Received: 29 July 2023 Revised: 14 December 2023 Accepted: 23 December 2023

DOI: 10.1002/tqem.22171

RESEARCH ARTICLE

An integrated study of water quality in the Ganol River Basin,

India: Application of hydro-chemical, multivariate statistical,
and water quality index techniques

Gayatri Das1 Biswadeep Bharali2

1
Civil Engineering Programme, Assam Down
Town University, Guwahati-781026, Assam, Abstract
India
The Ganol River, a vital water source for Meghalaya, India, faces significant envi-
2
Civil Engineering Department, Scholar’s
ronmental degradation due to human activities, primarily the improper disposal of
Institute of Technology and Management,
Guwahati-781035, Assam, India domestic and commercial wastes. This study aims to assess the current water quality
of the Ganol River through hydro-chemical analysis, multivariate statistical methods,
Correspondence
Gayatri Das, Faculty of Engineering, Civil and Water Quality Index (WQI) analysis. Over a span of 6 years (2014–2020), monthly
Engineering Programme, Assam Down Town water samples were collected from ten source points or stations along the river.
University, Sankar Madhab Path, Gandhi
Nagar, Panikhaiti, Guwahati-781026, Assam, The findings revealed that some environmental variables had mean values below the
India. Email: [email protected] standard limit, while others, notably dissolved oxygen (DO) and turbidity, had higher
values. The Pearson correlation coefficients was used to establish the closeness or
relationship within and between physico-chemical characteristics, with some display-
ing strong positive connections and others showing moderate to negative correlations.
The study identified several key environmental contaminants, including conductivity,
BOD, COD, TSS, D.O, chloride, TDS, sulphate, hardness, calcium, magnesium, potas-
sium, fecal coliform, and total coliform, based on their highest factor loading values.
Such contaminants are significantly impacting aquatic life and the overall ecosystem
of the Ganol River. Moreover, the Water Quality Index (WQI) assessment indicated a
continuous decline annually in the water quality of the Ganol River. This decline poses a
severe threat to the river’s sustainability and the well-being of the communities relying
on it for various purposes.

KEYWORDS
environmental variables, Ganol River, principal component analysis, water quality index

1 INTRODUCTION ents is the major cause of water contamination which is currently a

major concern in India and around the world (Alam & Singh, 2023). In
India has abundant water resources, including a network of rivers and India, Meghalaya is an important state in the North Eastern region. It is
snow cover in the Himalayan range, which can supply the country’s a hotspot for biodiversity and has a plethora of aquatic resources. Due
diverse water requirements. However, due to the country’s rapid pop- to human pressure, the aquatic resources of the Garo Hills in western
ulation growth and the need to meet rising irrigation, human, and Meghalaya, which is still undiscovered, is rapidly degrading (Marwein
industrial consumption demands, limited water supplies in many parts & Gupta, 2018). The majority of the population receives their drinking
of the country are depleting, and water quality is deteriorating (Hinge water from the Ganol River, which is a significant river in the region.
et al., 2022). The discharge of untreated sewage and industrial efflu- Diverse human endeavors, particularly the disposal of home and

Environ Qual Manage. 2024;33(4):955–966. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/tqem © 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC. 955
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956 DAS and BHARALI

commercial wastes, have an immediate effect on aquatic life (Shil et al., for agriculture, and the farmers along the riverbank rely entirely on the
2019). river for their livelihood.
Rivers are extremely significant and serve as the primary supply of The Ganol River Basin area (Exhibit 2), which includes Bangladesh,
inland water for both consumption and non-consumption purposes. Assam, and Meghalaya, has a significant economic and agricultural
The fact that certain rivers are coastal is also notable, underscoring influence. The Ganol River is a major river in the West Garo Hills
their importance in sustaining a variety of ecosystems and human of Meghalaya, India. The river begins at 872 m above sea level, lat-
activity in both inland and coastal areas. Therefore, it is crucial to mon- itude 25◦ 31′12″N, longitude 90◦ 13′12″E, and flows west through
itor and minimize river pollution as well as collect reliable data for Damalgre, Mukdangre, and Garobadha before entering Goalpara dis-
straightforward assessment and management (Singh et al., 2004). Nat- trict (Assam). The water is used for drinking, bathing, cleaning, and
ural and manmade pollution of the surface and groundwater has put irrigation.
aquatic life and human health in danger all around the world (Akhtar Exhibit 3 outlines various sampling stations, each with its corre-
et al., 2021). Rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, wells, underground aquifers, sponding description. Rongkhon, located near the Babupara Bridge,
reservoirs, and springs are all sources of drinking water in India (Shil was under reconstruction during the sampling period. The ongoing con-
et al., 2019). Water quality changes are mostly caused by anthro- struction at the bridge potentially influenced the water quality in the
pogenic and natural activity within the watershed region (Huang et al., vicinity. Stations like Ringre, Rongram, and Damalgre are situated in
2013). Physical and chemical criteria, as well as compliance with water marketplaces, contributing to water pollution through improper waste
quality regulations, can be used to assess the water quality of fresh- disposal. Effluents from food stalls, garbage, and other waste sources
water environments (BIS, 2012; WHO, 2017). The Water Quality Index can find their way into nearby water bodies, posing a risk to water
(WQI) has been used to assess the quality of water in rivers in India quality. Gandrak Falls, a popular tourist destination, faces potential
and overseas since it delivers a single value (Jehan et al., 2020; Jindal water quality impacts due to recreational activities around the water-
& Sharma, 2011; Lkr et al., 2020; Shah & Joshi, 2017; Shil et al., 2019; falls. Littering, the use of soaps or detergents, and other pollutants
Singh et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2019; Tyagi et al., 2020; Yisa & Tijani, from visitors have the potential to affect the water quality in this area.
2010). Additional ways for appropriate interpretation and reduction of Ganol Bridge, located near a dairy farm, contributes to water pollution
complex water quality datasets include multivariate analysis (Bostan- through the runoff of manure and chemicals used in farming practices.
maneshrad et al., 2018; Noori et al., 2012). These procedures offer This runoff may introduce contaminants that can negatively impact
simple interpretable results and aid in assessing the degradation of sur- water quality.
face water quality caused by natural and human activities (Singh et al., Chibragre, designated as a picnic spot, is susceptible to water quality
2004). issues as visitors may leave behind litter, and activities like barbe-
Freshwater systems abound in North East India, where rivers run freely cues or food preparation can introduce pollutants to the environment.
with pure water, however, the quality of these freshwater sources has The operation of the Hydro Power station is identified as a poten-
rapidly worsened over the previous few decades (Bora & Goswami, tial source of water quality impact, with concerns related to thermal
2017). There have been a few studies on the state of water and bio- pollution or discharge of chemicals used in power generation. Eden
diversity in NE India’s streams and rivers, with some remaining in Bari, characterized as a village area, faces water quality challenges
pristine condition and others in the early stages of degradation (Bar- due to agricultural runoff, domestic sewage, and improper waste dis-
man & Gupta, 2015; Bora & Goswami, 2017; Lkr et al., 2020; Marwein posal practices (Exhibit 4). Similarly, Pelga Falls, another tourist area,
& Gupta, 2018). This study aims to comprehensively assess the current is at risk of water quality degradation due to recreational activities
quality of Ganol river water using hydro-chemical analysis, multivariate and improper waste disposal by visitors. Proactive measures are essen-
statistics, and Water Quality Index (WQI). Again, the qualitative anal- tial to monitor and mitigate these potential sources of water pollution
ysis of water quality and its potential implications has been explored, across the various sampling stations.
and a management strategy for promoting sustainable water use in the
area has been offered.
2 DATA AND METHODOLOGY

1.1 River course: Background information, 2.1 Sample collection

historical information, origin, end
The samples were collected from different locations (Exhibit 3) of the
The Kalu River flows from the west Garo highlands to the Goalpara dis- river from 2014 to 2020. All bottles were cleaned with diluted acid
trict and is known as Ganol River (Exhibit 1). Its source is Tura peak, and then distilled water prior to sample collection. The samples were
and it flows west through Damalgre, Garobadha, and Rangapani before covered with carbon paper after collection to shield them from the
reaching Goalpara district. The Dilni and Rongram rivers are the river’s sun for field preservation for all the tests to be performed. These
main tributaries. The river’s basin is primarily flat terrain. This river bottles are then properly labeled using masking tape. All the sam-
is not particularly wide. Villages, agricultural areas, and a small forest ples were collected and placed in a plastic bottle. With the exception
area can all be found on the river’s bank. The rest of the land is used of BOD, which was analyzed five days later, all collected samples are
 15206483, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tqem.22171 by ISTEUB, Wiley Online Library on [06/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DAS and BHARALI 957

EXHIBIT 1 Ganol River. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

EXHIBIT 2 Place from where water samples are collected for test. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

evaluated within 24 h in accordance with the APHA (American Public +1 for a perfect positive correlation to −1 for a perfect negative corre-
Health Association) (1998) guidelines. lation, with 0 indicating no correlation. This coefficient is essential for
assessing the association between variables. On the other hand, Prin-
cipal Component Analysis (PCA) is a dimension reduction technique
2.2 Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (r) and
that creates new variables through linear combinations of original
principal component analysis/factor analysis
data variables, capturing the most critical information while minimizing
(PCA/FA)
dimensionality. PCA is often used to identify latent factors influenc-

Pearson’s coefficient of correlation, denoted as “r,” quantifies the ing a dataset, and these factors can be correlated with each other.

strength of the linear relationship between two variables, ranging from To enhance the interpretability of PCA results, Varimax rotation with
 15206483, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tqem.22171 by ISTEUB, Wiley Online Library on [06/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
958 DAS and BHARALI

Kaiser Normalization is applied, optimizing the factor coefficients’ vari-

ances. In summary, while Pearson’s correlation coefficient assesses the
linear relationship between two variables directly, PCA and Factor
Analysis (FA) are employed to uncover latent factors and simplify com-
plex data relationships, making them indirectly related through their
role in data analysis and interpretation.

25.60928
25.66236
25.71544
25.76852
Latitude
25.4414
25.1996

25.5334
25.5399

25.8216
25.5359
2.3 Water quality index (WQI)

The researchers applied a water quality index to provide an overall

assessment of the water quality at various sampling points and for the
entire Ganol River. The WQI technique is a helpful tool for explaining
water quality to the general public, especially policymakers. It is a clear
tool that enables the integration of water parameters that are regarded
important to the water’s quality (Hinge et al., 2022). The Ganol River’s
overall water quality was evaluated using a group of 12 commonly
90.22805556

90.2519444
90.2280555
90.239166
Longitude

used water quality indicators, including pH, EC, TDS, TSS, Cl, Alkalin-
90.21888

90.21777

90.15388
90.10888
90.2225

90.1933

ity, Hardness as CaCO3 , Sulphate, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical

Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Turbidity,
Nitrate, Calcium, Magnesium, and Fluoride. The “weighted arithmetic
index approach” (Brown et al., 1970) has been used to calculate WQI
(Oni & Fasakin, 2016):
∑
Qn Wn
WQI = ∑ (1)
Description of location

Wn
Near a Dairy Farm
Babupara Bridge

Where “Qn ” stands for the quality rating of the nth water quality param-
Near Water Fall

Near Water Fall

Power Station
Market Place

Market Place

Market Place

eter and “Wn ” stands for the nth water quality parameter’s unit weight.
Village Area
Picnic Spot
Locations

Equation (3) is used to determine the quality rating “Qn ”:

[ ]
Table showing the different sampling stations along with the locations.

Vn
Qn = x100 (2)
Vs

Where “Vn ” denotes the quantity of the nth parameter actually present,
“Vi ” denotes the parameter’s ideal value (Vi = 0 except for pH (Vi = 7)
and DO (Vi = 14 mg L−1 ), and “Vs ” denotes the nth water quality param-
eter’s maximum allowable value). In contrast, the quality rating for pH
Hydro Power Station

or DO (QpH ,DO) was determined based on

[ ]
Gandrak Falls
Ganol Bridge

V
Pelga Falls

QpH, Do = Vn − i − Vi
Rongkhon

Chibragre

Damalgre

(3)
Eden Bari
Rongram

Vs
Ringre
Place

The formula used to compute unit weight (Wn ) is:

k
Wn = (4)
Vs

where “k” is the proportionality constant, which can be found using

Equation (5). Exhibit 5 displays the computed relative weight units.
Sampling stations

⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥
k = ⎢∑ = 1, 2, 3 … .n⎥ (5)
EXHIBIT 3

n 1
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ Vs ⎦
Sl. No.

10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
 15206483, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tqem.22171 by ISTEUB, Wiley Online Library on [06/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DAS and BHARALI 959

EXHIBIT 4 River passing through Eden bari, polluted due to discharge of sewer lines. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

EXHIBIT 5 Water quality parameter relative weight. Health Organization (WHO) recommends alkalinity levels between 3
and 54 ppm for effectively treating various diseases. According to
Relative
weight this study, the average alkalinity is 36.83 ppm (Exhibit 6), which falls
1
Parameter Standard (VS )
VS
Wn = K/VS inside this group. Since, the Ganol River’s BOD (1.866 mg L−1 ), TSS
pH 8.5 0.117 0.062 (11.869 mg L−1 ), and COD (5.213 mg L−1 ) values are within the accept-

Conductivity 300 0.003 0.002

able range (5 mg L−1 , 500 mg L−1 , 10 mg L−1 ) it suggests that the
water quality is relatively stable and not heavily polluted by organic
Alkalinity 200 0.005 0.003
matter and suspended solids. This, in turn, helps maintain a more
Dissolved 5 0.2 0.105
consistent dissolved oxygen level in the water, promoting a healthier
oxygen
aquatic ecosystem. Adequate dissolved oxygen levels support aquatic
BOD 5 0.2 0.105
life and mitigate the risk of oxygen depletion, ensuring the well-being
COD 10 0.1 0.052
of the river’s ecosystems and the overall quality of its water remains
Chloride 250 0.004 0.002
within acceptable standards. In the downstream section, the turbidity
TDS 500 0.002 0.001 of the Ganol river varied from 2.1 NTU to 26.4 NTU. Very high tur-
TSS 500 0.002 0.001 bidity values were recorded in almost all locations, indicating that the
Sulphate 200 0.005 0.003 surrounding water is quite muddy. Water with high conductivity may
Turbidity 5 0.2 0.105 include more dissolved ions than usual, which might have an impact on

Hardness 200 0.005 0.003 the environment, infrastructure, agriculture, and aquatic life. The elec-
trical conductivity (EC) reached its peak at 155 (µS/cm) in May 2016,
Nitrate 45 0.022 0.012
and it remained consistently high until September 2016. However, the
Calcium 75 0.013 0.007
water’s average pH value of 7.435 falls within the acceptable range set
Magnesium 30 0.033 0.017
by the Department of Environment (DOE) (6.5–8.5), indicating its suit-
Fluoride 1 1 0.523 ability for both household and agricultural use (Howladar et al., 2018;
1
∑ = 1.913 ∑ Wn = 1 WHO, 2017). Moreover, the hardness values of the water are within
VS

the acceptable limits defined by both the World Health Organization,

2011 (300 mg/L) and the Indian Standards Institute (300 mg/L). Dis-
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS solved oxygen (DO) is a critical parameter for assessing water quality
in natural water bodies, especially concerning aquatic life (Lkr et al.,
3.1 Water quality of Ganol River 2020). The Ganol River’s DO level exhibited fluctuations at various
locations, with the mean DO value being 7.64 mg/L.
The Ganol River has long served as the primary water source for
the diverse needs of West Garo hills. However, in recent decades, its
water quality has been consistently deteriorating. This decline can be 3.2 Statistical analysis of water quality in Ganol
attributed to increasing human activities, direct disposal of industrial River
and municipal wastes, inadequate drainage infrastructure, and poorly
structured natural waterways in the region. Additionally, the river The descriptive data on the water quality of the Ganol River from
receives surface runoff from surrounding urban catchments, leading ten stations are shown in Exhibit 5. The maximum, minimum, mean,
to elevated concentrations of BOD, COD, iron, TSS, and turbidity, ulti- standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis which provide insights into
mately reducing the river’s alkalinity. It is worth noting that the World the shape, symmetry, and tail characteristics of a dataset, aiding in
 960

EXHIBIT 6 Physical and chemical properties of a sample of Ganol river water statistically analyzed.

Parameters Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Kurtosis WHO (2011)
pH 7.1 8 7.435 0.182 0.513 0.675 8.5
Conductivity (µS/cm) 58 155 93.817 29.696 0.794 −0.929 300
Alkalinity (mg/L) 16 52 36.830 8.679 −0.328 −0.944 200
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 6.8 9 7.646 0.371 0.355 1.227 5
BOD (mg/L) 1 2.9 1.866 0.504 0.273 −1.022 5
COD (mg/L) 4 8 5.213 0.935 0.950 0.752 10
Chloride (mg/L) 4 20 10.893 4.045 0.728 −0.165 250
TDS (mg/L) 28 112 66.310 19.461 0.549 −0.474 500
TSS (mg/L) 5 45 11.869 8.343 2.109 4.126 500
Sulphate (mg/L) 2.9 19.4 8.646 4.382 0.885 −0.498 200
Turbidity (NTU) 2.1 26.4 6.218 4.918 2.711 6.735 5
Hardness (mg/L) 20 68 36.440 12.587 0.728 −0.468 200
Nitrate (mg/L) 0.33 5.3 1.280 1.337 1.358 0.501 45
Calcium (mg/L) 12 45 25.095 8.648 0.577 −0.751 75
Magnesium (mg/L) 4 23 11.798 4.290 0.678 −0.036 30
Feacal Coliform 33 970 399.94 280.041 0.696 −0.844 1000
(MPN/100 mL)
Total Kjeldahl (mg/L) 0.12 0.55 0.315 0.125 0.537 −1.022 100
Total Coliform 63 1500 646.35 300.342 0.620 0.389 5000
(MPN/100 mL)
Ammonia Nitrogen (mg/L) 0.06 0.350 0.184 0.086 0.577 −1.074 50
Total Phosphate (mg/L) 0.010 0.120 0.027 0.024 2.349 5.428 5
Potassium (mg/L) 1 6.6 3.167 1.491 0.437 −0.840 12
Fluoride (mg/L) 0.04 0.09 0.055 0.010 1.108 1.693 1.000
DAS and BHARALI

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DAS and BHARALI 961

the assessment of distributional properties and guiding the choice of quality dynamics in the research area. Chloride, a prevalent element
appropriate statistical analyses are determined for each parameter. in the universe, is found in water as various forms like NaCl, KCl,
In the upper stream of the river, several water quality parameters and CaCl2 , with an average concentration of 4.46 mg L−1 . However,
including TSS, Turbidity, Nitrate, Total Phosphate, and Fluoride exhibit despite this logical correlation, a significant negative correlation is not
a tendency for occasional higher values or pollution events (positive observed between chloride and electrical conductivity. Exhibit 7 indi-
skewness), while Alkalinity, in contrast, consistently maintains lower cates weakly positive relationships between various pairs, including
values and shows a negative skewness, especially in the downstream pH-Total Coliform (0.421), BOD-Dissolved Oxygen (0.491), and Total
areas of the river. The TSS has a skewness of 2.109 and a kurtosis of Coliform-BOD (0.460), among others.
4.126, whereas the turbidity has a skewness of 2.711 and a kurtosis
of 6.735, the nitrate has a skewness of 1.358 and a kurtosis of 0.501,
the total phosphate has a skewness of 2.349 and a kurtosis of 5.428 3.4 Exploring factor analysis for identifying water
and Fluoride has a skewness 1.108 and kurtosis 1.693. In Exhibit 5, pollution sources
all parameters exhibit platykurtic kurtosis values (<3), except for TSS
(kurtosis value 4.126), turbidity (kurtosis value 6.735), and total phos- During a six-year investigation (2014–2020) into the water quality of
phate (kurtosis value 5.428), which display leptokurtic characteristics the Ganol River, factor analysis (FA) was utilized to identify the key
as their values surpass 3. factors responsible for the observed variations in water quality. The
(Note: The following notation is used: −1 or >1 = strongly skewed, study examined twenty-two variables to discern the contributing fac-
between −1 and −1/2 or between +1 and +1/2 = slightly skewed, and tors affecting the changes in water quality. Notably, the significance of
between −1/2 and +1/2 fairly symmetric. A distribution with a kurtosis each factor was determined by considering Eigenvalues with values of
of 3 is considered mesokurtic, while one with a kurtosis <3 is platykur- 1.0 or higher. The results, presented in Exhibit 8, revealed the presence
tic, and a kurtosis >3 indicates leptokurtic. All parameter units, except of four significant factors that collectively accounted for 77.255% of
pH, turbidity (NTU), and EC (µS cm−1 ), are given in mg L−1 .) the total variance in water quality. The Eigenvalues greater than 1 asso-
In terms of skewness and kurtosis, the notation employed denotes the ciated with each factor emphasized their substantial influence on the
degree of skewness and the type of distribution. A distribution with a overall water quality of the Ganol River.
skewness value of −1 or greater than 1 is considered strongly skewed, According to Exhibit 8, all four factors possess eigenvalues greater than
while values between −1 and −1/2 or between +1 and +1/2 represent 1, with factor 1 showing the highest significance, with an eigenvalue of
slightly skewed distributions. When the skewness value falls between 9.635 and contributing to 43.796% of the total variance. The findings
−1/2 and +1/2, the distribution is considered to be fairly symmetric. displayed in Exhibit 9 revealed that factor 1 showed robust positive
Additionally, the kurtosis value aids in characterizing the distribution. loadings in multiple parameters, such as conductivity, BOD, chloride,
A kurtosis of three indicates a mesokurtic distribution, while values TDS, sulphate, hardness as CaCO3 , calcium as CaCO3 , magnesium, and
less than three signify a platykurtic distribution, and values greater potassium. The presence of strong positive loadings in conductivity,
than three suggest a leptokurtic distribution. The units for all param- BOD, chloride, TDS, sulphate, hardness as CaCO3 , calcium as CaCO3 ,
eters, except for pH, turbidity (NTU), and EC (µS cm−1 ), are measured magnesium, and potassium within factor 1 implies that industrial dis-
in mg L−1 . charge, sewage, and agricultural runoff could be contributing factors
to the increased levels of these variables in the Ganol River (Tyagi et al.,
2020). As a consequence, the overall water quality of the river might
3.3 Correlation matrix be affected. On the other hand, factor 2, accounting for 17.951% of
the total variance, demonstrated moderately positive loadings in fecal
Exhibit 6 presents the correlation matrix of the physico-chemical and total coliforms. This points to pollution sources like sewage and
characteristics of the river. This matrix depicts the strength of corre- organic waste contributing to the deterioration of water quality in the
lation based on Pearson’s coefficient and highlights the relationships Ganol River. The findings from the factor analysis provide insights into
between different variables (Zeinalzadeh & Rezaei, 2017). In Exhibit the primary factors driving the fluctuations in water quality within the
7, the correlation strength is further categorized into three groups: Ganol River. The presence of multiple pollutants, including those from
strong (0.70–1.0), moderate (0.50–0.70), and weak (below 0.50). A pos- industrial discharges and sewage, is likely contributing to the observed
itive correlation between parameters indicates that as one parameter decline in water quality (Bora & Goswami, 2017).
increases, the other parameter tends to increase as well. Conversely, Exhibit 9 provides further insights into the factor analysis results,
a negative correlation signifies that the parameters’ sources and char- revealing noteworthy aspects of factor 2. This factor exhibits moder-
acteristics differ, leading to a decline in one parameter value as the ately negative loadings on TSS and a high negative loading on turbidity,
other increases. Of particular note are the significant positive correla- indicating potential non-point sources of pollution such as surface
tions observed between Hardness-Conductivity (0.909), Total Kjeldal- runoff from precipitation and agricultural activities. Factor 3, on the
Ammonia nitrogen (0.933), Hardness-Calcium (0.949), and Hardness- other hand, was characterized by somewhat positive loadings on D.O,
Magnesium (0.920). These findings shed light on the interrelationships Faecal Coliform, and Total Coliform (0.520, 0.560, and 0.581, respec-
among the studied variables, providing valuable insights into the water tively) and a negatively loaded pH of 0.635. Factor 3 exhibits a positive
 962

EXHIBIT 7 Interrelationships among water quality parameters: correlation matrix.

Dissolved Feacal Total Total Ammonia

pH Conductivity Alkalinity Oxygen BOD COD Chloride TDS TSS Sulphate Turbidity Hardness Nitrate Calcium Magnesium Coliform Kjeldahl Coliform Nitrogen Total Phosphate Potassium Fluoride

pH 1.00
Conductivity 0.35 1.00
Alkalinity 0.22 0.61 1.00

Dissolved Oxygen −0.36 −0.28 0.03 1.00

BOD 0.41 0.66 0.21 −0.49 1.00
COD 0.21 0.04 0.14 −0.25 0.04 1.00

Chloride 0.29 0.80 0.64 −0.33 0.67 0.04 1.00

TDS 0.23 0.86 0.66 −0.18 0.56 0.09 0.74 1.00
TSS −0.04 −0.02 −0.30 −0.13 0.28 0.00 −0.01 −0.22 1.00

Sulphate 0.28 0.74 0.31 −0.32 0.77 0.00 0.68 0.66 0.12 1.00
Turbidity −0.11 −0.04 −0.35 −0.13 0.44 −0.06 0.03 −0.08 0.78 0.29 1.00

Hardness 0.33 0.91 0.51 −0.30 0.71 0.15 0.75 0.82 −0.02 0.79 0.04 1.00
Nitrate 0.15 0.43 0.05 −0.37 0.69 −0.06 0.50 0.40 0.37 0.75 0.61 0.51 1.00
Calcium 0.37 0.89 0.51 −0.28 0.73 0.08 0.74 0.82 −0.05 0.75 0.04 0.95 0.49 1.00

Magnesium 0.29 0.83 0.55 −0.18 0.60 0.15 0.69 0.73 −0.03 0.70 −0.01 0.92 0.43 0.83 1.00
Feacal Coliform −0.27 −0.14 0.40 0.40 −0.37 0.06 −0.14 0.10 −0.18 −0.30 −0.20 −0.19 −0.25 −0.13 −0.09 1.00
Total Kjeldahl 0.21 0.51 0.14 −0.16 0.62 −0.17 0.43 0.50 −0.02 0.78 0.24 0.54 0.67 0.55 0.43 −0.26 1.00

Total Coliform −0.42 −0.10 0.37 0.37 −0.46 −0.09 −0.12 0.05 −0.30 −0.29 −0.32 −0.16 −0.30 −0.12 −0.09 0.77 −0.27 1.00
Ammonia Nitrogen 0.20 0.54 0.18 −0.18 0.67 −0.12 0.48 0.52 0.05 0.82 0.33 0.61 0.76 0.59 0.50 −0.25 0.93 −0.30 1.00
Total Phosphate −0.09 −0.06 −0.35 −0.17 0.43 −0.16 0.11 −0.12 0.59 0.34 0.77 0.01 0.62 0.00 −0.05 −0.24 0.24 −0.36 0.37 1.00

Potassium 0.24 0.76 0.49 −0.30 0.72 0.04 0.84 0.66 0.16 0.79 0.22 0.79 0.64 0.75 0.73 −0.15 0.48 −0.15 0.60 0.32 1.00
Fluoride 0.15 0.53 0.35 −0.23 0.45 0.01 0.44 0.55 −0.09 0.60 0.01 0.58 0.53 0.58 0.53 −0.06 0.55 0.04 0.56 0.00 0.49 1.00

*Note: The color values are significance at 5% level.

*The red color values show strong correlation strength (0.70–1.0), green shows moderate correlation strength (0.50–0.70), and the remaining values shows weak correlation strength (below 0.50).
DAS and BHARALI

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DAS and BHARALI 963

EXHIBIT 8 Summary of factor loadings, total variance, and eigenvalues for four factors.

Cumulative Cumulative (%)

Factor Eigen values Eigen values % Total variance variance
1 9.635 9.635 43.796 43.796
2 3.949 13.584 17.951 61.747
3 1.975 15.559 8.975 70.722
4 1.437 16.996 6.533 77.255

E X H I B I T 9 Summary of component matrix showing loadings for EXHIBIT 10 Summary of WQI of Ganol River with water quality
22 environmental variables of water of the Ganol River during status (WQS).
2014−2020.
Year WQI WQS Class
Environmental 2014 113.85 Poor 3
variables Component
2015 127.87 Poor 3
1 2 3 4
2016 142.55 Poor 3
pH 0.386 0.034 −0.635 −0.014
2017 160.72 Poor 3
Conductivity 0.879 0.299 −0.059 0.070
2018 266.56 Very Poor 4
Alkalinity 0.471 0.709 0.125 0.227
2019 287.42 Very Poor 4
Dissolved Oxygen −0.394 0.250 0.520 −0.161
2020 300.54 Very Poor 4
BOD 0.854 −0.299 −0.106 0.087
COD 0.055 0.147 −0.433 0.503
Chloride 0.826 0.200 −0.019 0.186
TDS 0.801 0.427 0.091 0.033 bial indicators (D.O, Faecal Coliform, Total Coliform) and decreased pH
TSS 0.090 −0.694 0.156 0.518 in the context of water quality assessment.
Sulphate 0.916 −0.137 0.094 −0.114 Factor 3 represents the interplay of the river’s physico-chemical
Turbidity 0.224 −0.802 0.324 0.300 aspects and nonpoint pollution sources, accounting for 8.975% of the

Hardness 0.918 0.222 −0.072 0.070 overall variance. On the other hand, factor 4 explains 6.533% of the
variance and displays a modestly negative loading on Total Kjheldal
Nitrate 0.732 −0.472 0.256 −0.011
nitrogen (0.513) and a modestly positive loading on COD (0.503) and
Calcium 0.897 0.235 −0.047 0.041
TSS (0.513). The presence of COD indicates the influence of anthro-
Magnesium 0.822 0.289 −0.028 0.130
pogenic activities, representing both point and nonpoint sources of
Feacal Coliform −0.259 0.532 0.560 0.313
pollution and erosional effects in the area.
Total Kjeldahl 0.725 −0.185 0.184 −0.513
Total Coliform −0.280 0.613 0.581 0.151
Ammonia Nitrogen 0.786 −0.237 0.221 −0.389 3.5 Utilizing water quality index (WQI)
Total Phosphate 0.235 −0.796 0.300 0.175
Potassium 0.867 0.010 0.115 0.219 The analysis revealed that approximately 70% of the water sampling
sites in the region exhibited bad water quality, while 20% of the remain-
Fluoride 0.654 0.151 0.160 −0.225
ing stations had extremely poor water quality. The lowest WQI rating
(Exhibit 10), indicating a low level of pollution, was recorded in 2014,
with the water quality classified as class 3 (bad). Similarly, poor water
quality was observed in the subsequent years 2015, 2016, and 2017.
association with dissolved oxygen (D.O), Faecal Coliform, and Total Col- However, in the years 2018, 2019, and 2020, there was an increase
iform, as indicated by respective loadings of 0.520, 0.560, and 0.581. in the WQI, indicating deteriorating water quality (Exhibit 11). The
These positive loadings suggest that higher values of Factor 3 corre- water at these stations fell into class 4, signifying extremely low quality.
spond to elevated levels of these water quality indicators. Conversely, The remaining stations were categorized as class 3, indicating rela-
a negative loading of −0.635 on pH indicates an inverse relationship, tively better water quality compared to the stations with extremely
implying that as Factor 3 increases, the pH is expected to decrease. The low quality. Upon further analysis (Exhibit 10), it was noted that
magnitude of these loadings signifies the strength of these relation- almost all the water parameters were below the standard limits, except
ships, with larger absolute values indicating more robust associations. for DO, COD, and Turbidity values, which exceeded the acceptable
In summary, Factor 3 is characterized by a pattern of increased micro- standards.
 15206483, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tqem.22171 by ISTEUB, Wiley Online Library on [06/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
964 DAS and BHARALI

EXHIBIT 11 Graph showing the variation of WQI. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

The deteriorating water quality of the Ganol River, particu- matrix revealed robust positive correlations between various parame-
larly at Rongkhon, Gandrak Falls, and Pelga Falls, can primarily be ters, including hardness-conductivity, total kjeldal-ammonia nitrogen,
attributed to domestic waste discharge from expanding populated hardness, calcium, and magnesium. Additionally, the factor analysis
areas and urban development along the riverbanks. The most severe revealed that four distinct components collectively explained 77.25%
degradation of water quality has been observed at locations such as of the total variance observed in the water quality data.
Ringre, Rongram, Chibragre, Eden Bari, and Damalgre. This decline is The study identified several factors contributing to the river’s water
likely a result of various factors, including industrial discharges, agri- quality degradation, including industrial waste, sewage pollution, sur-
cultural runoff, untreated sewage, and other contaminants entering the face runoff, organic compounds, and agricultural activities. These pollu-
river, compounded by the presence of smaller human settlements near tants are directly or indirectly discharged into the river through various
the riverbanks. In contrast, areas such as Ganol Bridge and the Hydro drainage systems, such as sewage, garbage disposal, and hospital
Power Station of the Ganol River exhibit a moderate level of water wastes.
quality. This can be attributed to factors such as soil erosion, fragmen- The Water Quality Index (WQI) analysis indicated that most of the
tation of rocks and minerals, stemming from ongoing road construction water samples from the Ganol River were of poor quality. This sug-
activities along the Ganol River’s stretch. These findings underscore gests that the cumulative effects of multiple pollutants are increasingly
the multifaceted nature of water quality deterioration in the region, contaminating the river over time.
emphasizing the critical need for targeted environmental management The implications of these findings on the environment and the
and pollution control measures to safeguard the health of the river and Ganol River are significant. Excessive turbidity levels, surpassing the
its surrounding ecosystems. recommended thresholds, can detrimentally impact aquatic life and
The study revealed a worrisome pattern of declining water quality in disrupt the delicate balance of the river’s ecosystem, while elevated
the region, as a substantial number of sampling sites exhibited bad levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) prove to be beneficial for the well-
and extremely poor water conditions. To counter this alarming sit- being of aquatic organisms. The strong positive correlations among
uation, immediate action and efficient management approaches are various parameters highlight the interconnections between different
imperative. Particular attention should be given to controlling the ele- pollutants, which can amplify the overall impact on the river’s health.
vated levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen Demand The presence of industrial waste, sewage, and other pollutants in the
(COD), and Turbidity to guarantee the availability of clean and safe river poses serious health risks to both the environment and the com-
water resources in the study area. By addressing the sources of pollu- munities relying on the river for various purposes, including drinking
tion, we can safeguard the ecological health and the well-being of the water. The deterioration of water quality can lead to the loss of biodi-
communities reliant on the river’s water supply. versity, harm to aquatic organisms, and potentially affect the quality of
groundwater and adjacent ecosystems.
To mitigate these issues, urgent measures are required to address
4 CONCLUSIONS the pollution sources and implement effective waste management and
water treatment strategies. Collaborative efforts involving govern-
The findings from the physico-chemical study indicated that a signif- ment bodies, local communities, and industries are crucial to protect
icant number of water samples surpassed the recommended limits and restore the health of the Ganol River and safeguard the environ-
for dissolved oxygen levels and turbidity. Notably, the correlation ment for future generations.
 15206483, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tqem.22171 by ISTEUB, Wiley Online Library on [06/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DAS and BHARALI 965

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Hinge, G., Bharali, B., Baruah, A., & Sharma, A. (2022). Integrated ground-
The authors extend their gratitude to the faculty members of the water quality analysis using Water Quality Index, GIS and multivariate
technique: A case study of Guwahati City. Environmental Earth Sciences,
Civil Engineering Department at Assam downtown University, Guwa-
81(16), 412.
hati, Assam, for their valuable support and guidance. Additionally, the Howladar, M. F., al Numanbakth, M., & Faruque, M. O. (2018). An applica-
authors express their appreciation to the Civil Engineering Depart- tion of Water Quality Index (WQI) and multivariate statistics to evaluate
ment at Scholar’s Institute of Technology and Management, Guwahati, the water quality around Maddhapara Granite Mining Industrial Area,
Dinajpur, Bangladesh. Environmental Systems Research, 6(1), 1–18.
Assam, for providing essential information and data that contributed to
Howladar, M. F., & Rahman, M. (2016). Characterization of underground
the success of this study. tunnel water hydrochemical system and uses through multivariate sta-
tistical methods: A case study from Maddhapara Granite Mine, Dinajpur,
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT Bangladesh. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(24), 1–16.
Huang, J., Zhan, J., Yan, H., Wu, F., & Deng, X. (2013). Evaluation of the
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is
impacts of land use on water quality: A case study in the Chaohu Lake
no conflict of interest. Basin. The Scientific World Journal, 2013.
ICMR. (1975). Manual of standards of quality for drinking water supllies.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Jehan, S., Ullah, I., Khan, S., Muhammad, S., Khattak, S. A., & Khan, T. (2020).
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the Evaluation of the Swat River, Northern Pakistan, water quality using
multivariate statistical techniques and water quality index (WQI) model.
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(31), 38545–38558.
Jindal, R., & Sharma, C. (2011). Studies on water quality of Sutlej River
ORCID around Ludhiana with reference to physicochemical parameters. Envi-
Gayatri Das https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7896-4243 ronmental Monitoring and Assessment, 174(1), 417–425.
Liu, C.-W., Lin, K.-H., & Kuo, Y.-M. (2003). Application of factor analysis in the
assessment of groundwater quality in a blackfoot disease area in Taiwan.
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