UNIT 5

Data Converters and Memories (14 Marks)

5.1 Digital to Analog Data Converter (DAC)- circuit diagram and working of Weighted resistor
DAC and R-2R Ladder DAC, DAC Specification/Selection factors 5.2 Analog to Digital Data
Converter (ADC) : Block Diagram, Types and Working of Dual Slope ADC, Successive
Approximation, Flash Type ADC, ADC selection factors/specifications 5.3 Memories: Types-
Primary memory , Secondary Memory, Organization, Dimension, Memory Bank, Features ,
Applications: RAM (SRAM, DRAM), Volatile and Non-Volatile, ROM (PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM), Flash Memory,Comparison of RAM and ROM,EPROM and Flash Memory,SIMM:
Features, SSD memory: Features,
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Define Data converters

A data converter is an electronic circuit that converts data of one form to another. Data
Conversion is the process of changing or converting one form of data into another form. In
processing and communication there are only two types of data forms i.e analog and digital data.
The converter which converts the digital data into analog data is called analog to digital to
converter (ADC) and which converts digital to analog is called Digital to analog converter
(DAC).

Need of data converter

● To convert analog signal into digital or vice versa as per requirement .
● So for the above A-D and D-A converter are used.
● Due to advantages of digital signal in many of the applications digital signal is used but
digital signal are not always readily available so analog signal is converted into digital
signal
● Physical quantities (temperature ,pressure etc ) introduces error due to noise so for better
results these physical quantities are converted into digital form.
● Digital representation makes storage possible,processing simple and transmission easy.
● So A-D converter is used and to convert processed signal back to analog D-A converter is
used.
● ADC and DAC are called as data converters and are available in IC form

Types of data converter

1.DAC or D-A converter
● Binary Weighted Resistor DAC
● R-2R Ladder DAC
 2.ADC or A-D converter
● Simultaneous or Flash A/D Converters
● Counter-Type A/D Converter
● Tracking-Type A/D Converter
● Successive Approximation Type A/D Converter
● Single-, Dual- and Multi Slope A/D Converters
● Sigma-Delta A/D Converter

Specifications of a Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

Resolution:
The resolution of a DAC is the smallest change in the output of the DAC for any change in
digital input.i.e. if an input to DAC changes one bit, how much analog output has changed in full
scale deflection.
% resolution = [Step size / Full scale output (FSO)] * 100
The resolution is the number of states into which the full scale output is divided. i.e if a 8 bit
DAC can resolve the FSO up to 255 levels. Each level of output is called step size and for a
higher number of bits the resolution will be better.
% resolution = [1/(2N-1) *10
Resolution is measured in Millivolts.
Accuracy
The Accuracy of a DAC is the difference between practical analog output to the ideal expected
output for a given digital input. The DAC contains electronic components where the gain plays a
major role which can introduce gain error in the output. Due to this the full scale output may
differ compared to the ideal one. For an example if a DAC of 10 V is said to have an accuracy of
0.01% there will be 10mv output deviation. The other factor which implicates the accuracy is the
zero offset error i.e for a zero input the output of DAC reflects some offset value.
Linearity:
The relationship between Digital Input and analog Output should be linear bt practically it is not
possible due to errors in resistor
Temperature sensitivity
Analog output should not change with temperature but practically its not possible as parameters
of opamp changes with rise in temperature.
Settling Time
It is time taken by the circuit to give stable output .
Conversion Speed
The conversion speed of the DAC is output analog value settling time period for a change in the
digital input. This is also called the settling time period of DAC.It is measured in microseconds
and in some advanced micro controller DAC in nanoseconds.
Monotonicity
The Digital to Analog Converter is said to be monotonic if its analog value is either increasing or
equal to previous value for an LSB change in input digital signal.
Supply Rejection
It is the ability of DAC to maintain its important characteristics unchanged with variation in
power supply.

Specifications of ADC
Resolution of ADC:
The resolution of an A/D converter is the quantum of the input analogue voltage change required
to increment its digital output from one value to the next higher code value. i.e. if an n bit ADC
then it needs 1/ 2n-1 of full scaled output to reflect at the output of ADC.
For example The resolution of an eight-bit A/D converter can be expressed as one part in 255 or
as 0.4% of full scale or simply as eight-bit resolution. If such a converter has a full-scale
analogue input range of 10 V, it can resolve a 40 mV change in input.
Aliasing or sampling frequency
It is the rate at which the rate of the analog value is sampled for digitizing. If the sampling
frequency is less than the signal frequency then due to the ADC output will be distorted
and cannot reproduce the exact digital value. So to extract the nice digital output the ADC
nyquist frequency should be at least 5 or 10 times greater than the signal frequency.
Step recovery of ADC:
It shows how quickly an ADC changes its output to match a large, sudden change in the analog
input.

Binary Weighted Resistor DAC

It consist of
1.n switches one for each bit applied to input
2. a weighted resistor ladder network,where resistance is inversely proportional to numerical
significance of corresponding binary digit
3. A reference voltage Vref
4. A summing amplifier that adds the current flowing in a resistive network to develop a signal
that is proportional to digital input.
In the weighted resistor type DAC, each digital level is converted into an equivalent analog
voltage or current.

It consists of a parallel binary weighted resistor bank and a feedback resistor Rf.
The switch positions decides the binary word B2 is Msb bit and B0 is Lsb bit
In the circuit op-amp is used as current to voltage converter.
Analysis:
The digital switches shown in the above figure will be connected to ground, when the
corresponding input bits are equal to ‘0’. Similarly, the digital switches shown in the above
figure will be connected to the negative reference voltage, −VR when the corresponding input
bits are equal to ‘1’.

In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal of an op-amp is connected to ground. That
means zero volts is applied at the non-inverting input terminal of op-amp.

∴I=I1+I2+I3+ …………+In
The inverting terminal of op-amp is virtually at ground potential.

The following figure shows the staircase output voltage waveform obtained for R-2R ladder
DAC (when VR is positive).
Advantages:
• It is Simple in Construction.
• It provides fast conversion.
Disadvantages:
1) When the number of binary input increases, it is not easy to maintain the resistance ratio.
2) Very wide ranges of different values of resistors are required. For high accuracy of conversion,
the values of resistances must be accurate.
3) Different current flows through resistors, so their wattage ratings are also different.
4) Accuracy and stability of conversion depends primarily on the absolute accuracy of the
resistors and tracking of each other with temperature.
eg. For 10 digit converter
small resistance value = 10 kΩ and
large resistance value = 5.12 MΩ
It is very difficult and expensive to obtain stable precise resistances of such value.
5) Since 'R' is very large, op-amp bias currents gives a drop which offsets output.
6) Resistances of switches may be comparable with the smallest resistor.

Example : what is full scale output for 6 bit binary weighted network with Vref 10V

Consider do to d5 as 1
V0 = 10/2( 1+½+¼+⅛+1/16+1/32)
= 10 * 0.9843
= 9.84 V
Example : calculate analog output for 5 bit weighted resistor for input
1. 10110 2. 10001 and V ref = 10V
Ans
 1. 10110
V0 = 10/2 (1+0+1+¼+1*⅛+0)
= 10*0.6875
= 6.875
2.10001
V0 = 10/2(1+1/16)
= 10* 0.5315 = 5.315V
R-2R ladder DAC

The R-2R Ladder DAC overcomes the disadvantages of a binary weighted resistor DAC. As the
name suggests, R-2R Ladder DAC produces an analog output, which is almost equal to the
digital (binary) input by using a R-2R ladder network in the inverting adder circuit

Equation-1 above mentions output analog voltage for R-2R ladder type of DAC which is
non-inverting type.
R-2R inverting ladder DAC

Advantages:
• Only two resistor values are used in R-2R ladder type.
• It does not need as precision resistors as Binary weighted DACs.
• It is cheap and easy to manufacture.
Disadvantages:
• It has a slower conversion rate.
Applications of D to A converter
● To convert digital command signal into analog example motor speed control
● As counter ADC or successive approximation type ADC
● For displaying information on CRT or XY plotter
● In computers
● In electronic equipment such as curve tracer

Find Output Voltage for R-2R ladder Vr=10V

1.101001 2. 11001
Solution

V0 =-10(1*½+1*¼+0*⅛+0*1/16+1*1/32)
= - 7.812 V

101001
Vo = -10(1*½ +0*¼+1*⅛+0*1/16+0*1/32+1*1/64)
= -6.40V
Compare weighted Resistor DAC and R-2R ladder DAC

Sr.No. Parameter weighted Resistor DAC R-2R ladder DAC

1 Simplicity Simple Slightly complicated

2 Range of resistor Wide range is required Resistors of only two

value values are required

3 No. of resistors per One Two

bit

4 Ease of expansion Complicated to expand for more Easy to expand

no. of bits

Analog To Digital Converter

Successive Approximation type ADC

A successive approximation type ADC produces a digital output, which is approximately equal
to the analog input by using successive approximation technique internally.
The block diagram of a successive approximation ADC is shown in the following figure

The successive approximation ADC mainly consists of 5 blocks− Clock signal generator,
Successive Approximation Register (SAR), DAC, comparator and Control logic.

The working of a successive approximation ADC is as follows −

The control logic resets all the bits of SAR and enables the clock signal generator in order to
send the clock pulses to SAR, when it received the start commanding signal.
The binary (digital) data present in SAR will be updated for every clock pulse based on the
output of comparator. The output of SAR is applied as an input of DAC.
DAC converts the received digital input, which is the output of SAR, into an analog output. The
comparator compares this analog value Va with the external analog input value Vi The output of
a comparator will be ‘1’ as long as Vi is greater than Va . Similarly, the output of comparator
will be ‘0’, when Vi is less than or equal to Va
The operations mentioned in above steps will be continued until the digital output is a valid one.
The digital output will be a valid one, when it is almost equivalent to the corresponding external
analog input value Vi
Advantages:
1 Conversion time is very small.
2 Conversion time is constant and independent of the amplitude of the analog input signal VA.
Disadvantages:
1 Circuit is complex.
2 The conversion time is more compared to flash type ADC.

Flash type ADC

A flash type ADC produces an equivalent digital output for a corresponding analog input in no
time. Hence, flash type ADC is the fastest ADC. The circuit diagram of a 3-bit flash type ADC
The 3-bit flash type ADC consists of a voltage divider network, 7 comparators and a priority
encoder.
The working of a 3-bit flash type ADC is as follows.

The voltage divider network contains 8 equal resistors. A reference voltage VR is applied across
that entire network with respect to the ground. The voltage drop across each resistor from bottom
to top with respect to ground will be the integer multiples (from 1 to 8) of VR8
.The external input voltage Vi
is applied to the non-inverting terminal of all comparators. The voltage drop across each resistor
from bottom to top with respect to ground is applied to the inverting terminal of comparators
from bottom to top.
At a time, all the comparators compare the external input voltage with the voltage drops present
at the respective other input terminal. That means, the comparison operations take place by each
comparator parallelly.
The output of the comparator will be ‘1’ as long as Vi is greater than the voltage drop present at
the respective other input terminal. Similarly, the output of comparator will be ‘0’, when, Vi is
less than or equal to the voltage drop present at the respective other input terminal.
All the outputs of comparators are connected as the inputs of priority encoder.This priority
encoder produces a binary code (digital output), which is corresponding to the high priority input
that has ‘1’.
Therefore, the output of priority encoder is nothing but the binary equivalent (digital output) of
external analog input voltage, Vi
.The flash type ADC is used in the applications where the conversion speed of analog input into
digital data should be very high.
Dual Slope ADC

A dual slope ADC produces an equivalent digital output for a corresponding analog input by
using two (dual) slope technique.
The block diagram of a dual slope ADC

The dual slope ADC mainly consists of 5 blocks: Integrator, Comparator, Clock signal generator,
Control logic and Counter.
The working of a dual slope ADC is as follows −
The control logic resets the counter and enables the clock signal generator in order to send the
clock pulses to the counter, when it is received the start commanding signal.
Control logic pushes the switch sw to connect to the external analog input voltage Vi , when it is
received the start commanding signal. This input voltage is applied to an integrator.
The output of the integrator is connected to one of the two inputs of the comparator and the other
input of comparator is connected to ground.
Comparator compares the output of the integrator with zero volts (ground) and produces an
output, which is applied to the control logic.
The counter gets incremented by one for every clock pulse and its value will be in binary
(digital) format. It produces an overflow signal to the control logic, when it is incremented after
reaching the maximum count value. At this instant, all the bits of counter will be having zeros
only. Now, the control logic pushes the switch sw to connect to the negative reference voltage
−Vref . This negative reference voltage is applied to an integrator. It removes the charge stored in
the capacitor until it becomes zero.
At this instant, both the inputs of a comparator are having zero volts. So, comparator sends a
signal to the control logic. Now, the control logic disables the clock signal generator and retains
(holds) the counter value. The counter value is proportional to the external analog input voltage.
At this instant, the output of the counter will be displayed as the digital output. It is almost
equivalent to the corresponding external analog input value Vi .The dual slope ADC is used in
 the applications, where accuracy is more important while converting analog input into its
equivalent digital (binary) data
ADC application
1. In digital Instruments like Digital multimeter .frequency counter
2. Data acquisition system
3. Digital tachometer
4. Digital recording and reproduction
5. Computerized instrumentation system
6. Nc and CNC Machine
Define Memory
Any digital system needs to store unprocessed ,partially processed data and result ,a subsystem
of such a digital processing system which can store above data is called memory.Earlier memory
used to be in magnetic type but now semiconductor memories of various types and sizes are
used.
Advantages of Semiconductor Memory
1. Small size
2. High speed
3. Better reliability
4. Low cost
5. Ease of expansion of memory size

MEMORY ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION

Flip flop is nothing but one bit memory cell so basic element of semiconductor memory is flip
flop Each flip flop is capable of storing one bit either 0 or 1So to store 4 bit we need 4 flip flop
(no. of flip flop depend upon the no. of bits to be stored) To store this bits there is no. of
locations in a memory

Memory size
The number of locations and no. of bits per word will vary from memory to memory
For a particular memory chip capable of storing M words with each word having N bits then the
size of memory will be M*N
For higher no. of words than 1. 4. 8 .16 bit the memory of smaller size are cascaded together

There are 3 types of input to an into an memory device address input line Second data input line
control input and there are N number of data output line
1.Data input: there are n number of input line the data to be stored is put on these lines word
by word with each word and Beat long data input are also called as data bus
2. Address input: there are a number of address input line the digital word applied on these
lines are used to specify the address of required memory location reading the already stored data
for writing new data to access any one of The Impossible location we need P address line such
that 2 raise to power P . M is equal to 16 then P is equal to 4. we need four address line for 16
different combination from 0 0 0 0 to 1111 P lines address bus A decoder is used to select desired
memory location
3. Data output line: in the selected memory location the data can be read on data output
line.Number of data lines output lines is equal to N. The output data lines are also called as
output data bus and input and output data bus are also called as unidirectional bus
4. Control line: the control line include read or write line and the chip select line. The
bidirectional bus is used as input data bus for specific time when input data is to be loaded into
memory that is write operation and it is used as output data bus when the Stored data is to be
read. There is only one control line. If the control line is at logic 1 then reading operation takes
place if it is at logic 0 then it acts as a writing.
5. Input chip enable: if select input active high input i.e 1 then the memory chip is enabled
and reading and writing can take place but if it equal to zero then no operation takes place
6. Power supply line in addition to the address control and data lines there are two pins assigned
for power supply and ground
Classification and Characteristics of memory
The memory devices can be classified on the basis of principle of operation physical
characteristics mode of exercise and Technology used for fabrication
The parameters for classification are
1. Principle of operation
2. Physical characteristics
3. Mode of access
4. Technology used for fabrication
Classification of memory
Primary and secondary memory

Sr.No Feature Primary memory Secondary Memory

1 Speed Very high Slow as compared to primary

2 Volatility Data is lost when power is lost Data is retained when power is off

3 Types RAM,SRAM,ROM EPROM Flash memory (NAND,NOR)

4 Access by Direct Not direct

CPU

5 Usage Stores data and instructions Stores data and programs for long
currently being used term use

6 Capacity Small Large

7 Cost per unit Expensive Less expensive

8 Example Cache ,main memory HDD.SSD,USB drives

9 Role in Facilitates fast processing and Provides large storage for data and
system execution software

10 Data Temporary storage Large storage

retention

Sequential memory
Shift registers
Charge coupled devices
Read and write memory (RWM OR RAM)
Read only memory
ROM
PROM
EPROM
EAROM
Content addressable memory ( CAM)
Sequential memory
Example of sequential memory Magnetic tape audio aur video cassette . The memory
locations are organized one after the other in sequential manner. The reading or writing operation
can be performed in a sequential process therefore the time required to access a memory location
is not the same for all memory locations .The time required to access the locations at the
beginning of the memory is less and that required at the end of the memory will be more
the memories are for the classified as shift register and charge-coupled devices
Shift Register
Shift registers are of two types static or dynamic
In static memory,the memory contents do not change with time as long as supply is ON as soon
as the power supply is turned off the memory contents will be lost
In dynamic memory MOS capacitors are used for storing information .The memory contents of
dynamic memory can alter on their own with time so it is necessary to refresh Such memories at
regular intervals.
Advantages of dynamic memory
They are simpler than static memory.
They are Less expensive.
Require less power for operation
They have high packaging densities
Due to all above advantages, dynamic memories are widely used in digital system
Disadvantage of dynamic memory
Additional circuitry is required for refreshing the MOS capacitor
Charge Coupled Devices(CCD)
ChargeCoupled devices are manufactured using MOS Technology .Information is stored in
terms of charge The advantage of charge-coupled devices are high density and low cost
Random Access Memory( RAM)
Random Access Memory is also called as read write memory
The memory locations are organized in such a way that excess time required for accessing any
location is same so they are used in sequential memory due to above advantage
Ram are further classified as static RAM and dynamic Ram
Ram can be fabricated using either bipolar Technology using BJT or unipolar Technology using
MOSFET
Read Only Memory( ROM)
It can be used only for reading the information which is already stored on them; no write
operation can be performed. They are similar to pre recorder cassettes. The writing operation is
complicated. ROM is used to store fixed information such as lookup tables, static data
,microprocessor instruction ROM can be organized in such a way that reading time required for
any location will remain the same.
ROM are further classified as
1.Read Only Memory
2 Programmable read only memory( PROM)
3.Erasable and Programmable ROM( EPROM)
Read Only Memory
These memories are programmed at the time of manufacturing.so the program is done as per the
requirement of the user. It is also called a custom program or mass program. Program data
cannot be changed once it is manufactured ROMs are costly and suitable only for bulk use.
Programmable Read Only Memory
A user can program these ROMs as per his requirement using PROM programmer
A prom can be programmed only once after its fabrication .After programming the contents will
be permanently fixed on the ROM
The PROMs are manufacture without any data stored on to them i.e they are blank.
Erasable and Programmable ROM
These ROMs can be erased and programmed again and again by the user The commonly used
technique for erasing aur
1. Erasing using ultraviolet radiation
2. Erasing using electricity
erasable Programmable ROM using ultraviolet rays used for erasing are called as EPROM
and the ROM that uses electrical voltage are called as electrically alterable ROM (EAROM)
Content Accessible Memories( CAM)
It can perform some special features like Association operation in addition to read or write
operation performed by conventional RAM
Classification Based On Physical Characteristics
Memories can be classified as erasable or non erasable and volatile or nonvolatile
Erasable or Non Erasable memory
Erasable memory is the one in which the Stored information can be erased and new information
can be stored onto it.
The user can not erase any information stored in nnt erasable memory for example ROM is non
erasable memory
erasable memory can be further classified as
1. location by location erasable memory
2.all location simultaneously erasable
location by location erasable memory
The contents of the memory location can be erased one by one and then the new information is
stored .
EAROM, RAM and CAM are the examples of location by location erasable memory
In EAROM, we have to erase the contents of the location first before entering the new
information. However in RAM and CAM erasing operation is performed automatically when a
new information is to be entered
All location simultaneously erasable memory
These are the memories in which contents of all the memory locations are erased
simultaneously
example when we expose EPROM to the ultraviolet radiation the contents of all the memory
location get erased simultaneously
 Ultraviolet Erasable Programmable ROM( UV EPROM)
The eprom which can be erased using ultraviolet exposure and all the memory locations can be
erased simultaneously. in an EPROM there is a quartz lid or a window on the package we can
erase this PROM by exposing it to the ultraviolet light through the Quartz window. The exposure
period is 10 to 15 minutes or longer. UV rays will erase all the cells at a time and all the
locations in the erased EPROM will store a logic 1
Advantages
1. It is possible to erase the existing data
2. It is possible to program new data any number of time
Disadvantages
It can't erase the memory locations in a selective manner all the memory locations get erased
simultaneously
EPROM has to be removed from the socket and put in the eraser for erasing
Volatile memory
If the information stored in a memory chip is lost when the electrical power is switched off then
the memory is called as volatile memory r a m is a volatile memory volatile memory can hold the
data stored on it only as long as the power supply is connected to it it loses the data as soon as
the power is turned off
Non volatile memory
If the information once store in a memory chip does not change unless the user changes it
deliberately then such a memory is called as non volatile memory
Such memories can hold the information even after switching off their power supply ROM is an
example of non volatile memory.
Classification on based on mode of access
Mode of access tells us the manner in which a memory location is accessed while we perform the
read or write operation there are two possible modes of access
1 sequential access 2. random access
Sequential access
In sequential memory location are accessed in sequential manner
The time required to accept various locations will not be same
Random access
In this type we can access any memory location without going sequentially
Accessing any memory location needs same amount of time irrespective of the place of the
memory location examples are RAM, ROM and CAM
Classification based on fabrication technology Classified as
1 Bipolar technology (ex TTL,ECL ,RAM,ROM,EPROM)
2. MOS technology (ex RAM, EPROM and EAROM)

Sr. No. Parameter Volatile memory Non volatile memory

1 Definition Information stored is lost if Information does not get lost

power is turned Off
 2 Classification All RAMs ROM ,EPROM,magnetic
memory

3 Effect of Power Stored information is No effect of power on stored

retained as long as power information
supply is On

4 Application For temporary storage For permanent storage of

information

Sr.No Parameter EPROM EEPROM

1 Techniques used EXposure to UV light A voltage of 20 to 25 V is

for erasing applied

2 Selective erasing Not possible . All locations Possible,A particular location

get erased can be erased

3 Time required for Long . 10 to 15 mins Short 10 msec

erasing

4 Need to remove necessary Not necessary

PROM from ckt

5 Cost Less expensive Very expensive

Sr. No PROM EPROM

1 Can be programmed only once Are reusable & can be programmed

multiple times

2 Process of writing on PROM is Memory can be erased using UV light

irreversible hence data is stored
permanently

3 As they are enclosed in plastic so no It has fused quartz window to allow fusion
effect of UV light of UV light

4 The data is fused on this memory by It also uses high voltage but does not effect
using high voltage semiconductor layer permanently
ROM
● It can only read . ROM are programmed at the time of manufacturing .
● Applications
● Implementation of combinational ckt
 ● Implementation of sequential ckt
● Character generation
● Store look up tables
● Storing microprocessor program

RAM
RAM is a memory that can read as well as write

Sr.N Parameter SRAM DRAM

o

1 Ckt configuration Each SRAM cell is flip flop Each DRAM unit consist of
one MOSFET capacitor

2 No. of components More Less (only two)

per cell

3 Memory cells /unit Less than DRAM More than SRAM

area

4 Refreshing Not required Required

5. Cost More Less

6. Access time Less ,so are faster memories More ,so slower memory

7. Power consumption Less More

Sr.No Parameter RAM ROM

1 Operation Involved Reading & Writing Reading only

2 Type storage Temporary permanent

3 Types SRAM,DRAM PROM,EPROM,EEPROM

4 Applications Calculators ,Computers Computers ,Microprocessors

Sr. No. Key RAM ROM

Definition RAM stands for Random ROM stands for Read Only
1
Access Memory. Memory.
 Data RAM data is volatile. Data is ROM data is permanent. Data
2 Retention present till power supply is remains even after power
present. supply is not present.

Data Access RAM data can be read, erased ROM data is read only.
3
or modified.

Usage RAM is used to store data that ROM is used to store data that
4 the CPU needs for current is needed to bootstrap the
instruction processing. computer.

Speed RAM speed is quite high. ROM speed is slower than

5
RAM.

CPU CPU can access data stored on Data to be copied from ROM
6 Access RAM. to RAM so that the CPU can
access its data.

Capacity RAM memory is large and high ROM is generally small and of
7
capacity. low capacity.

Usage RAM is used as CPU Cache, ROM is used as firmware by

8
Primary Memory. microcontrollers.

Cost RAM is costly. ROM is cheap.

9

Flash memory
It is a special type of ram which is powered by continuously erasing and programming of this
memory takes place block by block due to this Flash Memory being faster than EEPROMS.
Flash Memory cannot be used as Random Access Memory sections of flash memory chips are
organized in such a way that they can be erased continuously so they are called flash memory.
Important features of flash memory are high speed, low operating voltage, low power
consumption and durability.

Sr.No Parameter EEPROM FLASH MEMORY

1 TYPE Non Volatile Volatile

2 Erasing Exposure to UV Electrical signals are used for

Techniques erasing

3 Time for 10 -15 mins Instant

erasing

4 Need to Necessary Not Necessary

 remove
memory from
ckt

5 Way of All data gets erased Selective erasing is possible

erasing

6 Applications In computers Cell phones , digital cameras

SSIM (Single in line Memory Module)

It is a type of memory module used in older computer systems to provide random access
Memory . They have single row of electrical contacts on one side of module
Types of SSIM
1. 30 pin SSIM it is used in early PC and workstations , each module contains 30 electrical
contacts
2. 72 pin SSIMm Introduced in 1990 it has 72 electrical contacts and offers higher
capacities and data transfer rates .
Features of SSIM
● Memory Capacity : 1MB to 32 MB
● Data width : 8 or 9 bits
● Speed ratings : Access time is in nanoseconds
● Parity checking : detects and corrects error in memory
● Voltage requirement : 5V

SSD (Solid State Drives )

SSD are type of storage device that uses solid state memory to store data persistently.
It uses flash memory technology
Features of SSD memory
Non Volatile
Fast access and transfer speed
Durability and Reliability
Low power consumption
Silent operation

Applications of SSD
Consumer electronics : laptops , desktops,tablets and smart phones
Enterprise and data centers :used for high performance storage solutions where speed
reliability and durability is critical
Embedded system : used in industrial applications , medical devices automotive systems
and IOT Devices