,
4 brand
5 FROM
6 product
7 WHERE
8 price BETWEEN 1000
9 AND 5000;

Output

name price brand

Blue Shirt 1000 Puma

Smart Cam 2600 Realme

Realme Smart Band 3000 Realme

Possible Mistakes

1. When using the BETWEEN operator, the first value should be less than second value. If not, we'll get an incorrect result
depending on the DBMS.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 price,
4 brand
5 FROM
6 product
7 WHERE
8 price BETWEEN 500
9 AND 300;

Output

name price brand

2. We have to give both lower limit and upper limit while specifying range.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,

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3 price,
4 brand
5 FROM
6 product
7 WHERE
8 price BETWEEN
9 AND 300;

SQL
1 Error: near "AND": syntax error

3. The data type of the column for which we're using the BETWEEN operator must match with the data types of the lower
and upper limits.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 price,
4 brand
5 FROM
6 product
7 WHERE
8 name BETWEEN 300
9 AND 500;

Output

name price brand

Try it Yourself!

Get all the products from product table with rating greater than 4.3 and less than 4.8

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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ORDER BY and DISTINCT

In any e-commerce application, users have the option of sorting the products based on price,
rating, etc. Also, for any product, users could know all the distinct brands available for the
product.
Let's learn how to retrieve such ordered results and unique data!

Database
The database contains a

product table that stores the data of products like name, category, price, brand and
rating. You can check the schema and data of product table in the code playground.

ORDER BY

We use

ORDER BY clause to order rows. By default, ORDER BY sorts the data in

the ascending order .

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 column1,
3 column2,
4 ..columnN
5 FROM
6 table_name [WHERE condition]
7 ORDER BY
8 column1 ASC / DESC,
9 cloumn2 ASC / DESC;

Example

Get all products in the order of lowest

price and highest rating in "Puma" brand.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 price,
4 rating
5 FROM
6 product
7 WHERE
8 brand = "Puma"
9 ORDER BY
10 price ASC,
Expand

Output

name price rating

Black Shirt 600 4.8

Blue Jeans 800 3.6

Blue Shirt 1000 4.3

Try it Yourself!

Get all the shirts from

product table in the descending order of their rating and in the ascending order
of price .

Note: Assusme the products as shirts, if the

name contains "Shirt".

DISTINCT

DISTINCT clause is used to return the distinct i.e unique values.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 DISTINCT column1,
3 column2,..
4 columnN
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5 FROM
6 table_name
7 WHERE
8 [condition];

Example

Get all the brands present in the product table.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 DISTINCT brand
3 FROM
4 product
5 ORDER BY
6 brand;

Output

Brand

Absa

Apple

...

Try it Yourself!

Get a list of distinct categories available in the product table

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Pagination

E-commerce applications like Amazon or Flipkart hold millions of products. But, the user does not require all the available
products every time s/he accesses the application. Infact, fetching all the products takes too long and consumes huge amount
of data.

Using pagination, only a chunk of the data can be sent to the user based on their request. And, the next chunk of data can be
fetched only when the user asks for it.

We use LIMIT & OFFSET clauses to select a chunk of the results

Let's understand more about pagination concept using the following databse.

Database
The database contains a

product table that stores the data of products like name, category, price, brand and rating. You can check the
schema and data of product table in the code playground.

LIMIT

LIMIT clause is used to specify the number of rows(n) we would like to have in result.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 column1,
3 column2,..
4 columnN
5 FROM
6 table_name
7 LIMIT n;

Example

Get the details of 2 top-rated products from the brand "Puma".

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 price,
4 rating

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5 FROM
6 product
7 WHERE
8 brand = "Puma"
9 ORDER BY
10 rating DESC
Expand

Output

name price rating

Black Shirt 600 4.8

Blue Shirt 1000 4.3

Try it Yourself!

Get the 3 lowest priced products from the brand "Puma".

Note

If the limit value is greater than the total number of rows, then all rows will be retrieved.

OFFSET

OFFSET clause is used to specify the position (from nth row) from where the chunk of the results are to be
selected.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 column1,
3 column2,..
4 columnN
5 FROM
6 table_name
7 OFFSET n;

Example

Get the details of 5 top-rated products, starting from 5th row.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 price,
4 rating
5 FROM
6 product
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7 ORDER BY
8 rating DESC
9 LIMIT 5
10 OFFSET 5;

Output

name price rating

Strawberry Cake 10 4.6

Bourbon Special 15 4.6

Realme Smart Band 3000 4.6

Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire 431 4.6

Black Jeans 750 4.5

Possible Mistakes

Using OFFSET before the LIMIT clause.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product OFFSET 2
5 LIMIT 4;

SQL
1 Error: near "2": syntax error

Using only OFFSET clause.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 product
5 OFFSET 2;

SQL
1 Error: near "2": syntax error

Note

OFFSET clause should be placed after the LIMIT clause. Default OFFSET value is 0.

Try it Yourself!

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Get the details of 5 top-rated products, starting from 10th row.

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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Aggregations

Consider the case of sports tournaments like cricket. Players’ performances are analysed based on their batting average,
maximum number of sixes hit, the least score in a tournament, etc.

We perform aggregations in such scenarios to combine multiple values into a single value, i.e., individual scores to an average
score.

Let’s learn more about aggregations to perform insightful analysis using the following database.

Database
The database consists of a player_match_details table that stores the information of players' details in a match like name,
match, score, year, number of fours and sixes scored.

Schema

SQL
1 player_match_details (
2 name VARCHAR(250),
3 match VARCHAR(10),
4 score INTEGER,
5 fours INTEGER,
6 sixes INTEGER,
7 year INTEGER
8 );

Aggregation Functions

Combining multiple values into a single value is called aggregation. Following are the functions provided by SQL to perform
aggregations on the given data:

Aggregate Functions Description

COUNT Counts the number of values

SUM Adds all the values

MIN Returns the minimum value

MAX Returns the maximum value

AVG Calculates the average of the values

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 aggregate_function(c1),
3 aggregate function(c2)
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gg g _ ( )
4 FROM
5 TABLE;

Note

We can calculate multiple aggregate functions in a single query.

Examples

1. Get the total runs scored by "Ram" from the player_match_details table.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 SUM(score)
3 FROM
4 player_match_details
5 WHERE
6 name = "Ram";

Output

SUM(score)

221

2. Get the highest and least scores among all the matches that happened in the year 2011.

SQL
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SQL
1 SELECT
2 MAX(score),
3 MIN(score)
4 FROM
5 player_match_details
6 WHERE
7 year = 2011;

Output

MAX(score) MIN(score)

75 62

COUNT Variants

Calculate the total number of matches played in the tournament.

Variant 1
SQL
1 SELECT COUNT(*)
2 FROM player_match_details;

Variant 2
SQL
1 SELECT COUNT(1)
2 FROM player_match_details;

Variant 3
SQL
1 SELECT COUNT()
2 FROM player_match_details;

Output of Variant 1, Variant 2 and Variant 3

All the variants, i.e.,

Variant 1 , Variant 2 and Variant 3 give the same result: 18

Special Cases

When SUM function is applied on non-numeric data types like strings, date, time, datetime etc., SQLite DBMS
returns 0.0 and PostgreSQL DBMS returns None .

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Aggregate functions on strings and their outputs

Aggregate Functions Output

MIN, MAX Based on lexicographic ordering

SUM, AVG 0 (depends on DBMS)

COUNT Default behavior

NULL values are ignored while computing the aggregation values

When aggregate functions are applied on only

NULL values:

Aggregate Functions Output

MIN NULL

MAX NULL

SUM NULL

COUNT 0

AVG NULL

Alias

Using the keyword

AS , we can provide alternate temporary names to the columns in the output.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 c1 AS a1,
3 c2 AS a2,
4 ...
5 FROM
6 table_name;

Examples

Get all the names of players with column name as "player_name".

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name AS player_name
3 FROM
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4 player_match_details;

Output

player_name

Ram

Joseph

---

Get the average score of players as "avg_score".

SQL
1 SELECT
2 AVG(score) AS avg_score
3 FROM
4 player_match_details;

Output

avg_score

Try it Yourself!

Get the average score of "Ram" in the year 2011.

Get the least score among all the matches.
Get the highest score among the scores of all players in 2014.
Get the total number of sixes hit as sixes_hit

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Group By with Having

Previously, we have learnt to perform aggregations on all the rows of a table. Now, we shall look at how to split a table into
multiple groups and apply aggregation on each group.

The GROUP BY keyword in SQL is used to group rows which have the same values for the mentioned attributes. You can
perform aggregations on these groups to get finer analytics.

HAVING keyword is used to further refine the data by filtering the aggregated values. Let’s explore more about GROUP BY
and HAVING clauses with the following database.

Database

The database consists of

player_match_details table which stores name, match, score, year, number of fours and sixes scored.

Schema
SQL
1 CREATE TABLE player_match_details (
2 name VARCHAR(250),
3 match VARCHAR(250),
4 score INTEGER,
5 fours INTEGER,
6 sixes INTEGER,
7 year INTEGER
8 );

GROUP BY

The

GROUP BY clause in SQL is used to group rows which have same values for the mentioned attributes.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 c1,
3 aggregate_function(c2)
4 FROM
5 table_name
6 GROUP BY c1;

Example

Get the total score of each player in the database.

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SQL
1 SELECT
2 name, SUM(score) as total_score
3 FROM
4 player_match_details
5 GROUP BY name;

Output

name total_score

David 105

Joseph 116

Lokesh 186

... ...

Try it Yourself!

Get the maximum score of each player.

Get the total number of sixes hit by each player.

GROUP BY with WHERE

We use WHERE clause to filter the data before performing aggregation.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
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1 SELECT
2 c1,
3 aggregate_function(c2)
4 FROM
5 table_name
6 WHERE
7 c3 = v1
8 GROUP BY c1;

Example

Get the number of half-centuries scored by each player

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name, COUNT(*) AS half_centuries
3 FROM
4 player_match_details
5 WHERE score >= 50
6 GROUP BY name;

Output

name half_centuries

David 1

Joseph 2

Lokesh 3

... ...

Try it Yourself!

Get year wise number of half-centuries scored by each player.

HAVING

HAVING clause is used to filter the resultant rows after the application of GROUP BY clause.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 c1,
3 c2,
4 aggregate_function(c1)
5 FROM
6 table_name
7 GROUP BY
8 c1, c2
9 HAVING
10 condition;

Example

Get the

name and number of half_centuries of players who scored more than one half century.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 count(*) AS half_centuries
4 FROM
5 player_match_details
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6 WHERE
7 score >= 50
8 GROUP BY
9 name
10 HAVING
Expand

Output

name half_centuries

Lokesh 2

Ram 3

Try it Yourself!

Get the name and number of half-centuries scored by each player who scored at least a half-century in two matches.

Note

WHERE vs HAVING: WHERE is used to filter rows and this operation is performed before grouping. HAVING is used to filter groups and
this operation is performed after grouping.

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Expressions in Querying

We can write expressions in various SQL clauses. Expressions can comprise of various data types like integers, floats, strings,
datetime, etc.

Let's learn more about expressions using the following database.

Database

The IMDb stores various movies, actors and cast information.

Using Expressions in SELECT Clause

1. Get profits of all movies.

Note: Consider profit as the difference between collection and budget.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 id, name, (collection_in_cr-budget_in_cr) as profit
3 FROM
4 movie;

Output

id name profit

1 The matrix 40.31

2 Inception 67.68

3 The Dark Knight 82.5

... ... ...

N t
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Note

We use "||" operator to concatenate strings in sqlite3

2. Get the movie name and genre in the following format: movie_name - genre .
SQL
1 SELECT
2 name || " - " || genre AS movie_genre
3 FROM
4 movie;

Output

movie_genre

The Matrix - Sci-fi

Inception - Action

The Dark Knight - Drama

Toy Story 3 - Animation

...

Using Expressions in WHERE Clause

1. Get all the movies with a profit of at least 50 crores.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 *
3 FROM
4 movie
5 WHERE
6 (collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr) >= 50;

Output

id name genre budget_in_cr collection_in_cr rating

2 Inception Action 16.0 83.68 8.8

The Dark
3 Action 18.0 100.5 9.0
Knight

4 Toy Story 3 Animation 20.0 106.7 8.5

... ... ... ... ... ...

Using Expressions in UPDATE Clause

1. Scale down ratings from 10 to 5 in movie table.

SQL
1 UPDATE movie
2 SET rating = rating/2;

You can check the updation of movie ratings by retriving the data from the table.

Expressions in HAVING Clause

Get all the genres that have average profit greater than 100 crores.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 genre
3 FROM
4 movie
5 GROUP BY
6 genre
7 HAVING
8 AVG(collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr) >= 100;

Output

genre

Action

Animation

Mystery

...

Try it Yourself!

Question 1
Get the profit of every movie with

rating greater than 8.0

Expected Output

id name genre budget_in_cr collection_in_cr rating

1 The Matrix Sci-fi 6.3 46.43 8.7

2 Inception Action 16 83.68 8.8

The Dark
3 Drama 18 100.5 9
Knight

... ... ... ... ... ...

Question 2
Get all the movies having a

profit of at least 30 crores, and belong to "Action", "Animation" or "Drama" genres.

Expected Result

id name genre budget_in_cr collection_in_cr rating

2 Inception Action 16 83.68 8.8

The Dark
3 Drama 18 100.5 9
Knight

4 Toy Story 3 Animation 20 106.7 8.5

... ... ... ... ... ...

Question 3
Scale up the ratings from 5 to 100 in the movie table.

MARKED AS COMPLETE

SQL Functions

SQL provides many built-in functions to perform various operations over data that is stored in tables.
Let's look at a few most commonly used functions in the industry using the following database.

Database
The IMDb dataset stores the information of movies, actors and cast.

Schema

Date Functions

strftime()

strftime() function is used to extract month, year, etc. from a date/datetime field based on a specified format.

Syntax

SQL
1 strftime(format, field_name)

Example

Get the movie title and release year for every movie in the database
SQL
1 SELECT name, strftime('%Y', release_date)
2 FROM
3 movie;

In the above query, we extract year from

release_date by writing strftime('%Y', release_date) in SELECT clause.

Let's understand various formats in date functions with an example.

Consider the datetime

2021-02-28 08:30:05
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format description output format Example

%d Day of the month 01 - 31 28

%H Hour 00 - 24 08

%m Month 01 - 12 02

%j Day of the year 001 - 365 59

%M Minute 00-59 30

... ... ... ...

Example

Get the number of movies released in each month of the year 2010
SQL
1 SELECT
2 strftime('%m', release_date) as month,
3 COUNT(*) as total_movies
4 FROM
5 movie
6 WHERE
7 strftime('%Y', release_date) = '2010'
8 GROUP BY
9 strftime('%m', release_date);

Output

month total_movies

03 2

05 1

06 3

.. ..

As the above example, using strftime(), we can perform weekly, monthly or annual analysis deriving finer insights from the
data.

Try it Yourself!

Question 1
Get the number of "Action" movies released in the year 2010.

Expected Output

total_movies

Question 2
Get all the movies that are released in summer, i.e., between April and June.

Expected Output

name

The Matrix

Toy Story 3

Shutter Island

...

Question 3
Get the month in which the highest number of movies are released.

Expected Output

month total_movies

06 6

CAST Function

CAST function is used to typecast a value to a desired data type.

Syntax

SQL
1 CAST(value AS data_type);

Example

Get the number of movies released in each month of the year 2010
SQL
1 SELECT strftime('%m', release_date) as month,
2 COUNT(*) as total_movies
3 FROM
4 movie
5 WHERE
6 CAST(strftime('%Y', release_date) AS INTEGER) = 2010
7 GROUP BY
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8 strftime('%m', release_date);

Output

month total_movies

03 2

05 1

06 3

.. ..

Here,

CAST(strftime('%Y', release_date) AS INTEGER) converts the year in string format to integer format.

Try it Yourself!

Question 1
Get all the leap years in the database. An year can be marked as a leap year if

1 .It is divisible by 4 and not divisible by 100

2. Or if it is divisible by 400

Expected Output

year

1972

2008

2016

Other Common Functions

Arithmetic Functions

SQL Function Behavior

FLOOR Rounds a number to the nearest integer below its current value

CEIL Rounds a number to the nearest integer above its current value

ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places

You can refer the following table to further understand how floor, ceil and round work in general.

2.3 3.9 4.0 5.5

FLOOR 2 3 4 5

CEIL 3 4 4 6

ROUND 2 4 4 6

Let's understand how these functions can be used.

Examples

1. Fetch the ceil, floor and round (to 1 decimal) values of the collections of all movies.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 name,
3 ROUND(collection_in_cr, 1) AS RoundedValue,
4 CEIL(collection_in_cr) AS CeilValue,
5 FLOOR(collection_in_cr) AS FloorValue
6 FROM
7 movie;

Output

name RoundedValue CeilValue FloorValue

The Matrix 46.4 47 46

Inception 83.7 84 83

The Dark Knight 100.5 101 100

... ... ... ...

String Functions

SQL Function Behavior

UPPER Converts a string to upper case

LOWER Converts a string to lower case

When you are not sure about the case (upper/lower) of the movie name, you can write a query as below to search for all the
avengers movies irrespective of the case.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 name
3 FROM
4 movie
5 WHERE UPPER(name) LIKE UPPER("%avengers%");

Output

name

Avengers: Age of Ultron

Avengers: Endgame

Avengers: Infinity War

Note

Usually, UPPER() AND LOWER() functions can help you to perform case-insensitive searches.

Try it Yourself!

Question 1
For each movie, get the ceil, floor and round(to 1 decimal) values of budget.

Expected Output

name round_value ceil_value floor_value

The Matrix 6.3 7 6

Inception 16 16 16

The Dark Knight 18 18 18

... ... ... ...

Question 2
Get all the movie names that are released in 2010 and belong to "Action" genre.

Note:

Try using the sql functions learnt so far

Expected Output

movie_name

Inception

Iron Man 2

Thor

movie_name

Spider-Man: Homecoming

...

MARKED AS COMPLETE

CASE Clause

SQL provides CASE clause to perform conditional operations. This is similar to the switch case / if-else conditions in other
programming languages.

Let's learn more about the usage of CASE clause using the given database

Database
The IMDb dataset which consists of movies, actors and cast. You can refer to the database in the code playground for a
better understanding.

CASE Clause

Each condition in the

CASE clause is evaluated and results in corresponding value when the first condition is met.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT c1, c2
2 CASE
3 WHEN condition1 THEN value1
4 WHEN condition2 THEN value2
5 ...
6 ELSE value
7 END AS cn
8 FROM table;

Note

1. In CASE clause, if no condition is satisfied, it returns the value in the ELSE part. If we do not specify the ELSE
part,

CASE clause results in NULL

2. We can use CASE in various clauses like SELECT, WHERE, HAVING, ORDER BY and GROUP BY.

Example

Calculate the tax amount for all movies based on the profit. Check the following table for tax percentages.

profit tax_percentage

<=100 crores 10% of profit

100< <=500 crores 15% of profit

> 500 crores 18% of profit

SQL
1 SELECT id, name,
2 CASE
3 WHEN collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr <= 100 THEN collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr * 0.1
4 WHEN (collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr > 100
5 AND collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr < 500) THEN collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr * 0.15
6 ELSE collection_in_cr - budget_in_cr * 0.18
7 END AS tax_amount
8 FROM
9 movie;

Output

id name tax_amount

1 The Matrix 45.8

2 Inception 82.08

3 The Dark Knight 98.7

... ... ...

Try it Yourself

Question 1

Categorise movies as following.

rating category

<5 Poor

5 <= _ <= 7 Average

7< Good

CASE with Aggregates

CASE statements can also be used together with aggregate functions

Example

Get the number of movies with rating greater than or equal to 8, and the movies with rating less than 8, and are released
between 2015 and 2020.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 count(
3 CASE
4 WHEN rating >= 8 THEN 1
5 END
6 ) AS above_eight,
7 count(
8 CASE
9 WHEN rating < 8 THEN 1
10 END
Expand

Output

above_eight below_eight

4 2

Try it Yourself!

Get the number of movies with collection greater than or equal to 100 crores, and the movies with collection less than 100
crores.

Output

above_100_cr below_100_cr

13 7

MARKED AS COMPLETE

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL queries.
Let us understand common set operators by performing operations on two sets

cast in "Sherlock Holmes" movie

cast in "Avengers Endgame" movie

Common Set Operators

INTERSECT

Actors who acted in both Sherlock Holmes and Avengers Endgame

Result: Robert D Jr.

MINUS

Actors who acted in Sherlock Holmes and not in Avengers Endgame

Result: Jude Law, Mark Strong

UNION

Unique actors who acted in Sherlock Holmes or in Avengers Endgame

Result: Jude Law, Mark Strong, Robert D Jr, Chris Evans, Mark Ruffalo

UNION ALL

Doesn't eliminate duplicate results

Result: Jude Law, Mark Strong, Robert D Jr, Robert D Jr, Chris Evans, Mark Ruffalo

Let's learn more about CASE clause using the given database

Database
The IMDb dataset which consists of movies, actors and cast. You can refer to the database in the code playground for a

better understanding.

Applying Set Operations

We can apply these set operations on the one or more sql queries to combine their results

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT
2 c1, c2
3 FROM
4 table_name
5 SET_OPERATOR
6 SELECT
7 c1, c2
8 FROM
9 table_name;

Basic rules when combining two sql queries using set operations

Each SELECT statement must have the same number of columns

The columns must have similar data types
The columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order

Examples

Get ids of actors who acted in both Sherlock Holmes(id=6) and Avengers Endgame(id=15)?
SQL
1 SELECT actor_id
2 FROM cast
3 WHERE movie_id=6
4 INTERSECT
5 SELECT actor_id
6 FROM cast
7 WHERE movie_id=15;

Output

actor_id

Get ids of actors who acted in Sherlock Holmes(id=6) and not in Avengers Endgame(id=15)?
SQL
1 SELECT actor_id
2 FROM cast
3 WHERE movie_id=6
4 EXCEPT
5 SELECT actor_id
6 FROM cast
7 WHERE movie_id=15;

Output

actor_id

Get distinct ids of actors who acted in Sherlock Holmes(id=6) or Avengers Endgame(id=15).
SQL
1 SELECT actor_id
2 FROM cast
3 WHERE movie_id=6
4 UNION
5 SELECT actor_id
6 FROM cast
7 WHERE movie_id=15;

Output

actor_id

Get ids of actors who acted in Sherlock Holmes(id=6) or Avengers Endgame(id=15).

SQL

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1 SELECT actor_id
2 FROM cast
3 WHERE movie_id=6
4 UNION ALL
5 SELECT actor_id
6 FROM cast
7 WHERE movie_id=15;

Output

actor_id

Try it Yourself!

1. Get all the movie ids in which actors Robert Downey Jr. (id=6) & Chris Evans(id=22) have been casted
2. Get all the movie ids in which actor Robert Downey Jr. (id=6) is casted and not Chris Evans(id=22)
3. Get all the unique movie ids in which either actor Robert Downey Jr. (id=6) or Chris Evans(id=22) is casted

ORDER BY Clause in Set Operations

ORDER BY clause can appear only once at the end of the query containing multiple SELECT statements.

While using Set Operators, individual SELECT statements cannot have ORDER BY clause. Additionally, sorting can be done
based on the columns that appear in the first SELECT query. For this reason, it is recommended to sort this kind of queries
using column positions.

Example

Get distinct ids of actors who acted in Sherlock Holmes (id=6) or Avengers Endgame(id=15). Sort ids in the descending order.
SQL
1 SELECT actor_id
2 FROM cast
3 WHERE movie_id=6
4 UNION
5 SELECT actor_id
6 FROM cast
7 WHERE movie_id=15
8 ORDER BY 1 DESC;

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Try it Yourself!

1. Get all the movie ids in which actor Robert Downey Jr. (id=6) is casted & not Chris Evans(id=22). Sort the ids in the
descending order.

Pagination in Set Operations

Similar to ORDER BY clause, LIMIT and OFFSET clauses are used at the end of the list of queries.

Example

Get the first 5 ids of actors who acted in Sherlock Holmes (id=6) or Avengers Endgame(id=15). Sort ids in the descending
order.
SQL
1 SELECT actor_id
2 FROM cast
3 WHERE movie_id=6
4 UNION
5 SELECT actor_id
6 FROM cast
7 WHERE movie_id=15
8 ORDER BY 1 DESC
9 LIMIT 5;

Try it Yourself!

1. Get the first 5 unique movie ids in which either actor Robert Downey Jr. (id=6) or Ryan Reynolds(id=7) is casted. Sort ids
in the descending order.

MARKED AS COMPLETE

Clauses

Clauses How to Use It Functionality

CREATE CREATE TABLE

Creates a new table
TABLE table_name ...
INSERT INTO table_name
INSERT Used to insert new data in the table
...

SELECT SELECT col1, col2 .. Retrieves the selected columns

SELECT SELECT * FROM ... Retrieves all the columns from a table

FROM clause specifies the table(s) in which

FROM FROM table_name
the required data columns are located
Retrieves only specific rows based on the
WHERE WHERE col > 5
given conditions
Updates the value of a column of all the
UPDATE table_name SET
UPDATE, SET rows (or only specific rows using WHERE
column1 = value1;
clause)

DELETE DELETE FROM table_name Deletes all the rows from the table

DROP DROP TABLE table_name Deletes the table from the database

ALTER TABLE table_name Used to add, delete or modify columns in a

ALTER
... table
ORDER BY col1 Sorts the table based on the column(s) in
ORDER BY
ASC/DESC.. the ascending or descending orders

DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT col, ... Gets the unique values of given column(s)

Limits the number of rows in the output to

LIMIT LIMIT 10
the mentioned number
Specifies the position (from nth row) from
OFFSET OFFSET 5 where the chunk of the results are to be
retrieved
Groups the rows that have same values in
GROUP BY GROUP BY col ...
the given columns
Filters the resultant rows after the
HAVING HAVING col > 20
application of GROUP BY clause
CASE WHEN condition1
Returns a corresponding value when the first
CASE THEN value1 WHEN ..
condition is met
ELSE .. END

Operators

Operators How to Use It Functionality

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Operators How to Use It Functionality

Filters the rows where the given column is not equal to 5.

WHERE col
<> Similarly, other comparison operators (=,>,<,>=,<=) are
<> 5
also used.
WHERE col
Retrieves the rows where the given column has 'apple'
LIKE LIKE
within the text
'%Apple%'
WHERE col1
AND > 5 AND col2 Retrieves the rows that satisfy all the given conditions
<3
WHERE col1
OR > 5 OR col2 Retrieves the rows that satisfy at least one condition
<3
WHERE NOT
NOT Retrieves the rows if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE
col = 'apple'
WHERE col
Retrieves the rows if the column value is present in the
IN IN ('Apple',
given values
'Microsoft')
WHERE col
Retrieves the rows if the column value is present
BETWEEN BETWEEN 3
between (and including) the given values
AND 5

Functions

Functions How to Use It Functionality

SELECT
COUNT COUNT(col) Counts the number of values in the given column
...
SELECT
SUM Adds all the values of given column
SUM(col) ...
SELECT
MIN Gets the minimum value of given column
MIN(col) ...
SELECT
MAX Gets the maximum value of given column
MAX(col) ...
SELECT Gets the average of the values present in the given
AVG
AVG(col) ... column
Extracts the year from the column value in string format.
strftime("%Y",
strftime() Similarly, we can extract month, day, week of the day and
col) ...
many.
CAST(col AS
CAST() Converts the value to the given datatype
datatype) ...
Rounds a number to the nearest integer below its
FLOOR() FLOOR(col)
current value
Rounds a number to the nearest integer above its
CEIL() CEIL (col)
current value
Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal
ROUND() ROUND(col)
places

UPPER() UPPER(col) Converts a string to upper case

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Functions How to Use It Functionality

LOWER() Lower(col) Converts a string to lower case

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Modelling Databases: Part 1

To model a database, we have to first understand the business requirements at conceptual level, which is later
translated into a relational database.

For understanding the business requirements at a conceptual level, we use

Entity Relationship Model (ER Model) .

Core Concepts in ER Model

Entity

Real world objects/concepts are called entities in ER Model.

Attributes of an Entity

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Properties of real world objects/concepts are represented as attributes of an entity in ER model.

Key Attribute

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The attribute that uniquely identifies each entity is called key attribute.

Entity Type

Entity Type is a collection of entities that have the same attributes (not values).

Relationships

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Association among the entities is called a relationship.

Example:

Person has a passport.

Person can have many cars.

Each student can register for many courses, and a course can have many students.

Types of relationships

One-to-One Relationship
One-to-Many or Many-to-One Relationship
Many-to-Many Relationship

One-to-One Relationship

An entity is related to only one entity, and vice versa.

Example

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A person can have only one passport.

similarly, a passport belongs to one and only one person.

One-to-Many Relationship

An entity is related to many other entities.

Example

A person can have many cars. But a car belongs to only one person.

Many-to-Many Relationship

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Multiple entities are related to multiple entities.

Example

Each student can register to multiple courses.

similarly each course is taken by multiple students.

Cardinality Ratio

Cardinality in DBMS defines the maximum number of times an instance in one entity can relate to instances of
another entity.

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Applying ER Model Concepts

In the previous cheatsheet, we have understood the core concepts of ER Model — entity types,
relationships and attributes. Now, let's build an ER model for a real-world scenario.

E-commerce Application

In a typical e-commerce application,

Customer has only one cart. A cart belongs to only one customer

Customer can add products to cart

Cart contains multiple products

Customer can save multiple addresses in the application for further use like selecting delivery address

Let’s apply the concepts of ER Model to this e-commerce scenario.

Entity types

Customer
Product
Cart
Address

Relationships

Let's understand the relationships in the e-commerce use-case.

Relation Between Cart and Customer

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A customer has only one cart.

A cart is related to only one customer.

Hence, the relation between customer and cart entities is One-to-One relation.

Relation Between Cart and Products

A cart can have many products.

A product can be in many carts.

Therefore, the relation between cart and product is Many-to-Many relation.

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Relation Between Customer and Address

A customer can have multiple addresses.

An address is related to only one customer.

Hence, the relation between customer and address is One-to-Many relation.

Attributes

Following are the attributes for the entity types in the e-commerce scenario.
Here, attributes like id, product_id, etc., are key attributes as they uniquely identify each entity in the
entity type.

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ER Model of e-commerce application

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ER Model to Relational Database

In the previous cheatsheet, we've learnt to build an ER model for a given scenario. Now, let's convert this ER model
to Relational Database.
Let's consider the same e-commerce application.

E-commerce Application

In a typical e-commerce application,

Customer has only one cart. A cart belongs to only one customer

Customer can add products to cart

Cart contains multiple products

Customer can save multiple addresses in the application for further use like selecting delivery address

Entity Type to Table

Primary key: A minimal set of attributes (columns) in a table that uniquely identifies rows in a table.

In the following tables, all the ids are primary keys as they uniquely identify each row in the table.

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Relationships

Relation Between Customer and Address - One to Many Relationship

A customer can have multiple addresses.

An address is related to only one customer.

We store the primary key of a customer in the address table to denote that the addresses are related to a
particular customer.
This new column/s in the table that refer to the primary key of another table is called Foreign Key.

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Here,

customer_id is the foreign key that stores id (primary key) of customers.

Relation Between Cart and Customer - One to One Relationship

A customer has only one cart.

A cart is related to only one customer.

This is similar to one-to-many relationship. But, we need to ensure that only one cart is associated to a customer

Relation Between Cart and Products - Many to Many Relationship

A cart can have many products.

A product can be in many carts.

Here, we cannot store either the primary key of a product in the cart table or vice versa.
To store the relationship between the cart and product tables, we use a Junction Table.

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Note

We store the properties of a the relationship in the junction table. For example, quantity of each product in
the cart should be stored in the junction table cart_product

E-commerce Usecase: ER Model to Relational Database

Following ER model is represented as the below tables in the relational database.

ER Model

Relational Database

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Submit Feedback

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Creating a Relational Database

In the previous sessions, we've explored how to represent an ER model in the form of tables in a relational database.

Now, let's create tables to store the data in the database by defining all the columns and relationships between the tables.

Consider the e-commerce scenario. The tables, columns and the relations between them are s follows.

Primary Key

Following syntax creates a table with

c1 as the primary key.

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Syntax

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE table_name (
2 c1 t1 NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
3 ...
4 cn tn,
5 );

Foreign Key

In case of foreign key, we just create a foreign key constraint.

Syntax

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE table2(
2 c1 t1 NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
3 c2 t2,
4 FOREIGN KEY(c2) REFERENCES table1(c3) ON DELETE CASCADE
5 );

Understanding

SQL
1 FOREIGN KEY(c2) REFERENCES table1(c3)

Above part of the foreign key constraint ensure that foreign key can only contain values that are in the referenced primary
key.
SQL
1 ON DELETE CASCADE

Ensure that if a row in

table1 is deleted, then all its related rows in table2 will also be deleted.

Note

To enable foreign key constraints in SQLite, use PRAGMA foreign_keys = ON; By default it is enabled in our platform!

Creating Tables in Relational Database

Customer Table

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE customer (
2 id INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
3 name VARCHAR(250),
4 INT
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4 age INT
5 );

Product Table

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE product (
2 id INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
3 name VARCHAR(250),
4 price INT,
5 brand VARCHAR(250),
6 category VARCHAR(250)
7 );

Address Table

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE address(
2 id INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
3 pin_code INTEGER,
4 door_no VARCHAR(250),
5 city VARCHAR(250),
6 customer_id INTEGER,
7 FOREIGN KEY (customer_id) REFERENCES customer(id) ON DELETE CASCADE
8 );

Cart Table

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE cart(
2 id INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
3 customer_id INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE,
4 total_price INTEGER,
5 FOREIGN KEY (customer_id) REFERENCES customer(id) ON DELETE CASCADE
6 );

Cart Product Table (Junction Table)

SQL
1 CREATE TABLE cart_product(
2 id INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
3 cart_id INTEGER,
4 product_id INTEGER,
5 quantity INTEGER,
6 FOREIGN KEY (cart_id) REFERENCES cart(id) ON DELETE CASCADE,
7 FOREIGN KEY (product_id) REFERENCES product(id) ON DELETE CASCADE
8 );

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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JOINS

So far, we have learnt to analyse the data that is present in a single table. But in the real-world scenarios, often, the data is
distributed in multiple tables. To fetch meaningful insights, we have to bring the data together by combining the tables.

We use JOIN clause to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column between them. There are various
types of joins, namely Natural join, Inner Join, Full Join, Cross Join, Left join, Right join.

Let’s learn about them in detail using the following database.

Database
Here, the database stores the data of students, courses, course reviews, instructors, etc., of an e-learning platform.

Refer the tables in the code playground for a better understanding of the database.

Natural JOIN

NATURAL JOIN combines the tables based on the common columns.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table1
3 NATURAL JOIN table2;

Example

1. Fetch the details of courses that are being taught by "Alex".

Solving this problem involves querying on data stored in two tables, i.e.,

course & instructor . Both the tables have common column instructor_id . Hence, we use Natural Join.
SQL
1 SELECT course.name,
2 instructor.full_name
3 FROM course
4 NATURAL JOIN instructor
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5 WHERE instructor.full_name = "Alex";

Output

name full_name

Cyber Security Alex

Try it Yourself!

Question 1:
Get the details of the instructor who is teaching "Cyber Security".

Expected Output:

full_name gender

Alex M

Question 2:
Get student full name and their scores in "Machine Learning" (course with id=11).

Expected Output:

full_name score

Varun 80

Sandhya 90

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INNER JOIN

INNER JOIN combines rows from both the tables if they meet a specified condition.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table1
3 INNER JOIN table2
4 ON table1.c1 = table2.c2;

Note

We can use any comparison operator in the condition.

Example

Get the reviews of course “Cyber Security” (course with id=15)

SQL
1 SELECT student.full_name,
2 review.content,
3 review.created_at
4 FROM student
5 INNER JOIN review
6 ON student.id = review.student_id
7 WHERE review.course_id = 15;

Output

full_name content created_at

Ajay Good explanation 2021-01-19

Ajay Cyber Security is awesome 2021-01-20

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Try it Yourself!

Question 1:
Get the details of students who enrolled for "Machine Learning" (course with id=11).

Expected Output:

full_name age gender

Varun 16 M

Sandhya 19 F

Question 2:
Get the reviews given by "Varun" (student with id = 1)

Expected Output:

course_id content created_at

11 Great course 2021-01-19

LEFT JOIN

, for each row in the left table, matched rows from the right table are combined. If there is no
LEFT JOIN
match, NULL values are assigned to the right half of the rows in the temporary table.

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Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table1
3 LEFT JOIN table2
4 ON table1.c1 = tabl2.c2;

Example

Fetch the full_name of students who have not enrolled for any course
SQL
1 SELECT student.full_name
2 FROM student
3 LEFT JOIN student_course
4 ON student.id = student_course.student_id
5 WHERE student_course.id IS NULL;

Output

full_name

Afrin

Try it Yourself!

Question 1:
Get the course details that doesn't have any students.

Expected Output:

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name

Linux

Question 2:
Get the instructors details who is not assigned for any course.

Expected Output:

full_name gender

Bentlee M

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Querying with Joins

Database
Here, the database stores the data of students, courses, course reviews, instructors, etc., of an e-learning platform.

Refer the tables in the code playground for a better understanding of the database.

Joins on Multiple Tables

We can also perform join on a combined table.

Example

Fetch all the students who enrolled for the courses taught by the instructor “Arun” (id = 102)
SQL
1 SELECT T.name AS course_name,
2 student.full_name
3 FROM (course
4 INNER JOIN student_course
5 ON course.id = student_course.course_id) AS T
6 INNER JOIN student
7 ON T.student_id = student.id
8 WHERE course.instructor_id = 102;

Output

course_name full_name

Machine Learning Varun

Machine Learning Sandya

Note

Best Practices

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1. Use

ALIAS to name the combined table.

2. Use alias table names to refer the columns in the combined table.

Try it Yourself!

Question 1:

Fetch the name of the students who gave reviews to the "Machine Learning" course.

Expected Output:

full_name

Varun

Question 2:

Fetch the course names in which "Varun" has registered.

Expected Output:

course_name

Machine Learning

Let's learn about the Right Join, Full Join and Cross Join in the upcoming cheatsheet.

Using joins with other clauses

We can apply

WHERE , ORDER BY , HAVING , GROUP BY , LIMIT , OFFSET and other clauses (which are used for
retrieving data tables) on the temporary joined table as well.

Example:

Get the name of the student who scored highest in "Machine Learning" course.
SQL
1 SELECT student.full_name
2 FROM (course
3 INNER JOIN student_course
4 ON course.id = student_course.course_id) AS T
5 INNER JOIN student
6 ON T.student_id = student.id
7 WHERE course.name = "Machine Learning"
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g
8 ORDER BY student_course.score DESC
9 LIMIT 1;

Output

full_name

Sandhya

Try it Yourself!

Question 1:
Get all the courses taken by the student with id=1 and his respective scores in each course

Expected Output

name score

Machine learning 80

Question 2:
Get all the students who registered for at least one course.

Expected Output

full_name

Varun

Ajay

Sandhya

Using joins with aggregations

We can apply

WHERE , ORDER BY , HAVING , GROUP BY , LIMIT , OFFSET and other clauses (which are used for
retrieving data tables) on the temporary joined table as well.

Get the highest score in each course.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 course.name AS course_name,
3 MAX(score) AS highest_score
4 FROM
5 course

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6 LEFT JOIN student_course
7 ON course.id = student_course.course_id
8 GROUP BY
9 course.id;

Output

course_name highest_score

Machine Learning 90

Cyber Security 60

Linux

Try it Yourself!

Question 1:
Get the course name and the average score for each course.

Expected Output

name avg_score

Machine Learning 85

Cyber Security 60

Linux

Question 2:
Get the number of students in each course .

Expected Output

name no_of_students

Machine learning 2

Cyber Security 1

linux 0

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JOINS Cont'd

Database
The database stores the data of students, courses, course reviews, instructors, etc., of an e-learning platform.

Refer the tables in the code palyground for a better understanding of the database.

RIGHT JOIN

RIGHT JOIN or RIGHT OUTER JOIN is vice versa of LEFT JOIN.

I.e., in

, for each row in the right table, matched rows from the left table are combined. If there is no
RIGHT JOIN
match, NULL values are assigned to the left half of the rows in the temporary table.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table1
3 RIGHT JOIN table2
4 ON table1.c1 = table2.c2;

Which is similar to
SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table2
3 LEFT JOIN table1
4 ON table1.c1 = table2.c2;

Example

Following query performs RIGHT JOIN on course and instructor tables

SQL
1 SELECT course.name,
2 instructor.full_name
3 FROM course
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3 FROM course
4 RIGHT JOIN instructor
5 ON course.instructor_id = instructor.instructor_id;

Note

Right Join is not supported in some dbms(SQLite).

FULL JOIN

FULL JOIN or FULL OUTER JOIN is the result of both RIGHT JOIN and LEFT JOIN

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table1
3 FULL JOIN table2
4 ON c1 = c2;

Example

Following query performs FULL JOIN ON course and instructor tables

SQL
1 SELECT course.name,
2 instructor.full_name
3 FROM course
4 FULL JOIN instructor
5 ON course.instructor_id = instructor.instructor_id;

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Note

FULL JOIN is not supported in some dbms(SQLite).

CROSS JOIN

In CROSS JOIN, each row from the first table is combined with all rows in the second table.
Cross Join is also called as CARTESIAN JOIN

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM table1
3 CROSS JOIN table2;

Example

Following query performs CROSS JOIN on course and instructor tables

SQL
1 SELECT course.name AS course_name,
2 instructor.full_name AS instructor_name
3 FROM course
4 CROSS JOIN instructor;

Output

https://learning.ccbp.in/backend-development/course?c_id=5d03f5a4-a285-4e52-8a57-18f718c4859f&t_id=10f3582f-5069-41de-ad90-961b27901… 3/5
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course_name instructor_name

Machine Learning Alex

Machine Learning Arun

Machine Learning Bentlee

Cyber Security Alex

... ...

SELF JOIN

So far, we have learnt to combine different tables. We can also combine a table with itself. This kind of join is called SELF-
JOIN.

Syntax

SQL
1 SELECT t1.c1,
2 t2.c2
3 FROM table1 AS t1
4 JOIN table1 AS t2
5 ON t1.c1 = t2.cn;

Note

We can use any JOIN clause in self-join.

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Example

Get student pairs who registered for common course.

SQL
1 SELECT sc1.student_id AS student_id1,
2 sc2.student_id AS student_id2, sc1.course_id
3 FROM
4 student_course AS sc1
5 INNER JOIN student_course sc2 ON sc1.course_id = sc2.course_id
6 WHERE
7 sc1.student_id < sc2.student_id;

Output

student_id1 student_id2 course_id

1 3 11

JOINS Summary

Join Type Use Case

Natural Join Joins based on common columns

Inner Join Joins based on a given condition

Left Join All rows from left table & matched rows from right table

Right Join All rows from right table & matched rows from left table

Full Join All rows from both the tables

Cross Join All possible combinations

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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Views

Database:
The database stores the sample data of an e-commerce aplication.
Here, the database consists of

user , order_details and product tables that store the information of products, orders placed, and the products
on the platform.

Refer the tables in the code playground for a better understanding of the database.

View

A view can simply be considered as a name to a SQL Query

Create View

To create a view in the database, use the

CREATE VIEW statement.

Example

Create

user_base_details view with id, name, age, gender and pincode.

SQL
1 CREATE VIEW user_base_details AS
2 SELECT id, name, age, gender, pincode
3 FROM user;

Note

In general, views are read only.

We cannot perform write operations like updating, deleting & inserting rows in the base tables through views.

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Try it Yourself!

Create

order_with_products view with order_id, product_id, no_of_units, name, price_per_unit, rating, category, brand.

Querying Using View

We can use its name instead of writing the original query to get the data.
SQL
1 SELECT *
2 FROM user_base_details;

Output

id name age gender pincode

1 Sai 40 Male 400068

2 Boult 20 Male 30154

3 Sri 20 Female 700009

... ... ... ... ...

We can use same operations which are used on tables like WHERE clause, Ordering results, etc.

If we try to retrive data which is not defined in the view it raises an

error .

Example

SQL
1 SELECT name, address
2 FROM user_base_details
3 WHERE gender = "Male";
4 ORDER BY age ASC;

Output
SQL
1 Error: no such column:address

Try it Yourself!

From the

order_with_products view created above, get the name and no_of_units ordered in order_id = 802.

Expected Output
https://learning.ccbp.in/backend-development/course?c_id=5d03f5a4-a285-4e52-8a57-18f718c4859f&t_id=a5f334cf-2c64-40bd-a528-16829629c… 2/4
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name no_of_units

Oneplus 8 Pro 1

Gorilla Glass 1

List All Available Views

In SQLite, to list all the available views, we use the folowing query.
SQL
1 SELECT
2 name
3 FROM
4 sqlite_master
5 WHERE
6 TYPE = 'view';

Output

name

order_with_products

user_base_details

Delete View

To remove a view from a database, use the

DROP VIEW statement.

Syntax

SQL
1 DROP VIEW view_name;

Example

Delete

user_base_details view from the database.

SQL
1 DROP VIEW user_base_details;

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Advantages

Views are used to write complex queries that involves multiple joins, group by, etc., and can be used whenever needed.
Restrict access to the data such that a user can only see limited data instead of a complete table.

MARKED AS COMPLET

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Subqueries

We can write nested queries, i.e., a query inside another query.

Let's understand the scenarios where subqueries can be used with the following database.

Database:
The database stores the sample data of an e-commerce aplication.
Here, the database consists of

user , order_details and product tables that store the information of products, orders placed, and the products
on the platform.

Refer the tables in the code playground for a better understanding of the database.

Examples
Example 1:

Get the rating variance of products in the "WATCH" category. Rating variance is the difference between average rating and
rating of a product.

Here, we need to write an expression to subtract rating of each product from the average rating as following.
SQL
1 SELECT name,
2 (average_rating - rating) AS rating_variance
3 ...

Replace average_rating with a query which computes the average.

SQL
1
2 SELECT
3 name,
4 (
5 SELECT AVG(rating)
6 FROM product
7 WHERE category = "WATCH"
8 ) - rating AS rating_variance
9 FROM product
10 WHERE t "WATCH"
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23/09/2021, 18:13 Revolutionizing the Job Market | NxtWave
10 WHERE category = "WATCH";

Output

name rating_variance

Analog-Digital -0.766666666666667

Fastfit Watch -0.366666666666666

Fastrack M01 0.333333333333334

... ...

Example 2:

Fetch all the products whose ratings is greater than average rating of all products.

Output
SQL
1
2 SELECT *
3 FROM product
4 WHERE rating > (
5 SELECT AVG(rating)
6 FROM product
7 );

Expected Output

product_id name price_per_unit rating category brand

Biotique
202 34 4.5 SOAP BIPTIQUE
Almond Soap
Boat Stone
203 1999 4.3 SPEAKER BOAT
Speaker

... ... ... ... ... ...

Example 3:

Fetch all the order_ids in which order consists of mobile (product_ids : 291, 292, 293, 294, 296) and not ear phones
(product_ids : 227, 228, 229, 232, 233).
SQL
1 SELECT
2 order_id
3 FROM
4 order_details
5 WHERE
6 order_id IN (
7 SELECT
8 order_id
9 FROM
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23/09/2021, 18:13 Revolutionizing the Job Market | NxtWave

10 order_product
Expand

Output

order_id

801

802

806

807

Possible Mistakes
In SELECT Clause

A subquery in the SELECT clause can have only one column.

Query

SQL
1 SELECT name, (
2 SELECT AVG(rating), MAX(rating)
3 FROM product
4 WHERE category = "WATCH"
5 ) - rating AS rating_variance
6 FROM product
7 WHERE category = "WATCH";

Output
SQL
1 Error:
2 sub-select returns 2 columns - expected 1

In WHERE Clause

Query

In WHERE clause, a subquery can have only one column.

SQL
1 SELECT
2 order_id, total_amount
3 FROM order_details
4 WHERE total_amount > (
5 SELECT total_amount, order_id
6 FROM order_details
7 );

https://learning.ccbp.in/backend-development/course?c_id=5d03f5a4-a285-4e52-8a57-18f718c4859f&t_id=a5f334cf-2c64-40bd-a528-16829629c… 3/4
23/09/2021, 18:13 Revolutionizing the Job Market | NxtWave

Output
SQL
1 Error: Row value misused

Try it Yourself!

Question 1

Get the rating variance of products in the "MOBILE" category. Rating variance is the difference between average rating and
rating of a product.
Rating variance is the difference between average rating and rating of a product

Expected Output Format:

name rating_variance

Oneplus 8 Pro -0.040000000000000924

Oneplus 8t Pro 0.2599999999999989

... ...

Question 2

Get all the products from the "MOBILE" category, where rating is greater than average rating.

Expected Output Format:

name rating

Oneplus 8 Pro 4.5

Mi 10T 4.5

Samsung S21 Ultra 4.7

... ...

MARKED AS COMPLETE

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Transactions

A transaction is a logical group of one or more SQL statements.

Transactions are used in various scenarios such as banking, ecommerce, social networks, booking tickets,
etc.

A transaction has four important properties.

Atomicity
Consistency
Isolation
Durability

Atomicity

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Either all SQL statements or none are applied to the database.

Consistency

Transactions always leave the database in a consistent state.

Isolation

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Multiple transaction can occur at the same time without adversely affecting the other.

Durability

Changes of a successful transaction persist even after a system crash.

These four properties are commonly acronymed as ACID.

Indexes
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In scenarios like, searching for a word in dictionary, we use index to easily search for the word. Similarly,
in databases, we maintain indexes to speed up the search for data in a table.

Submit Feedback

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