Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Subject Name: Electrical Machines - I Subject Code: EE T33
Prepared By:
Dr. K. Vijayakumar, Professor/ EEE
Mr. D.Raja, AP/EEE
Verified by: Approved by:

UNIT IV
TRANSFORMERS
Single phase transformers – Principle-Construction – No load operation – Ideal
transformer-Vector diagram- no load and on load -Equivalent circuit – Parallel operation
and load sharing of single phase transformers – Testing – Losses –– Efficiency, voltage
regulation and all day efficiency Applications

Two Marks
1. Define a transformer?
A transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another circuit without changing frequency.
2. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers? April 2015
Core type transformer
The coils are wound around the two limbs of a rectangular magnetic core.
The winding surrounds the core
Single magnetic path
Shell type transformer
The coils are wound on the central limb of a three limb core.
The core surrounds the winding
Two magnetic paths
3. What is the function of transformer oil in a transformer?
1. It provides good insulation
2. Cooling.
4. Why are breathers used in transformers?
Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it to
pass on to the transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and
contract as its temperature increases and decreases.
5. Give the emf equation of a transformer and define each term?
EMF induced in primary coil E1 =4.44 fФmN1 Volts
EMF induced in secondary Coil E2 =4.44 fФmN2 Volts
Where,
E1, E2 – EMF induced in primary coil and secondary coil
f – frequency of AC input
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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Фm – maximum value of flux in the core

N1, N2 – Number of primary & secondary turns.
6. Define the term transformation ratio?

The constant k is called transformation ratio.

(i). K>1 then the transformer is called step up transformer
(ii). K<1 then the transformer is called step down transformer
7. Define Ideal Transformer? Nov’2014
An ideal transformer is one that has,
(i). No winding resistance
(ii). No leakage flux
(iii). No Iron loss (Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss)
8. Define power factor?
The power factor is the cosine of phase angle between voltage and current.
Power Factor (P.F) = cosΦ
The power factor is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the
apparent power in the circuit.
Re alpower (W )
Powerfactor 
Apparentpower (VA)
9. Why transformers are rated in kVA? April 2014, Nov’ 2013
Copper loss of a transformer depends on current & iron loss on voltage. Hence total
losses depend on Volt-Ampere and not on PF. That is why the rating of transformers
are in kVA and not in kW.
10. What are the necessary tests to determine the equivalent circuit of the
transformer?
1. Open circuit test
2. Short circuit test
11. Define all day efficiency of a transformer? April 2015, April 2012, Nov’2014
It is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period, usually a day
of 24 hrs. all day efficiency=output in kWh/input in kWh for 24 hrs.
12. How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?
With a change in frequency, iron and copper loss, regulation, efficiency & heating
varies so the operation of transformer is highly affected.
13. Define regulation and efficiency of the transformer?
The regulation of the transformer is defined as the reduction in magnitude of the
terminal voltage due to load, with respect to the no-load terminal voltage.
% regulation up = (V2 on no-load- V2 when loaded/ V2 on no-load) x 100
% regulation down = (V2 on no-load- V2 when loaded/ V2 when loaded) x 100
Transformer efficiency ƞ= (output power/input power) x 100
14. What is the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer? Nov’2013
When Copper loss is equal to Iron loss we will get maximum efficiency in a
transformer.
Iron losses (Wi) = Copper losses (Wc)

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

15. Why the efficiency of a transformer is higher than that of motors?

Motors has moving parts so there is always a loss, but transformer has no moving
parts so more efficiency.
16. List out the applications of a transformer.
 It can rise or lower the level of Voltage or Current in an AC circuit.
 It can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or resistance in an AC
circuit.
 It can be used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to the other.
 It can isolate two circuits electrically.
17. What are losses in transformer? April 2013
(i). Core loss or iron loss – It depends on voltage
It includes both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss
(ii). Copper loss – It depends on current
18. Why the transformer core is laminated?
The eddy current and hysteresis losses are minimized by using silicon steel
laminations. The core is laminated to reduce core loss.
19. Define eddy current loss and hysteresis loss and how to minimize it? April 2012,
Eddy current losses are caused due to conduction of core and are reduced by
laminating the core. Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization and depends
on core. In general this loss increases as frequency is increased. These losses are
minimized by choosing silicon steel material.
Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as,
Wh = KhfBm1.6 watts
Eddy Current loss in transformer is denoted as,
We = Kef2Kf2Bm2 watts
Where, Kh = Hysteresis Constant.
Ke = Eddy Current Constant.
Kf = form Constant.
20. What are conditions for parallel operation in single phase transformer? April
2015.
i) Primary windings of the transformer should be suitable for the supply system
voltage and frequency.
ii) The transformer should be properly connected with regard to polarity.
iii) The voltage rating of both transformers is identical.
iv)The percentage impedance should be equal in magnitude and have the same X/R
ratio in order to avoid circulating current and operation at different power factor.
21. Write the properties of ideal transformer April 2015
a. Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well as
secondary winding of an ideal transformer is zero. That is, both the coils are purely
inductive in nature.
b. Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf required
for flux establishment. That means, if permeability is high, less magnetizing current
is required to magnetize the transformer core.
c. No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get linked
with secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, it is assumed that entire amount of
flux get linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage flux).
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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

d. 100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any losses like hysteresis loss,
eddy current loss etc. So, the output power of an ideal transformer is exactly equal
to the input power. Hence, 100% efficiency.

22. What are the different types of transformer? April 2013

(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
(i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer
(B) On the basis of their purpose
1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in
current) at secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in
current) at secondary.
(C) On the basis of type of supply
1. Single phase transformer
2. Three phase transformer
(D) On the basis of their use
1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating
2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively
lower rating than that of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in
different instruments in industries
 Current transformer (CT)
 Potential transformer (PT)
(E) On the basis of cooling employed
1. Oil-filled self cooled type
2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)

23. Write the significance of all day efficiency of transformer Nov’2012

All Day Efficiency (Energy Efficiency)

In electrical power system, we are interested to find out the all-day efficiency of any
transformer because the load at transformer is varying in the different time duration of
the day. So all day efficiency is defined as the ratio of total energy output of
transformer to the total energy input in 24 hours.

Here, kWh is kilowatt hour.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

24. Draw the noload vector diagram of a transformer April 2014

11 MARKS

1. Explain the construction and principle of operations of single phase transformer.

April 2013

The transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A transformer is an

electrical device, having no moving parts, which by mutual induction transfers electric
energy from one circuit to another at the same frequency, usually with changed values of
voltage and current. It consists of two windings insulated from each other and wound on a
common core made up of magnetic material.

Fig. single phase transformer construction

Alternating voltage is connected across one ofthe windings called the primary winding. In
both the windings emf is induced by electromagnetic induction. The second winding is
called the secondary winding. It is shown in figure.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER

When the primary winding is connected to an AC source exciting current flows through
the winding. As the current is alternating, it will produce an alternating flux in the core
which will be linked by both the primary and secondary windings. The induce emf in the
primary winding (El) is almost equal to the applied voltage V1 and will oppose the applied
voltage. The emf induced in the secondary winding (E2) can be utilized to deliver power

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

to any load connected across the secondary. Thus power is transferred from the primary to
the secondary circuit by electromagnetic induction.
The flux in the core will alternate at the same frequency as the frequency of the supply
voltage. The frequency of induced emf in secondary is the same as that of the supply,
voltage. The magnitude of the emf induced in the secondary winding will depend upon its
number of turns.
ln a transformer, if the number of turns in the secondary winding is less than those in the
primary winding, it is called a step-down transformer (Figure (b)), when the number of
turns in the secondary winding is higher than the primary winding, it is called a step-up
transformer (Figure (a)).

Fig. Single phase transformer windings

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are classified on the basis of
i) Duty they perform
1. Power transformer - for transmission and distribution purposes
2. Current transformer - instrument transformers
3. Potential transformer - instrument transformer
(ii) Construction
1. Core type transformer 2. Shell type transformer 3. Berry type transformer
(iii) Voltage output
1. Step down transformer (Higher to Lower)
2. Step up transformer (Lower to Higher)
3. Auto Transformer (Variable from ‘0’ to rated value)
(iv) Application
1. Welding transformer 2. Furnace transformer
(V) Cooling
1. Air cooled 2. Oil immersed
(vi) Input supply
1. Single phase transformer
2. Three phase transformer
a. Star – Star b. Star – Delta c. Delta- Delta d. Delta – Star
e. Open – Delta f. Scott connection

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
A transformer is a static device and its construction is simple as there are no moving
parts. The main components of a transformer are
i) The magnetic core.
ii) Primary and secondary windings.
iii) Insulation of windings.
iv) Expansion tank or conservator.
v) Lead and tappings for coils with their supports, terminals and terminal
insulators.
vi) Tank, oil, cooling arrangement, temperature gauge, oil gauge.
vii) Buchholz relay.
viii) Silica gel breather.

Magnetic Core
Magnetic circuit consists of an iron core. The transformer core is generally laminated and
is made out of a good magnetic material like silicon steel. The thickness
of laminations or stampings varies from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm. The laminations are
insulated from each other by coating then with a thin coat of varnish.

Fig. stampings used for core type construction

Various types of samplings and laminations employed in the construction of transformers
are shown in figure 4.3. Here the core surrounds the considerable part of
The joints are staggered to avoid continuous gap causing increase in magnetising current.
If the joints are not staggered, the core will have less mechanical strength and during
operation there would be undue humming noise. After arranging the laminations they are
bolted together.
The two types of transformer cores are:
a. Core type b. Shell type

a) Core type transformer

Here the windings surround a considerable part of core as shown in figure 4.4 and has
only one magnetic path. It has two limbs for the two windings and is made up of two L-
type stampings as shown in figure 4.3. The coils used usually are of cylindrical type and
are usually wound. For transformers of hi gher rating stepped core with circular
cylindrical coils are used. For transformers of smaller rating, rectangular coils with core of

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

square or rectangular cross section is used. Insulating cylinders are used to separate
windings from the core and from each other.

Fig. core type construction

b) Shell type transformer
Here the core surrounds the considerable part of windings as shown in figure 4.4(b). The
two windings are carried by central limb. The core is made up of E and I stamping (figure
4.4(b)) and has three limbs. lt has two parallel paths for magnetic flux.
The coils used are of multilayer disc type and are former wound in the form of pan-cakes.
Each layer is insulated from each other by paper.

Fig. Shell type construction

Winding
There are two windings in a transformer. They are called primary and secondary
windings. Generally the windings are made of copper.
Insulation
Paper is still used as the basic conductor insulation. Enamel insulation is used as the
inter-turn insulation of low voltage transformers. For power transformers enameled copper
with paper insulation is also used.
Insulating Oil
The oil used in transformer protects the paper from dirt and moisture and removes the
heat produced in the core and coils. It also acts as insulating medium. The oil must
possess the following properties.
i) High dielectric strength.
ii) Free from inorganic acid, alkali and corrosive sulphur to prevent injury to the
conductor or insulation.
iii) Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer.
iv) Free from sludging under normal operating conditions.
v) Good resistance to emulsion so that the oil may throw down any moisture
entering the tank instead of holding it in suspense.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Expansion Tank or Conservator

A small auxiliary oil tank may be mounted above the transformer and connected to main
tank by a pipe. Its function is to keep the transformer tank full of oil despite expansion or
contraction of the coil with the changes in temperature. A small pipe connection between
the gas space in the expansion tank. and the cover of the transformer tank permits the gas
above the oil in the transformer to pass into the expansion tank, so that the transformer
tank will be completely filled with oil.

Temperature Gauge
Every transformer is provided with a temperature gauge to indicate hot oil or hottest spot
temperature. It is self-contained weather proof unit made of alarm contacts. It is dial
operated by bourdon gauge connected to a thermometer bulb located in the rigion of
hottest oil.

Gauge
Every transformer is fitted with an oil gauge to indicate the oil level present inside tank.
The oil gauge may be provided with an alarm contact with gives an alarm the oil level has
dropped beyond permissible height due to oil leak or due to any other reason.

Relay
The first warning that a fault is present may be given by the presence of bubbles in the
oil. If the transformer is fitted with a conservator and there are no pockets in which gas
can collect, the gas bubbles will rise up the pipe joining the conservator to the tank. It is
possible to mount gas operated relay in this pipe to give an alarm in case of minor fault
and to disconnect the transformer from the supply mains in case of severe faults.

Breather
The simplest method to prevent the entry of the moisture inside the transformer tank is to
provide chambers known as breather. The breather is filled with some drying agent, such
as calcium chloride or silica gel. Silica gel or calcium chloride absorbs moisture and
allows dry air to enter the transformer tank. The drying agent is replaced periodically as
routine maintenance. The whole ofthe transformer tank and portion of conservator used
filled with oil. The breather is connected on one side of the conservator. Thus a small
surface area of transformer oil is exposed to the atmosphere through the breather.

Bushings
Connections from the transformer windings are brought out by means bushings. Ordinary
porcelain insulators can be used upto a voltage of 33kV. Above 33kV, capacitor and oil
filled type of bushings are used. Bushings are fixed on the transformer tank.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Fig. Transformer tank

Cooling Arrangement in Transformers
The various methods of cooling employed in a transformer are
a) Oil immersed natural cooled transformers
b) Oil immersed forced air cooled transformers
c) Oil immersed water cooled transformers
d) Oil immersed forced oil cooled transformers
e) Air blast transformers

a) Oil immersed Natural Cooled Transformers

In this type, the core and coils are immersed in insulating oil contained in an iron tank.
The heat produced in the core and windings is conduct by the circulation of oil to the
surface which dissipates heat to surroundings. In transformers of larger output, the
dissipation surface is increased by providing large number of tubes on its sides. The oil
only keeps the windings cool but also provides additional insulation.

b) Oil Immersed Forced Air Cooled Transformers

In this type, the core and windings are immersed in oil and cooling is increased by forced
air over the cooling surfaces. The air is forced over external surfaces such as
tank, tubes and radiators by means of fan mounted external to the transformer.

c) Oil immersed Water Cooled Transformers

In this type, the core and windings are immersed in oil and cooling is increased by
circulation of cold water through the tubes immersed in oil.

d) Oil immersed Fdrced Oil Cooled Transformers

In this type, the core and windings are immersed in oil and cooling is achieved by forced
oil circulation. ln this method of cooling forced oil circulation is obtained by a centrifugal
pump which -is located at either the oil inlet or outlet. The pump motor used for cooling is
designed to operate totally immersed in the cooling oil being circulated.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

e) Air Blast Transformers

Here the transformer is cooled by a forced circulation of air through core and windings. It
is used in substations located in thickly populated places where oil is considered a fire
hazard. The air supplied is filtered to avoid dust entering the ventilating ducts.

2. Explain the principle of a single phase transformer and derive its emf equation.
April 2015
3. Derive the emf equation of of a transformer and explain the working. Nov’2014
4. (a) Discuss about the working principle of single phase transformer April 2012
(b) Derive the emf equation of of a transformer. April 2012

The transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A transformer is

an electrical device, having no moving parts, which by mutual induction transfers
electric energy from one circuit to another at the same frequency, usually with changed
values of voltage and current. It consists of two windings insulated from each other and
wound on a common core made up of magnetic material.

Alternating voltage is connected across one ofthe windings called the primary winding.
In both the windings emf is induced by electromagnetic induction. The second winding
is called the secondary winding. It is shown in figure.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER

When the primary winding is connected to an ac source exciting current flows through
the winding. As the current is alternating, it will produce an alternating flux in the core
which will be linked by both the primary and secondary windings. The induce emf in
the primary winding (El) is almost equal to the applied voltage V1 and will oppose the
applied voltage.
The emf induced in the secondary winding (E2) can be utilized to deliver power to any
load connected across the secondary. Thus power is transferred from the primary to the
secondary circuit by electromagnetic induction.
The flux in the core will alternate at the same frequency as the frequency of the supply
voltage. The frequency of induced emf in secondary is the same as that of the supply,
voltage. The magnitude of the emf induced in the secondary winding will depend upon
its number of turns.
ln a transformer, if the number of turns in the secondary winding is less than those in
the primary winding, it is called a step-down transformer (Figure (b)), when the
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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

number of turns in the secondary winding is higher than the primary winding, it is
called a step-up transformer (Figure (a)).

E.M.F. EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

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Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

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5. Draw and explain the working of ideal single phase transformer no load and load
vector diagram. Nov’2014

THEORY OF AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD

An ideal transformer is one that has
(i) No winding resistance
(ii) No leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
(iii) No iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core
Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study provides a very
powerful tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact, practical transformers have
properties that approach very close to an ideal transformer.

Fig. Ideal transformer and phasor diagram

Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., secondary is open-circuited as shown in
Fig. (i). Under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance. When an
alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, it draws a small magnetizing current Im
which lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. This alternating current Im produces an
alternating flux f which is proportional to and in phase with it. The alternating flux f links
both the windings and induces e.m.f. E1 in the primary and e.m.f. E2 in the secondary. The
primary e.m.f. E1 is, at every instant, equal to and in opposition to V1 (Lenz’s law). Both
e.m.f.’s E1 and E2 lag behind flux f by 90°. However, their magnitudes depend upon the
number of primary and secondary turns. Fig. (ii) shows the phasor diagram of an ideal
transformer on no load. Since flux f is common to both the windings, it has been taken as
the reference phasor. As seen in e.m.f equation of transformer, the primary e.m.f. E1 and
secondary e.m.f. E2 lag behind the flux f by 90°. Note that E1 and E2 are in phase. But E1
is equal to V1 and 180° out of phase with it.

PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER
A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The practical
transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii) magnetic leakage, giving
rise to leakage reactance.
(i) Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy
current and hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are known as iron losses or core
losses. The iron losses depend upon the supply frequency, maximum flux density in the
core, volume of the core etc. It may be noted that magnitude of iron losses is quite small
in a practical transformer.
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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper conductors, it

immediately follows that both primary and secondary will have winding resistance. The
primary resistance R1 and secondary resistance R2 act in series with the respective
windings as shown in Fig. When current flows through the windings, there will be power
loss as well as a loss in voltage due to IR drop. This will affect the power factor and E1
will be less than V1 while V2 will be less than E2.

Fig. transformer with winding resistance and leakage reactance

(iii) Leakage reactance. Both primary and secondary currents produce flux. The flux Ф
which links both the windings is the useful flux and is called mutual flux. However,
primary current would produce some flux Ф which would not link the secondary winding
(See Fig. 4.9). Similarly, secondary current would produce some flux f that would not link
the primary winding. The flux such as or which links only one winding is called
leakage flux. The leakage flux paths are mainly through the air. The effect of these
leakage fluxes would be the same as though inductive reactance were connected in series
with each winding of transformer that had no leakage flux as shown in Fig. (4.8). In other
words, the effect of primary leakage flux is to introduce an inductive reactance X1 in
series with the primary winding as shown in Fig. similarly, the secondary leakage flux
introduces an inductive reactance X2 in series with the secondary winding. There will be
no power loss due to leakage reactance. However, the presence of leakage reactance in the
windings changes the power factor as well as there is voltage loss due to IX drop.

Fig. transformer with load

Note. Although leakage flux in a transformer is quite small (about 5% of f) compared to
the mutual flux Ф, yet it cannot be ignored. It is because leakage flux paths are through air
of high reluctance and hence require considerable e.m.f. It may be noted that energy is

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

conveyed from the primary winding to the secondary winding by mutual flux Ф which
links both the windings.

PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD

Consider a practical transformer on no load i.e., secondary on open-circuit as shown in
Fig. (i). The primary will draw a small current to supply (i) the iron losses and (ii) a
very small amount of copper loss in the primary. Hence the primary no load current is
not 90° behind the applied voltage but lags it by an angle < 90° as shown in the
phasor diagram in Fig. (ii).
No load input power, = cos

Fig. Transformer on no load

As seen from the phasor diagram in Fig. (ii), the no-load primary current I0 can be
resolved into two rectangular components viz.
(i) The component in phase with the applied voltage . This is known as active or
working or iron loss component and supplies the iron loss and a very small primary
copper loss.
= cos
(b) The component Im lagging behind by 90° and is known as magnetizing
component. It is this component which produces the mutual flux f in the core.
= sin
Clearly, is phasor sum of and ,

Io  I w2  I m2
No load p.f., cos =

It is emphasized here that no load primary copper loss (i.e. ) is very small and
may be neglected. Therefore, the no load primary input power is practically equal to the
iron loss in the transformer i.e.,
No load input power, = Iron loss

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Note. At no load, there is no current in the secondary so that = . On the primary side,
the drops in R1 and X1, due to are also very small because of the smallness of .
Hence, we can say that at no load, = .
6. Explain the operations of single phase transformer under loaded condition and
hence draw the vector diagram of the transformer under lagging power factor load.
April 2015.

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Effect of winding Resistances:

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Effect of Leakage Reactance:

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Equivalent Impedance :

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Practical Transformer on load with winding resistance and magnetic leakage

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Lagging Power factor load, Cos ϕ2

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7. Describe the method of drawing equivalent circuit of single phase transformer

and explain how to reduce the equivalent circuit. April 2013
8. From the first principles, obtain the approximate equivalent circuit of a
transformer referred to secondary. April 2015, nov’2012

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Equivalent circuit referred to secondary

If all the primary quantities are referred to secondary, we get the equivalentcircuit of the
transformer referred to secondary.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

9. Explain the O.C and S.C test on single phase tranformer with relavent diagrams.

INDIRECT LOADING TESTS OF TRANSFORMERS

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

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Dept. of EEE, Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College, Madagadipet
Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

10. Explain load test on single phase transformer with neat diagrams
LOAD TEST ON TRANSFORMER
In this method the required load is directly connected to the secondary of the transformer.
Hence this method is also called direct loading test on transformer. The various meters are
connected on primary and secondary side of the transformer. Then the load is varied from no
load to full load and the readings on the various meters are recorded, The Fig. Shows the
experiment set up for the load test on transformer. An ammeter, voltmeter and a wattmeter is
connected on primary as well as secondary side of the transformer. The primary is connected
to the supply through variac which is used to adjust primary voltage to its rated value at each
load condition.

Fig. Load test on transformer

The load is to be varied from no load to full load in desired steps. At all time, keep primary
voltage V1 constant at its rated value with the help of variac. The following observation table
is prepared.

This first reading is to be noted on load for which = 0 A and =0 W

Calculations
From the observation table,
W1 = Input power to the transformer
W2 = Output power delivered to the load
.·. % η = × 100

The first reading is on no load for which,

=
Thus at any other load, regulation can be obtained as
%R= × 100

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Dept. of EEE, Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College, Madagadipet
Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

where is secondary terminal voltage at corresponding load. The graph of % η and % R on

each load against load current is plotted as shown in the Fig.

Fig. Efficiency and regulation characteristics

The efficiency increases as load increases upto particular load. After that load, efficiency
decreases as load increases. The regulation increases as the load increases as keeps on
decreasing as the load increases.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Loading

The important advantage of this method is that the results are accurate as load is directly
used,
The disadvantages of this method are,
1. l. For large rating transformers, suitable load is difficult to obtain in the laboratory.
It cannot be loaded upto its full load capacity in the laboratory.
2. There are large power losses during the test.
Key Point : Hence this method is suitable for small transformers and rarely used.

11. Explain the sumpner’s test with its circuit diagram of single phase transformer.
April 2013

Sumpner's Test (Back to Back Test)

The Sumpner's test is another method of determining efficiency, regulation and heating
under load conditions. The O.C. and S.C. tests give us the equivalent circuit parameters but
cannot give heating information under various load conditions. The Sumpner's test gives
heating information also. In O.C. test, there is no load on the transformer while in S.C. test
also only fractional load gets applied. In all O.C. and S.C. tests, the loading conditions are
absent. Hence the results are inaccurate. In Sumpner's test, actual loading conditions are
simulated hence the results obtained are much more accurate. Thus Sumpner's test is much
improved method of predetermining regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests. The
Sumpner's test requires two identical transformers. Both the transformers are connected to the
supply such that one transformer is loaded on the other. Thus power taken from the supply is
that much necessary for supplying the losses of both the transformers and there is very small
loss in the control circuit. While conducting this test, the primaries of the two identical
transformers are connected in parallel across the supply . While the secondaries are
connected in series opposition so that induced e.m.f.s in the two secondaries oppose each
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Dept. of EEE, Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College, Madagadipet
Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

other. The secondaries are supplied from another low voltage supply, meters are connected in
each circuit to get the readings. The connection diagram is shown in the Fig..

Fig. Connection diagram for sumpner’s test

T1 and T2 are two identical transformers. The secondaries of T1 and T2 are connected in
series opposition. So = i.e. induced e.m.f in two secondaries are equal but the
secondaries are connected such that E is connected to G and F is connected to H. Due to such
series opposition, two e.m.f.s act in opposite direction to each other and cancel each other. So
net voltage in the local circuit of secondaries is zero, when primaries are excited by supply 1
of rated voltage and frequency. So there is no current flowing in the loop formed by two
secondaries. The series opposition can be checked by another voltmeter connected in the
secondary circuit as per polarity test. If it reads zero, the secondaries are in series opposition
and if it reads double the induced e.m.f. in each secondary, it is necessary to reverse the
connections of one of the secondaries.
If is assumed zero then due to phase opposition no current flows through secondary
and both the transformers T1, are as good as on no load. So O.C. test gets simulated. The
current drawn from source in such case is 2 . Where I0 is no load current of each
transformer. The input power as measured by wattmeter thus reads the iron losses of both
the transformers.
.·. per transformer = As are identical

Then a small voltage is injected into the secondary with the help of low voltage
transformer, by closing the switch S. With regulating mechanism, the voltage is
adjusted so that the rated secondary current flows through the secondaries as shown.
flows from E to F and then from H to G. The flow of is restricted to the loop
B A I J C D L K B and it does not pass through . Hence continues to read core losses.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Both primaries and secondaries carry rated current so S.C. test condition gets simulated.
Thus the wattrneter reads the total full load copper losses of both the transformers.

.·. ( )F.L per transformer =

Key Point: Thus in the Sumpner's test without supplying the load, full iron loss occurs in
the core while full copper loss occurs in the windings simultaneously. Hence heat run test
can be conducted on the two transformers. In O.C. and S.C. test, both the losses do not
occur simultaneously hence heat run test cannot be conducted. This is the advantage of
Sumpner's test.
From the test results the full load efficiency of each transformer can be calculated as,
% of each transformer = × 100

Where Output = VA rating × cos

Key Point: As all the voltages, currents and powers are measured during the test, the
equivalent circuit parameters also can be determined. Hence the regulation at any load
and load power factor condition can be predetermined.
The only limitation is that two identical transformers are required. In practice exact
identical transformers cannot be obtained. As two transformers are required, the test is not
economical.

Problem: 2 Draw the equivalent circuit of a single phase 1100/220 v transformer on

which the following results were obtained.
(a) 1100 V, 0.5A, 55W on primary, secondary being open circuit.
(B) 10v, 80A,400W on low voltage side, HV short circuited.
Given data:
Primary voltage = 1100V, Secondary voltage = 220V
Solution:
O.C test:
Primary voltage = 1100V No-load input current = 0.5 A
No-load input power = 55w
= cos

No-load input power factor cos = = = 0.1

cos =0.1
sin = 0.9949
Wattfull component (working component)
= cos =0.5 × 0.1= 0.05 A
Wattless component (magnetizing component)
= sin = 0.5 × 0.9949=0.4974
Resistance representing the core loss

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

= = 22000 Ω

Magnetizing reactance
= = = 2211.499 Ω

S.C test:
Short circuit voltage = 10V Short circuit current = 80 A
Losses = 400 W

Impedance of transformer referred to secondary

= = = 0.125 Ω

= = = 0.0625 Ω

= = = 0.1082 Ω

Transformation ratio K = = = 0.2

Parameters referred to 1100 V (H.V) side

= = = 3.125 Ω

= = = 1.5625 Ω

= = = 2.7063 Ω

Equivalent circuit is shown below (referred to primary)

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 Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Problem 3: In a 50 KVA Transformer, the iron loss is 500 W and full load copper loss is
800 W. Find the efficiency at full and half loads at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Given data:
Transformer rating = 50KVA, Iron loss = 500w,
Full load copper loss = 800w
Power factor cos Ф = 0.8
To find:
Efficiency at (i) Full load (ii) At half load
Solution:

(i) At full load:

Efficiency = × 100

= ×100

= 96.85%
(ii)At half load:
Efficiency = × 100

= ×100

= 96.61%
12. Explain the parallel operation of single phase transformer with neat diagrams
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS:
It is economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than
installing bigger rated electrical power transformers. This has mainly the following
advantages,

1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency:

Generally electrical power transformers gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If we
run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which
will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that time. When load
increases, we can switch one by one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill the
total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.
2. To maximize electrical power system availability:
If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can shut down any one of them for
maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load without
total interruption of power.
3. To maximize power system reliability:
If any one of the transformers running in parallel, is tripped due to fault. The system will
share the load, hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not make
other transformers over loaded.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility:

There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If it
is predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there must be a provision of
connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand because, it is not
economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer by
forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again
if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from
system to balance the capital investment and its return.

From the Fig. it can be seen that the primary windings are connected to the supply bus
bars while the secondary windings are connected to load bus bars.

Two or more transformers are connected in parallel to carry common load. If a given
transformer is insufficient in capacity to deliver a particular load it may either be taken out
of the circuit and replaced with a larger unit or an additional unit may be added to the
circuit by connecting its primary side to the same source of supply and its secondary side
to the same load circuit. The second unit is then said to be operating in parallel with the
first unit. For satisfactory parallel operation of transformers there are conditions that must
be satisfied.

Fig. Parallel operation

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Dept. of EEE, Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College, Madagadipet
Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Fig. Alternative connection of parallel transformer

Key point: Satisfactory parallel operation of the transformer implies that the transformers
connected in parallel share common load approximately in proportion to their ratings. The
most satisfactory condition is achieved when the load shared by the transformers is in
exact proportion with their ratings.

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers

When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the following conditions
for satisfactory performance. These are the conditions for parallel operation of
transformers
1) The supply system voltage and frequency must suit the primary windings of
the transformers.
2) The transformers that are connected must have same polarity. In case of three
phase transformers the transformers should have same angular displacement and same
phase sequence.
3) The voltage ratios of the primaries and secondaries of the transformers must be
same.
4) The percentage impedance must be equal in magnitude and have same ratio

in order to avoid circulating currents and operating at different power factors.

5) If the transformers have the different KVA ratings, the equivalent impedances
should be inversely proportional to individual KVA rating to avoid circulating
currents.

13. State the various losses in a transformer. Define efficiency of a transformer and
hence deduce the condition for maximum efficiency. (April – 2015)

LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
1) In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.
2) i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses.

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

3) ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses.

Copper Loss
Copper loss is I2R loss, in primary side it is I12R1 and in secondary side it is I22R2 loss,
where I1 & I2 are primary & secondary current of transformer and R1 & R2 are resistances
of primary & secondary winding. As the both primary & secondary currents depend upon
load of transformer, copper loss in transformer vary with load.
Copper loss can simply be denoted as,
Copper loss = IL2R2′ + Stray loss
Where, IL = I2 = load current of transformer
R2′ is the resistance of transformer referred to secondary.
 Copper losses can be minimized by using conductors of large diameters in order to
reduce the resistance per unit length of the conducting windings of the electrical device.
The value of Cu loss is found from the short-circuit test.
Core or Iron Loss
Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend upon magnetic properties of
the materials used to construct the core of transformer. So these losses in
transformer are fixed and do not depend upon the load current. So core loss in
transformer which is alternatively known as iron loss in transformer can be
considered as constant for all range of load.
Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as,

Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,

Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant.

Ke = Eddy current constant.
Kf = Form constant.
Bm=Maximum flux density, wb/m2
f = Frequency,Hz

 These losses are minimized by using steel of high silicon content for the core and by
using very thin laminations. Iron or core loss is found from the O.C. test. The input of the
transformer when on no-load measures the core loss.
Efficiency

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Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the
output divided by the input.

Output
Efficiency 
input
But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of equipment, has very small loss,
hence it is impractical to try to measure transformer efficiency by measuring input and
output. These quantities are nearly of the same size. A better method is to determine
the losses and then to calculate the efficiency from,

Output Output
Efficiency  
Output  Losses Output  Culoss  ironloss

input  losses losses

Efficiency   1
input input

 It may be noted here that efficiency is based on power output in watts and not in volt-
amperes, although losses are proportional to VA. Hence, at any volt-ampere load, the
efficiency depends on power factor, being maximum at a power factor of unity.
 Efficiency can be computed by determining core loss from no-load or open-circuit test
and Cu loss from the short-circuit test.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Cu loss = I12R01 or I22R02 = Wcu
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss = Wh + We = Wi
Considering primary side,
Primary input = V1I1 cos φ1
input  losses input  (culoss  ironloss)
Efficiency  
input input


V I cos1  I1 R01  Wi
Efficiency 1 1
2

V1 I 1 cos1

V I cos1
2
I R Wi
 1 1  1 01 
V1 I1 cos1 V1 I1 cos1 V1 I1 cos1
I 1 R01 Wi
  1 
V1 cos 1 V1 I 1 cos 1
Differentiating both sides with respect to I1, we get

d R01 Wi
 0 
dI1 V1 cos1 V1 I1 cos1
2

For  to be maximum,
d
0 45
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Dept. of EEE, Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College, Madagadipet
Electrical Machines – I Single phase transformers

Hence the above equation becomes,

R01 Wi
0 
V1 cos1 V1 I1 cos1
2
R01 Wi

V1 cos1 V1 I1 2 cos1

R V I cos1
2

Wi  01 1 1
V1 cos1
Wi  I1 R01
2

Cu.loss = Iron loss

Wi
The output current corresponding to maximum efficiency is I2 
R01

It is this value of the output current which will make the Cu loss equal
to the iron loss. By proper design, it is possible to make the maximum efficiency occur
at any desired load.
Note:
1. If we are given iron loss and full load Cu loss, then the load at which two losses
would be equal (i.e. corresponding to maximum efficiency) is given by

Ironloss
  Full load KVA 
F .L.Culoss
2.The efficiency at any load is given by,
x  F .L.load.KVA  p. f
  100
x  F .L.load.KVA  p. f   Wi  Wcu
where, x= ratio of actual to full load KVA

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