Defining relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something – information that we need
in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative clause usually comes immediately after the
noun it describes.
We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a defining relative clause (In
the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.):
They’re the people who want to buy our house.
Here are some cells which have been affected.
They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most.
[talking about an actress]
She’s now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.
Spoken English:
In defining relative clauses we often use that instead of who, whom or which. This is very common in informal speaking:
They’re the people that want to buy our house.
Here are some cells that have been affected.
See also:
 Relative pronouns
Subject or object
The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:
They’re the people who/that bought our house. (The people bought our house. The people is the subject.)
They’re the people who/that she met at Jon’s party. (She met the people. The people is the object.)
Here are some cells which/that show abnormality. (Some cells show abnormality. Some cells is the subject.)
Here are some cells which/that the researcher has identified. (The researcher has identified some cells. Some cells is the
object.)
No relative pronoun
We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:
They’re the people she met at Jon’s party.
Here are some cells the researcher has identified.
Warning:
In writing, we don’t use commas in defining relative clauses:
This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.
Not: This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.
Nouns and pronouns in relative clauses
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the
relative clause because the subject (underlined) is the same:
She’s the lady who lent me her phone. (who is the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal
pronoun she)
Not: She’s the lady who she lent me her phone.
There are now only two schools in the area that actually teach Latin. (that is the subject of the relative clause, so we
don’t need the personal pronoun they)
Not: There are now only two schools in the area that they actually teach Latin.
When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the
relative clause because the object (underlined) is the same:
We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended. (which is the object of the relative clause, so we don’t need
the personal pronoun it)
Not: We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended it.
Non-defining relative clauses
We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not necessary information.
We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.
We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative clause (In the
examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.)
Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach cancers, which account for 70% of cancers treated
in the western world.
Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a teaching course in the
autumn.
Warning:
We don’t use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause:
Allen, who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.
Not: Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.
In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:
Etheridge, who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil Francis, whose injury forced him to withdraw last week.
Spoken English:
In speaking, we often pause at the beginning and end of the clause:
Unlike American firms – which typically supply all three big American car makers – Japanese ones traditionally work
exclusively with one maker. (formal)
And this woman – who I’d never met before – came up and spoke to me. (informal)
Defining or non-defining relative clauses?
Sometimes defining and non-defining relative clauses can look very similar but have different meanings.
Compare

non-defining defining

His brother, who works at the supermarket, is

His brother who works at the supermarket is a friend of mine.
a friend of mine.
He has more than one brother. The one I’m talking about works at the
He has only one brother, and that brother
supermarket.
works at the supermarket.

It’s hoped that we will raise £10,000 for local It’s hoped that we will raise £10,000 for local charities which help the
charities, which help the homeless. homeless.
The money is intended for local charities. All The money is intended for local charities. Some of these local charities
these local charities help the homeless. help the homeless. There are other local charities as well as these.

Warning:
The information in a defining relative clause is essential, so we can’t leave out the relative clause. The information in a
non-defining relative clause is extra information which isn’t essential, so we can leave out the relative clause.
Compare

A defining relative clause which we can’t leave

The soldier who had gold stripes on his uniform seemed to be the
out; without this information we do not know
most important one.
which soldier the speaker is referring to.

Non-defining relative clauses which we can

The tour party was weakened when Gordon Hamilton, who played in leave out:
the World Cup team, withdrew yesterday because of a back The tour party was weakened when Gordon
injury, which kept him out of the Five Nations Championship. Hamilton withdrew yesterday because of a back
injury.

Warning:
We can use that instead of who, whom or which in defining relative clauses, but not in non-defining relative clauses:
I think anyone who speaks in public is nervous beforehand.
I think anyone that speaks in public is nervous beforehand.
Her car, which was very old, broke down after just five miles.
Not: Her car, that was very old, broke down after just five miles.

Preposition
Can you end a sentence with a preposition?
There is nothing wrong with ending a sentence in a preposition like to, with, for, or at. English speakers have been doing
so since the days of Old English. The people who claim that a terminal preposition is wrong are clinging to an idea born
in the 17th century and largely abandoned by grammar and usage experts in the early 20th.
What exactly is a preposition?
A preposition is a word—and almost always a very small, very common word—that shows direction (to in "a letter to
you"), location (at in "at the door"), or time (by in "by noon"), or that introduces an object (of in "a basket of apples").
Prepositions are typically followed by an object, which can be a noun (noon), a noun phrase (the door), or a pronoun
(you).
What is an example of a preposition?
The most common prepositions are at, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, and with. Other common prepositions
are about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, because
of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, close to, down, during, except, inside, instead
of, into, like, near, off, on top of, onto, out
of, outside, over, past, since, through, toward, under, until, up, upon, within, without.