POWER SYSTEM-II LAB MANUAL

Subject: Power System-II Lab Subject Code:

ELPC 651
B. Tech VI Semester

Department of Electrical Engineering

J. C. Bose University of Science and
Technology, YMCA

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

Electrical Engineering Department congregates the challenges of new technological advancements to
provide comprehensively trained, career-focused, morally strong accomplished graduates, cutting-
edge researchers by experimental learning which contribute to ever-changing global society and serve
as competent engineers.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

• To commit excellence in imparting knowledge through incubation and execution of high-quality

innovative educational programs.
• To develop the Research-oriented culture to build national capabilities for excellent power
management.
• To inculcate and harvest the moral values and ethical behavior in the students through exposure of
self -discipline and personal integrity.
• To develop a Centre of Research and Education generating knowledge and technologies which lay
ground work in shaping the future in the field of electrical engineering.

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 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Graduates of the Electrical Engineering program at JCBUST, YMCA will be able to:
PO1. Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and electrical engineering
specialization to the solution of engineering problems.
PO2. Identify, formulate, review literature, and analyze electrical engineering problems to design, conduct
experiments, analyze data, and interpret data.
PO3. Design solutions for electrical engineering problems and design system components of processes
that meet the desired needs with appropriate consideration for public health and safety and cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4. Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions in electrical
engineering.
PO5. Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools
including prediction and modeling to electrical engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
PO6. Apply reasoning informed by contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal, and
cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to professional engineering practice.
PO7. Understand the impact of electrical engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts,
and demonstrate the knowledge and need for sustainable development.
PO8. Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.
PO9. Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings.
PO10. Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering committee and
with society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, and make effective presentations in electrical engineering.
PO11. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering principles and management
principles and apply these to one‘s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects
and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Recognize the need for, and the preparation and ability to engage in independent research and
lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological changes in electrical engineering.

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 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1. To apply state-of-the-art knowledge in analysis design and complex problem solving with
effective implementation in the multidisciplinary area of Electrical Engineering with due
regard to environmental and social concerns.
PSO2. To prepare graduates for continuous self-learning to apply technical knowledge and pursue
research in advanced areas in the field of Electrical Engineering for a successful professional
career to serve society ethically.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1. To produce competent electrical engineering graduates with a strong foundation design,
analytics and problem solving skills for successful professional careers in industry, research
and public service.
PEO2. To provide a stimulating research environment so as to motivate the students for higher studies
and innovation in the specific and allied domains of electrical engineering.
PEO3. To encourage the graduates to practice the profession following ethical codes, social
responsibility and accountability.
PEO4. To train students to communicate effectively in multidisciplinary environment.
PEO5. To imbibe an attitude in the graduates for life-long learning process.

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 Syllabus
Power System-II Lab (ELPC-651)
L-T-P Internal Marks-15
0-0-2 ExternalMarks-35
Total-50

List of Experiments

1. To find string efficiency using MATLAB.

2. To find the value of three phase AC supply using MATLAB.
3. To form a admittance matrix (Y bus) of the below given power system.
4. To form Y bus matrix of a given power system using singular transformation.
5. Write a MATLAB program for solving power flow equation using gauss seidel method.
6. To develop program for FDLF algorithm.
7. To carryout load flow analysis of the given power system by Newton Raphson method.
8. To understand the basics of the Economic Dispatch by optimally adjusting the generation schedules
of thermal generating units to meet the system demand which are required for unit commitment
and economic operation of power systems.

9. To study swing equation and perform on MATLAB.

10. To obtain the bus impedance matrix Z – bus of the given power system network using.
11. To become familiar with various aspects of the transient analysis of Single-Machine-Infinite Bus
(SMIB) system.
12. To determine the fault current and voltage in a single transmission line system for the following
Y-∆ transformer at specified location for LG, LLG faults.

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 COURSE OBJECTIVES & OUTCOMES
Course objectives:
1. To provide better understanding of power system analysis through digital simulation.
2. To present a problem-oriented knowledge of power system analysis methods.
3. To address the underlying concepts & approaches behind analysis of power system network using
software tools.
4. To identify & formulate solutions to problems relevant to power system using software tools.

Course outcomes:
CO1. Ability to acquire knowledge on Formation of Bus Admittance and Impedance, Matrices, and
Solution of Networks
CO2. Evaluate the various parameter of a power system network (min 3 bus) using different load
flow techniques.
CO3. Ability to analyze the power flow using GS and NR method.
CO4. Able to understand power system economics and management using different methods.

Mapping of Course Outcomes (COs) with POs and PSOs

COs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2

CO1 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 3
CO2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3
CO3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 3
CO4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3

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 ||General Instructions||
In

Power System Lab

1. Students should come well-prepared for the experiment they will be conducting.
2. Usage of mobile phones in the laboratory is strictly prohibited.
3. Read and understand the experiment manual thoroughly before starting the experiment. Know the
objectives, procedures, and safety precautions.
4. Clean your computer with a soft, dry cloth.
5. Ensure all connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Double-check all connections before
powering the equipment.
6. Do not switch on the power supply until the instructor has approved your setup. Always start with
the minimum voltage/current required and gradually increase as needed.
7. Do not overload machines beyond their rated capacity. Overloading can damage the equipment
and pose safety risks.
8. Familiarize yourself with the lab’s emergency shutdown procedures, including the location of
emergency switches and fire extinguishers.
9. Do not bring food or drinks into the lab to avoid accidental spills, which can lead to electrical
hazards.
10. Do not touch any part of the computer with wet hands. Avoid distractions like mobile phones, and
do not engage in unnecessary conversation during lab work.
11. Don’t damage, remove, or disconnect any labels, parts, cables or equipment
12. . Do not install or download any software or modify or delete any system files on any lab computers
13. If you are unsure about any procedure or face difficulties during the experiment, do not hesitate to
ask the lab instructor for guidance.
14. After completing the experiment, shut down the computer properly and switch off the power supply.

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 Power System- II
(ELPC-651)

Index
Exp.
No. Experiment Page No.
To find string efficiency using MATLAB
1. 09-10

To find the value of three phase AC supply using MATLAB

2. 11-13

To form a admittance matrix (Y bus) of the below given power system

3. 14-17

To form Y bus matrix of a given power system using singular

transformation
4. 18-21

Write a MATLAB program for solving power flow equation using gauss
seidel method
5. 22-28
To develop program for FDLF algorithm
6. 29-32

7. To carryout load flow analysis of the given power system by Newton 33-35
Raphson method.

To understand the basics of the Economic Dispatch by optimally adjusting

the generation schedules of thermal generating units to meet the system
demand which are required for unit commitment and economic operation of
power systems
8. 36-42

To study swing equation and perform on MATLAB

9. 43-47

To obtain the bus impedance matrix Z – bus of the given power system
10. network using. MATLAB 47-48
To become familiar with various aspects of the transient analysis of Single-
11. Machine-Infinite Bus (SMIB) system. 49-54
To determine the fault current and voltage in a single transmission line
system for the following Y-∆ transformer at specified location for LG, LLG
faults.
12. 55-58

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 Experiment No. – 1

Aim: To find String Efficiency using MATLAB

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

To calculate string efficiency for insulators using MATLAB, you can follow these steps. String
efficiency is the ratio of the voltage across the entire string to the product of the number of
insulators and the voltage across the bottom insulator. It's calculated as:

The formula for string efficiency is:

● String efficiency = Voltage across the string / (number of discs × voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor)

Program:

v1=input ("enter the 1 voltage")

v2=input ("enter the 2 voltage")
v3=input ("enter the 3 voltage")
n=input ("enter the number of insulations")
V=v1+v2+v3
stringefficiency=(V/(n*v3)) *100

Observation:

enter the 1 voltage 90

v1 = 90
enter the 2 voltages 40
v2 = 40
enter the 3 voltages 70
v3 = 70
enter the number of insulations 5
n=5
V = 200
stringefficiency = 57.1429

Result:

String efficiency is = ________________

Viva Questions:

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1. What is string efficiency, and why is it important?
2. How is string efficiency calculated in suspension insulators?
3. What factors affect string efficiency?
4. Can string efficiency be greater than 100%? Why or why not?
5. Why is the voltage distribution unequal across a string of insulators?
6. How does voltage vary from the top to the bottom insulator in a string?
7. What is the role of leakage current in voltage distribution?
8. How does capacitance affect voltage distribution across insulators?
9. What methods are used to improve string efficiency?
10. How does a grading ring improve string efficiency?
11. How can the potential gradient across insulators be reduced?
12. How would you determine string efficiency for a real transmission line?
13. How do environmental factors affect string efficiency?
14. How is the number of insulators chosen for a given voltage level?
15. What is the significance of the capacitance ratio k in string efficiency?
16. What does it mean if the capacitance ratio k is close to 1 or much less than 1?
17. Why are MATLAB simulations useful for analyzing string efficiency?
18. How would you model insulators with varying capacitance in MATLAB?
19. What challenges arise in maintaining high string efficiency in power systems?
20. How are insulation failures related to string efficiency?
21. Why account for uneven voltage distribution in high-voltage transmission?
22. What is a pin-type insulator, and how is it different from a suspension-type insulator?
23. How is the breakdown voltage of an insulator measured in practice?
24. What is corona discharge, and how does it relate to insulators?

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 Experiment No. – 2

Aim: To find the value of three phase AC supply using MATLAB

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

A three-phase AC supply is the most common method of generating, transmitting, and

distributing electrical power in large-scale electrical networks. It consists of three alternating
currents (AC) that are of the same frequency and amplitude but are out of phase with each other
by 120 degrees. The three-phase system is widely used because it provides a more stable and
efficient power supply compared to a single-phase system.

Components of a Three-Phase System:

1. Phase Voltage (Phase-to-Neutral Voltage): This is the voltage between any one phase
and the neutral point. In most systems, the RMS (Root Mean Square) value of the phase
voltage is standardized, such as 230V in India for phase-to-neutral supply.
2. Line Voltage (Phase-to-Phase Voltage): This is the voltage between any two phases. The
line voltage in a balanced three-phase system is related to the phase voltage.
For example, in a 230V phase-to-neutral system, the line-to-line voltage is approximately
400V.

Working Principle

In a three-phase system, the AC voltages for the three phases are offset by 120 degrees from each
other. This means that at any given moment, the voltage of one phase is different from the others,
and this phase displacement leads to a continuous and balanced power flow. The main
components of a three-phase system are:

● Phase A: Voltage waveform starting at 0°.

● Phase B: Voltage waveform lagging Phase A by 120°.
● Phase C: Voltage waveform lagging Phase A by 240°.

These waveforms are sinusoidal, and their sum at any instant is zero in a balanced system, leading
to efficient energy transmission.

Advantages of Three-Phase Systems:

1. Higher Efficiency: Three-phase power requires fewer conductors for the same amount
of power transmitted compared to single-phase systems. This leads to reduced losses in
transmission and distribution lines.

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 2. Constant Power Delivery: Unlike single-phase power, which pulses, three-phase power
provides a smooth and continuous flow of energy, resulting in less vibration and smoother
operation of electrical devices, especially motors.
3. Reduced Conductor Size: For the same load power, three-phase systems use smaller and
lighter conductors compared to single-phase systems, which saves on material costs.
4. Better Load Distribution: Three-phase power systems distribute the load more evenly,
which improves the overall stability of the power grid.

Voltage in Three-Phase Systems

● Phase Voltage: The voltage measured between any one of the phases (A, B, or C) and the
neutral point.
● Line Voltage: The voltage between any two of the three-phase conductors. For a balanced
system, the line voltage is related to the phase voltage .

Program:

clc;

Vin=input ("enter the value of peak voltage")

f=input ("enter frequency")

w=2*pi*f

tm=input ("enter the value of maximum time");

t1=0:02:tm

v1=Vm*sin(w*tm)

v2=Vm*sin(w*tm+120)

v3=Vm*sin(w*tm+240)

Observation:

enter the value of peak voltage 220

Vm = 220
enter frequency 50
f = 50
w = 314.1593
enter the value of maximum time 0.5
t1 = 0

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v1 = 2.1608e-13
v2 = 127.7345
v3 = 207.9979

Result:

Value of V1: ______

Value of V2: ______
Value of V3: ______

Viva questions:

1) What is a three-phase AC supply, and how is it different from a single-phase supply?

2) Why is a three-phase system more efficient than a single-phase system?
3) What is the phase voltage in a three-phase system?
4) How is the line voltage related to the phase voltage in a balanced three-phase system?
5) What is the significance of the 120-degree phase shift in a three-phase system?
6) Why is three-phase power preferred for industrial motors?
7) How is the RMS value of an AC voltage calculated?
8) What is the formula to calculate the line-to-line voltage in a three-phase system?
9) How does the frequency of the supply affect the waveforms in a three-phase system?
10) What is the advantage of using three-phase power for transmission over long distances?
11) How can MATLAB be used to simulate a three-phase AC system?
12) What parameters do you need to generate a three-phase voltage waveform in MATLAB?
13) What is the role of the time vector in simulating AC voltage waveform

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 Experiment No. – 3

Aim: To form an admittance matrix (Y bus) of the below given power system.

Apparatus: MATLAB software

Theory:

In a power system, Bus Admittance Matrix represents the nodal admittances of the various
buses. With the help of the transmission line, each bus is connected to the various other buses.
Admittance matrix is used to analyse the data that is needed in the load or a power flow study of
the buses. It explains the admittance and the topology of the network. The following are the
advantages of the bus admittance matrix.

1. The data preparation of the bus admittance matrix is very simple.

2. The formation of the bus admittance matrix and their modification is easy.
3. The bus admittance matrix is a sparse matrix thus the computer memory
requirement is less.

The amount of current present in the bus can be calculated with the help of formation of the
Admittance matrix. It is expressed as shown above.

In the simplest form, the above matrix can be written as shown below.

ss

Where,

● I is the current of the bus in the vector form.

● Y is the admittance matrix
● V is the vector of the bus voltage.
Let us consider the figure given below.

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From the above figure, the (3×3) admittance matrix is formed as shown below.

The diagonal elements of the Bus Admittance matrix are known as self-admittances and the off-
diagonal elements are known as mutual admittances.

ALGORITHM FOR FORMATION OF Y - BUS MATRIX

Step (1): Initialize [Y-Bus] matrix, that is replace all entries by zero Yij = Yij - yij = Yji = off
diagonal element
Step (2): Compute Yii= [  yij] + yio= diagonal element j =1 J  i Where yio is the net bus to
ground admittance connected at bus i.

Problem:
Form Y bus matrix of the given figure below with the help of the data given:

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Program:

|line no.||start bus||end bus||series impedance||charging admittance||rating|

linedata = [1 1 2 0.001 0.01 0.001

2 2 3 0.002 0.02 0.0005
3 3 4 0.004 0.03 0.0015
4 4 5 0.003 0.01 0.0001
5 5 1 0.004 0.03 0.0005
6 2 5 0.001 0.04 0.002];

fb = linedata(:,1); tb = linedata(:,2); r = linedata(:,3); x = linedata(:,4);

b = linedata(:,5); z = r + i*x;

y = 1. /z; b = i*b;

nbus = max(max(fb), max(tb)); nbranch = length(fb); Y = zeros (nbus, nbus);

for k=1: nbranch

Y(fb(k), tb(k)) = Y(fb(k), tb(k))-y(k);

Y(tb(k), fb(k)) = Y(fb(k), tb(k));

end

for m =1: nbus

for n =1: nbranch

if fb(n) == m

Y (m, m) = Y (m, m) + y(n)+ b(n);

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elseif

tb(n) == m

Y (m, m) = Y (m, m) + y(n) + b(n);

end

end

end

Observation:

Result:

The Ybus formed is: _________________

Viva Questions:

1. How can you represent different types of loads (e.g., residential, industrial) on a single-
line diagram?
2. What is the significance of the colour coding used in single-line diagrams?
3. How can you determine the direction of power flow from a single-line diagram?
4. Can single-line diagrams be used for studying stability analysis?
5. What are the limitations of single-line diagram

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 Experiment No. – 4

Aim: To form Y bus matrix of a given power system using Singular Transformation.

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

Relations between the nine element voltages and the four bus (i.e. tree branch) voltages V1, V2,
V3 and V4.

or, in matrix form

where the bus incidence matrix A is

This matrix is rectangular and therefore singular. Its elements aik are found as per the following
rules:

aik =1 if ith element is incident to and oriented away from the kth node (bus)

= – 1 if ith element is incident to but oriented towards the kth node

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 = 0 if the ith element is not incident to the kth node

we get,

Pre multiplying by AT,

Each component of the n-dimensional vector ATI is the algebraic sum of the element currents
leaving the nodes 1, 2, …, n.

Therefore, the application of the KCL must result in

Similarly, each component of the vector ATJ can be recognized as the algebraic sum of all source
currents injected into nodes 1, 2, …, n. These components are therefore the bus currents. Hence,
we can write

then is simplified to

Thus, following an alternative systematic approach, we have in fact, obtained the same nodal
current equation. The bus admittance matrix can then be obtained from the formation of YBUS
by singular transformation of the primitive Y, i.e.

A computer programme can be developed to write the bus incidence matrix A from the
interconnection data of the directed elements of the power system. Standard matrix transpose
and multiplication subroutines can then be used to compute YBUS from Equation.

Problem:

For the system defined by the line data determine the YBus admittance matrix by singular
transformation method. Select bus no. 1 as reference bus and treat elements 6 & 7 as links

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 Program:

% Ybus formation by singular transformation method clear;

clc;

% en fb tb self-adm. en mut adm.

Ydata=[1 1 6 20i 0 0
2 2 6 35i 0 0
3 2 5 10i 0 0
4 1 3 5i 0 0
5 3 4 20i 0 0
6 4 5 10i 0 0
7 3 6 25i 0 0];

element=max (Ydata(:,1));

buses=max(max (Ydata(:,2)),max(Ydata(:,3)));

buses=buses-1;

A=zeros(element, buses);

for i=1: element;

if(Ydata(i,2)~=1)A(i,Ydata(i,2)-1)=1;

end
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if(Ydata(i,3)~=1)A(i,Ydata(i,3)-1)=-1;

end

end

% formation of primitive impedance matrix Yprimitive=zeros (element, element);

for i=1: element, Yprimitive (i, i) =Ydata(i,4); if Ydata(i,5)>0,

Yprimitive (i, Ydata(i,5)) =Ydata(i,6);

Yprimitive (Ydata(i,5), i) =Ydata(i,6); end

end Yprimitive=(Yprimitive);

Ybus=A'*Yprimitive*A;

printf ('\n\t\t Bus admittance matrix\n');

disp (Ybus);

Observation:

Bus admittance matrix

0 +45.0000i 0 0 0 -10.0000i 0 -35.0000i
0 0 +50.0000i 0 -20.0000i 0 0 -25.0000i
0 0 -20.0000i 0 +30.0000i 0 -10.0000i 0
0 -10.0000i 0 0 -10.0000i 0 +20.0000i 0
0 -35.0000i 0 -25.0000i 0 0 0 +80.0000i

Result:

Formed Y bus matrix is:____________

Viva Questions:

1. How can you determine the accuracy of the Y bus matrix obtained using singular
transformation?

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2. What is the relationship between the eigenvalues of the original Y bus matrix and the
reduced Y bus matrix?
3. Can singular transformation be used for real-time power system analysis?
4. How does singular transformation handle systems with shunt elements (e.g., capacitors)?
5. What are the computational requirements for singular transformation compared to other
methods?

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 Experiment No. – 5

Aim: Write a MATLAB program for solving power flow equation using Gauss Seidel
method

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

The Gauss-Seidel method is an iterative technique used to solve power flow equations, which
determine bus voltages in a power system.
Steps:

1. Initialization: Start with an initial guess for bus voltages.

2. Equation Update: For each bus iii, update the voltage using:

3. Iteration: Update each bus voltage sequentially, using the latest values.
4. Convergence: Check if changes in voltages fall below a set tolerance. Repeat until
convergence.

Pros and Cons:

● Pros: Simple and memory-efficient.

● Cons: Slow convergence, sensitive to initial guesses, impractical for large systems.

The method is useful for small to medium power systems but may struggle with larger, more
complex networks.

Problem:

The system data for a load flow solution are given below. Determine the voltages by Gauss –
Seidal method

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Program:

clc;

clear all;

n=input ('no of buses');

l=input ('no of lines');

s=input ('impedance 1 or admittance 2');

for i=1: l

a=input ('starting bus');

b=input ('ending bus');

t=input ('admittance or impedance value');

if s==1

y(a, b)=1/t;

else

y(a, b)=t;

end

y(b, a)=y(a,b);

end

ybus=zeros (n, n);

for i=1: n

for j=1: n

if i==j

for k=1: n

ybus (i, j) =ybus (i, j) +y (i, k);

end

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else

ybus (i, j) =-y (i, j);

end

ybus (j, I) =ybus (i, j);

end

end

ybus

p=zeros (1, n);

q=zeros (1, n);

v=zeros (1, n);

pv=input ('no of pv buses');

pq=input('no of pq buses');

s=input ('slack bus number');

v(s)=input ('slack bus voltage');

acc=input ('acceleration factor');

for i=1: pv

b(i)=input ('pv bus number');

p(b(i)) =input ('real power');

v(b(i)) =input ('voltage value');

qmin(b(i)) =input ('min value of q');

qmax(b(i)) =input ('max value of q');

end

for i=1: pq

c(i)=input ('pq bus number');

p(c(i)) =input ('real power');

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p(c(i)) =-p(c(i));

q(c(i)) =input ('reactive power');

q(c(i)) =-q(c(i));

v(c(i)) =1+0i;

end

e=v;

enew(s)=v(s);

it=0;

yy=zeros(1,n);

for ii=1: n

ypq(ii)=0;

if ii~=s

flag=0;

gen=0;

for j=1:pv

if ii==b(j)

flag=1;

end

end

if flag==1

for k=1:n

yy(ii)=yy(ii)+ybus(ii,k)*v(k);

end

qcal(ii)=-imag(conj(v(ii))*yy(ii));
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if qcal(ii)<qmin(ii)

qcal(ii)=qmin(ii);

elseif qcal(ii)>qmax(ii)

qcal(ii)=qmax(ii);

else

qcal(ii)=qcal(ii);

gen=1;

end

else

qcal(ii)=q(ii);

end

for k=1: n

if k~=ii

ypq(ii)=ypq(ii)+ybus(ii,k)*e(k);

end

end

enew(ii)=(((p(ii)-qcal(ii))/conj(e(ii)))-ypq(ii))/ybus(ii,ii);

dele(ii)=enew(ii)-e(ii);

enew(ii)=e(ii)+acc*dele(ii);

if gen==1 ang=angle(enew(ii)); enew(ii)=v(ii)*cos(ang)+v(ii)*sin(ang)*sqrt (-1);

end

e(ii)=enew(ii);

end

end

disp('voltages');
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enew

Observation:

No. of buses 4
No. of lines 5

impedance 1 or admittance 22
starting bus 1
ending bus 2

admittance or impedance value 2-8i

starting bus 1
ending bus 3

admittance or impedance value 1-4i

starting bus 2
ending bus 3

admittance or impedance value 0.666-2.664i

starting bus 2
ending bus 4

admittance or impedance value 1-4i

starting bus 3
ending bus 4

admittance or impedance value 2-8i

ybus =

3.0000 -12.0000i -2.0000 + 8.0000i -1.0000 + 4.0000i 0

-2.0000 + 8.0000i 3.6660 -14.6640i -0.6660 + 2.6640i -1.0000 + 4.0000i
-1.0000 + 4.0000i -0.6660 + 2.6640i 3.6660 -14.6640i -2.0000 + 8.0000i
0 -1.0000 + 4.0000i -2.0000 + 8.0000i 3.0000 -12.0000i

No. of pv buses 0
No. of pq buses 3

Slack bus number 1

slack bus voltage 1.06

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acceleration factor 1

pq bus number 2
real power 0.5
reactive power 0.2

pq bus number 3
real power 0.4
reactive power 0.3

pq bus number 4
real power 0.3
reactive power 0.1

e =1.0600 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

voltages enew =1.0600 1.0119 - 0.0289i 0.9929 - 0.0261i 0.9855 - 0.0486i

Result:

Thus load flow analysis by Gauss – Seidal method was done for the given power system.

Viva Questions:

1. What is the Gauss-Seidel method and how is it applied to power flow analysis?

2. What are the key assumptions made in the Gauss-Seidel method?

3. How do you initialize bus voltages in the Gauss-Seidel method?

4. What is the difference between a PQ bus and a PV bus in power flow analysis?

5. How do you check for convergence in the Gauss-Seidel method?

6. Why is the Gauss-Seidel method slower for large systems?

7. What is the role of the Y-bus matrix in the Gauss-Seidel method?

8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Gauss-Seidel method compared to the

Newton-Raphson method?

29
9. How does the choice of the initial guess affect the convergence of the Gauss-Seidel method?

10. Can the Gauss-Seidel method be used for solving unbalanced power flow problems? Why or
why not?

30
 Experiment No. – 6

Aim: To develop a program for the FDLF algorithm.

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

The Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) algorithm is an efficient method for solving power flow
problems, offering faster computation by simplifying the power flow equations. It decouples
active and reactive power equations based on the weak coupling between them.

Key Concepts:

1. Active power (P) is primarily affected by changes in voltage angles θ\thetaθ.

2. Reactive power (Q) is influenced by voltage magnitudes ∣V∣.

Simplified Equations:

• For voltage angles:

• For voltage magnitudes:

Where B – susceptance

Steps:

1. Initialize bus voltage magnitudes and angles.

2. Solve decoupled equations for θ\theta and VVV.
3. Update voltages and angles.
4. Check convergence and repeat until the solution stabilizes.

Advantages:

● Faster and less memory-intensive than Newton-Raphson.

● Efficient for large systems.

Limitations:

● Accuracy may decrease in heavily loaded or ill-conditioned systems.

● Not ideal for systems with high R/X ratios.

Problem:

Solve below system using FLDF:

31
Program:

%% Program for FDLF

b=busdat; l=linedat;
nb=length(b(:,1));
n1=find(b(:,2)>1); % finds index of non slack buses
n2=find(b(:,2)>2); % finds index of pq buses
Y=ybusf(l); % Ybus function
B1 =imag (Y (n1, n1));
B11=imag (Y(n2, n2));
Ps=b(:,5)-b(:,7); dP=Ps; % schedule powers and
Qs=b(:,6)-b(:,8); dQ=Qs; % initial values
d=b(:,4);V=b(:,3);
while (max(abs(dP(n1)))>0.0001||max(abs(dQ(n2)))>0.0001)
S=(V.*exp(-1i*d)). *(Y*(V.*exp(1i*d))); % S= (V L-d)x(Yx(V Ld))
dP=Ps-real(S); dQ=Qs+imag(S); % S=V*I || S=P-jQ
d(n1) =d(n1)-B1\ dP(n1)./V(n1);
V(n2)=V(n2)-B11\dQ(n2). /V(n2);
end
display(V); D=d*180/pi; display(D); % Volt & Degrees
Line data-
function d = linedat
% |FromBus|ToBus|Impedance|LineCharging|
d = [ 1 2 .02+.04j 0j;
1 3 .01+.03j 0j;
2 3 .0125+.025j 0j;];
Busdata-
function d = busdat
Slack=1; PV=2; PQ=3;
% |Bus | Type | Vsp |del| PGi | QGi | PLi | QLi |
d = [ 1 Slack 1.05 0 0 0 0 0;
2 PQ 1.00 0 0 0 4.0 2.5;
3 PV 1.04 0 2.0 0 0 0;];
Ybusf-
32
function Y = ybusf(ld)
fb = ld(:,1); tb = ld(:,2);
y = 1./ld(:,3); b = ld(:,4) + y;
nb = max(max(fb,tb));
Y = zeros(nb);
Y(nb*(fb-1)+tb)=-y;
Y(nb*(tb-1)+fb)=-y;
for m=1:nb
Y(m,m)=Y(m,m)+sum(b(fb==m))+sum(b(tb==m));
end

Observation:

V = 1.0500
0.9717
1.0400

D= 0
-2.6964
-0.4988

Result:

Voltage: ________
Reactive power: __________
Active power: ___________

Viva Questions:

1. What is the Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) algorithm and how does it differ from the
Newton-Raphson method?
2. How does the FDLF algorithm simplify the power flow equations?
3. What are the key assumptions made in the FDLF method?
4. Explain the decoupling of active power P and voltage angles (theta) in the FDLF method.
5. How does the FDLF algorithm handle reactive power Q and voltage magnitudes V?
6. What are the main advantages of using the FDLF method over other power flow methods?
7. Why might the FDLF method have reduced accuracy compared to the Newton-Raphson
method?
8. What is the role of the B' and B'' matrices in the FDLF algorithm?
9. In what types of power systems is the FDLF method most effective?
10. How does the initial guess for voltages affect the performance and convergence of the FDLF
method?

33
 Experiment No.: -7

Aim: - To carryout load flow analysis of the given power system by Newton Raphson
method.

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

Step-1: Assume a flat voltage profile 1 + j0 for all buses (nodes) except the slack bus. The voltage
of the slack bus is the specified voltage and it is not modified in any iteration.

Step-2: Assume a suitable value of ε called convergence criterion. Hence ε is a specified change in
the residue that is used to compare the critical residues (Δ P and Δ Q or Δ V) at the end of each
iteration.

Step-3: Set iteration count k = 0, and assumed voltage profile of the buses are denoted as V10,
V20 …Vn0 except slack bus.

Step-4: Set bus count p = 1.

Step-5: Check for slack bus. If it is a slack bus then go to Step 13, otherwise go to next step.

Step-6: Calculate the real and reactive power of bus-p using the following equation.

Step-7: Calculate the change in real power, change in real power, Δ Pk = Pp,spec – Ppk; where Pp,spec
= Specified real power for bus-p.

Step-8: Check for Generator bus. If it is a Generator bus go to next step, otherwise go to Step 12.

Step-9: Check for reactive power limit violation of Generator buses. For this compare the
calculated reactive power Qpk with specified limits. If the limit is violated go to Step 11, otherwise
go to next step.

Step-10: If the calculated reactive power is within the specified limits then consider this bus as
Generator bus. Now calculate the voltage residue (change in voltage) using the following equation.

| Δ Vpk|2 = |Vp |spec2 - |Vpk |2 where |Vp |spec = specified voltage.

34
Step-11: If the reactive power limit is violated then treat this bus as a load bus. Now the specified
reactive power for this bus will correspond to the limit violated.

i.e., if Qpk < Qp, min then Qp, spec = Qp, min

(Or) if Qpk > Qp, min then Qp, spec = Qp, max

Step-12: Calculate the change in reactive power for load bus (or for the Generator bus treated as
load bus). Change in reactive power, Δ Qp k = |Qp, spec | - Qpk

Step-13: Repeat steps 5 to12 until all residues (change in P and Q or V) are calculated. For this
increment the bus count by 1 and go to Step 5, until the bus count is n.

Step-14: Determine the largest of the absolute value of the residue (i.e., find the largest among Δ
Pk, Δ Qk or |Δ Vpk |2. Let this largest change be Δ E.

Step-15: Compare Δ E and ε. If Δ E < ε then to Step 20, If Δ E > ε go to next step.

Step-16: Determine the elements of Jacobian matrix (J) by partially differentiating the load flow
equations and evaluating the equation using Kth iteration values.

Step-17: Calculate the increments in real and reactive part of voltages.

Step-18: Calculate the new bus voltage.

Step-19: Advance the iteration count, i.e., k = k + 1 and go to Step 4.

Step-20: Calculate the line flow.

Problem:

Figure shows the one-line diagram of a three-bus power system with generators at buses 1& 3.
The magnitude of voltage at bus1 is adjusted to 1.05 per unit. The magnitude of voltage at bus 3
is fixed at 1.04pu with a real power generation of 200 MW. A load consists of 400 MW and 250
MVAR is taken from bus2. Line impedances are marked in per unit on a 100MVA base and the line
charging susceptance are neglected.

35
Program:

clear all;

clc;

v=[1.05;1.0;1.04];

d=[0;0;0];

ps=[-4;2.0];

qs=-2.5;

n= input('Enter the number of buses ');

fprintf('Enter your choice');

p= input ('1. impedance, 2. admittance');

if (p==1)

for q= 1:n

for r=q+1:n

fprintf('Enter the impedance value between %d-%d',q,r); z(q,r)=input(':');

if (z(q,r)==0)

y(q,r)=0;

else

y(q,r)=inv(z(q,r));
36
end

y(r,q)= y(q,r);

end

end

elseif (p==2)

for a= 1:n

for b=a+1:n

fprintf('Enter the admittance value between %d-%d',a,b); y(a,b)=input(':');

y(b,a)= y(a,b);

end

end

else

fprintf('enter the correct choice');

end

ybus=zeros(n,n);

for a = 1:n

for b=1:n

if (a==b)

for c = 1:n

ybus(a,a)= ybus(a,a)+ y(a,c);

end

else

ybus(a,b)=-y(b,a);

end

end

end

37
ybus

y=abs(ybus); t=angle(ybus);

iter=0;

pwracur=0.00025;% Power accuracy

dc=10;% Set the maximum power residual to a high value

while max(abs(dc))>pwracur

iter=iter+1

p=[v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*cos(t(2,1)d(2)+d(1))+v(2)^2*y(2,2)*cos(t(2,2))+v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*c

os(t(2,3)d(2)+d(3));v(3)*v(1)*y(3,1)*cos(t(3,1)d(3)+d(1))+v(3)^2*y(3,3)*cos(t(3,3))+v

(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*cos(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2))];

q=v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*sin(t(2,1)d(2)+d(1))v(2)^2*y(2,2)*sin(t(2,2)v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(

2,3)-d(2)+d(3));

j(1,1)=v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*sin(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))+v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(2,3)-d(2)+d(3));

j(1,2)=-v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(2,3)-d(2)+d(3));

j(1,3)=v(1)*y(2,1)*cos(t(2,1)d(2)+d(1))+2*v(2)*y(2,2)*cos(t(2,2))+v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(2,

3)-d(2)+d(3));

j(2,1)=-v(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*sin(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2));

j(2,2)=v(3)*v(1)*y(3,1)*sin(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(1))+v(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*sin(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2));

j(2,3)=v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2));

j(3,1)=v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*cos(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))+v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(2,3)-d(2)+d(3));

j(3,2)=-v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(3,2)-d(2)+d(3));

j(3,3)=-v(1)*y(2,1)*sin(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))-2*v(2)*y(2,2)*sin(t(2,2)v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(2,3)-

d(2)+d(3));

dp=ps-p;

dq=qs-q;

dc=[dp;dq]

38
dx=j\dc

d(2)=d(2)+dx(1);

d(3)=d(3)+dx(2);

v(2)=v(2)+dx(3);

v,d,delta=180/pi*d;

end

p1=v(1)^2*y(1,1)*cos(t(1,1))+v(1)*v(2)*y(1,2)*cos(t(1,2)d(1)+d(2))+v(1)*v(3)*y(1,3)*

cos(t(1,3)-d(1)+d(3));

q1=-v(1)^2*y(1,1)*sin(t(1,1))-v(1)*v(2)*y(1,2)*sin(t(1,2)-

d(1)+d(2)+v(1)*v(3)*y(1,3)*sin(t(1,3)-d(1)+d(3));

q3=-v(3)*v(1)*y(3,1)*sin(t(3,1)-d(3)+d(1))-v(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*sin(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2))-

v(3)^2*y(3,3)*sin(t(3,3));

Observation:

Enter number of buses:

Enter number of choice:

Result:

Thus, the load flow analysis using is performed by Newton-Raphson method and a program is
developed using MATLAB to find the solution of load flow for given power system and the output
is verified.

Viva Questions:

1. What is Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) and why is it important in power systems?
2. How is the objective function for ELD formulated?
3. Why are transmission losses ignored in this simplified ELD model?
4. What are the main constraints in the ELD problem?
5. Explain the role of the Lagrange multiplier in solving the ELD problem.
6. What is the significance of equal incremental costs in ELD?
7. How does the cost function for a generator typically vary with power output?
8. What happens if a generator reaches its generation limits during the dispatch process?
9. How do you ensure that the total power generated equals the load demand?
10. What are the advantages and limitations of ELD without considering transmission losses?

39
 Experiment 8

Aim: To understand the basics of the Economic Dispatch by optimally adjusting the
generation schedules of thermal generating units to meet the system demand which are
required for unit commitment and economic operation of power systems.

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) with losses aims to minimize the total generation cost while
considering transmission losses. The power generated must not only meet the load demand but
also account for the energy lost during transmission.

Objective

Minimize the total cost:

where Ploss (transmission losses) is calculated using B-coefficients:

Solution

Using the Lagrange multiplier method, the optimal condition becomes:

Here, the penalty factor adjusts each generator's cost to account for transmission losses.

ALGORITHM:

Step 1:Choose appropriate value of Lagrangian multiplier λ

Step 2:Start iteration iter=0

Step 3:Iteration iter=iter+1

Step 4:Solve for power generated by ith unit using equation Pi(k)=(λ(k) – bi)/2(ai+ λ(k) Bii)

Step 5:Check if any Pi is beyond or below the inequality constant If Pi < Pi,min, fix Pi= Pi,min

If Pi>Pi,max, fix Pi= Pi,max

Step 6:Calculate the power loss using the equation PL=∑Bii Pi2

40
Step 7:Calculate power mismatch using the formula, ∆P(k)=PD+PL(k)-∑Pi(k)

Step 8:If ∆P(k)>0, then increment λ, λnew=λ+0.001 and go to step 3 else go to step 9

Step 9:If ∆P(k)<0, then decrement λ, λnew=λ-0.001 and go to step 3 else go to step 10

Step 10:If ∆P is less than tolerance value , print the values of generated power and losses

Step 11:Stop

Problem:

For the given line data calculate the cost of distribution considering the losses:

a b c fc max min
0.00142 7.20 510 1.1 600 150
0.00194 7.85 310 1 400 100
0.00482 7.97 78 1 200 50

Program:

clc;

clear all;

%a b c fc max min

data= [0.00142 7.20 510 1.1 600 150

0.00194 7.85 310 1 400 100

0.00482 7.97 78 1 200 050];

ng=length(data(:,1));

a=data(:,1);

b=data(:,2);

c=data(:,3);

fc=data(:,4);

pmax=data(:,5);
41
pmin=data(:,6);

% loss=[0.00003 0.00009 0.00012]; loss=[ 0 0 0];

C=fc.*c; B=fc.*b; A=fc.*a; la=1; pd=850; acc=0.2; diff=1;

while acc<(abs(diff));

for i=1:ng;

p(i)= (la-B(i))/(2*(la*loss(i)+A(i)));

if p(i)<pmin(i);

p(i)=pmin(i);

end;

if p(i)>pmax(i);

p(i)=pmax(i);

end;

end;

LS=sum(((p.*p).*loss));

diff=(pd+LS-sum(p));

if diff>0

la=la+0.001;

else la=la-0.001;

end;

end;

PowerShared=p

Lambda=la

Loss=LS
42
Observation:

a) When loss = [0.00003 0.00009 0.00012]

Power Shared = 435.1026 299.9085 130.6311

Lambda = 9.5290

Loss = 15.8222

b) When loss =0

Power Shared = 393.0858 334.5361 122.1992

Lambda = 9.1490

Loss = 0

lambda = 12.1034

GENERATING UNIT OPTIMAL GENERATION(MW)

ans = 1.0000 177.2999

2.0000 489.8232

INCREMENTAL FUEL COST AND PENALTY FECTORS ARE UNIT NO. IFC L

ans = 1.0000 10.6184 1.1398

2.0000 11.3410 1.0672

CHECK LAMBDA=IFC*L UNIT NO. LAMBDA

ans = 1.0000 12.1034

2.0000 12.1034

TOTAL GENERTION COST(Rs./hr)

totgencost = 7.3862e+03

Result:

Using MATLAB program Optimal scheduling of generators is done for the given three generator
system by Lamda iteration method with and without loss and the calculated values of this system
are verified with the output result.
43
Viva Questions:

1. What is the difference between Economic Load Dispatch with and without losses?

2. How are transmission losses accounted for in the ELD problem?

3. What are B-coefficients and how are they used in calculating transmission losses?

4. Explain the objective function of ELD with losses.

5. What is the significance of the penalty factor in ELD with losses?

6. How is the Lagrange multiplier method used to solve ELD with losses?

7. Why do incremental costs need to be adjusted when transmission losses are

considered?

8. What is the formula for transmission losses and what role does it play in ELD?

9. How do you ensure that the total power generated equals the load demand plus losses?

44
 Experiment No: - 9

Aim:- To study swing equation and perform on MATLAB

Apparatus: MATLAB software

Theory:

The swing equation is a non-linear differential equation that describes the motion of a
synchronous generator's rotor in a power system. It's used to analyse the transient
stability of synchronous generators.

The swing equation uses the following variables:

● M: The moment of inertia of the rotating masses of the machine
● δ: The rotor angle in electrical radians
● Pm: The mechanical input power to the generator
● Ps: The electrical output power from the generator
● d2δ/dt2: The angular acceleration of the rotor.
●

Problem:

A 20 MVA, 50Hz generator delivers 18MW over a double circuit line to an infinite bus.
The generator has KE of 2.52MJ/MVA at rated speed. The generator transient reactance
is Xd=0.35p.u. Each transmission circuit has R=0 and a reactance of 0.2pu on 20 MVA
Base. |E|=1.1 p.u and infinite bus voltage V=1.0. A three-phase short circuit occurs at the
midpoint of one of the transmission lines. Plot swing curves with fault cleared by
simultaneous opening of breakers at both ends of the line at 6.25 cycles after the
occurrence of fault. Also plot the swing curve over the period of 0.5 s if the fault sustained.

Program:

%Defining the function swing

function[time ang]=swing(tc)

k=0;v=1;E=1.1;pm=0.9;T=0.5;delT=0.05;ddelta=0;time(1)=0;ang(1)=21.64;xdf=1

.25;xaf=0.55;t=0;

delta=21.64*pi/180;i=2;
45
m=2.52/(180*50);

while t<T

if t<tc

x=xdf;

else x=xaf;

end

pmax=(E*v)/x;

pa=pm-pmax*sin(delta);

ddelta=ddelta+(delT^2*(pa/m));

delta=(delta*180/pi+ddelta)*(pi/180);

deltadeg=delta*180/pi;

t=t+delT;

time(i)=t;

ang(i)=deltadeg;

i=i+1;

end

end

%solution of Swing equation by point-by-point method

clc

clear all

close all

for i=1:2

tc=input('enter the value of clearing time:\n');

[time,ang]=swing(tc)

t(:,1)=time;

a(:,i)=ang;

46
end

plot(t,a(:,1),'*-',t,a(:,2),'d-')

axis([0 0.5 0 inf])

t,a

Observation:

Inputs to main program:

Enter the value of clearing time as

0.25 sec, and

5 sec

Result:

The following variables calculated using swing equation are: _______

Viva questions:

1. What is the significance of the swing equation in power system analysis?

2. Explain the terms Pm, Pe, and H in the swing equation.
3. How is the swing equation used to study power system stability?
4. What are the factors that affect the stability of a power system as per the swing equation?
5. How can the swing equation be solved numerically?
6. What is the difference between small signal stability and transient stability?
7. How can the swing equation be used to study voltage stability?
8. Can you explain the concept of critical clearing time?
9. How does the swing equation account for damping in a power system?
10. What are the limitations of the swing equation?

47
 Experiment No. - 10

Aim: To obtain the bus impedance matrix Z – bus of the given power system network using
MATLAB.

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

Z - bus matrix is an important matrix used in different kinds of power system studies such as
short circuit study, load flow study, etc In short circuit analysis, the generator and transformer
impedances must be taken into account. In contingency analysis, the shunt elements are
neglected while forming the Z-bus matrix, which is used to compute the outage distribution
factors. Z-bus can be easily obtained by inverting the Y-bus formed by inspection method or by
analytical method. Taking inverse of the Y-bus for large systems is time consuming; Moreover,
modification in the system requires the whole process to be repeated to reflect the changes in
the system. In such cases, the Z–bus is computed by Z–bus building algorithm.

ALGORITHM FOR FORMATION OF Z-BUS MATRIX

Step 1 : Read the values such as number of lines, number of buses and line data, Generator data
and Transformer data.
Step 2 : Initialize Ybus matrix. Y-bus [i] [j] = complex (0.0,0.0) for all values of i and j
Step 3 :Compute Y- bus Matrix by considering only line data.
Step 4 : Modify the Ybus matrix by adding the combined transformer and the generator
admittances to the respective diagonal elements of Y– bus matrix.
Step 5 : Compute the Z– bus matrix by inverting the modified Ybus matrix.
Step 6 : Check the inversion by multiplying modified Ybus and Z-bus matrices to see whether the
resulting matrix is unity matrix or not. If it is unity matrix, the result is correct.
Step 7 :Print Z-bus matrix
Problem:

48
Program:
linedata = [1 1 2 0.001 0.015 0.001 2 2 3 0.002 0.021 0.0005 3 3 1 0.004 0.046 0.0015 ];

fb = linedata(:,1);

tb = linedata(:,2);

r = linedata(:,3);

x = linedata(:,4);

b = linedata(:,5);

z = r + i*x; y = 1./z;

b = i*b;

nbus = max(max(fb),max(tb));

nbranch = length(fb);

Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);

for k=1:nbranch

Y(fb(k),tb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k))-y(k);

Y(tb(k),fb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k));

end

for m =1:

nbus for n =1:nbranch

if fb(n) == m

Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n)+ b(n);

elseif tb(n) == m

Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n) + b(n);

49
end

end

end

Y zbus = inv(Y)

Observation:

Result:

Thus, for a given system bus impedance matrix was formulated using MATLAB package.

Viva questions:

1. What is the Z-bus matrix in power systems?

2. How is the Z-bus matrix derived from the Y-bus matrix?
3. What is the primary use of the Z-bus matrix in power systems?
4. Which method is used to calculate the Z-bus matrix?
5. Why is the Z-bus matrix preferred for fault analysis?
6. What is the relationship between Z-bus and Y-bus matrices?
7. Can the Z-bus matrix be directly calculated?
8. What is the Z-bus building algorithm?
9. Why might the Y-bus matrix be non-invertible?
10. What is the significance of diagonal elements in the Z-bus matrix?
11. How do off-diagonal elements in the Z-bus matrix impact system analysis?
12. What does a zero element in the Z-bus matrix indicate?
50
13. How do you handle singular Y-bus matrices when calculating Z-bus?
14. What is Kron’s reduction in Z-bus matrix calculation?

51
 Experiment No. – 11

Aim: To become familiar with various aspects of the transient analysis of Single-
Machine-Infinite Bus (SMIB) system.

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:
Stability: Stability problem is concerned with the behaviour of power system when it is
subjected to disturbance and is classified into small signal stability problem if the
disturbances are small and transient stability problem when the disturbances are large.

Transient stability: When a power system is under steady state, the load plus transmission
loss equals to the generation in the system. The generating units run a synchronous speed and
system frequency, voltage, current and power flows are steady. When a large disturbance such
as three phase fault, loss of load, loss of generation etc., occurs the power balance is upset and
the generating units rotors experience either acceleration or deceleration. The system may
come back to a steady state condition maintaining synchronism or it may break into subsystems
or one or more machines may pull out of synchronism. In the former case the system is said to
be stable and in the later case it is said to be unstable.
Small signal stability: When a power system is under steady state, normal operating
condition, the system may be subjected to small disturbances such as variation in load and
generation, change in field voltage, change in mechanical toque etc., The nature of system
response to small disturbance depends on the operating conditions, the transmission system
strength, types of controllers etc. Instability that may result from small disturbance may be of
two forms,
i. Steady increase in rotor angle due to lack of synchronising torque.
ii. Rotor oscillations of increasing magnitude due to lack of sufficient damping torque.

Problem:
A 60Hz synchronous generator having inertia constant H = 5 MJ/MVA and a direct axis transient
reactance Xd 1 = 0.3 per unit is connected to an infinite bus through a purely reactive circuit as
shown in figure. Reactances are marked on the diagram on a common system base. The
generator is delivering real power Pe = 0.8 per unit and Q = 0.074 per unit to the infinite bus at
a voltage of V = 1 per unit.
a) A temporary three-phase fault occurs at the sending end of the line at point F.When the
fault is cleared, both lines are intact. Determine the critical clearing angle and the critical
fault clearing time.
b) A three-phase fault occurs at the middle of one of the lines, the fault is cleared and teh
faulted line is isolated. Determine the critical clearing angle.

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Program:

function eacfault(Pm, E, V, X1, X2, X3)

if exist('Pm')~=1

Pm = input('Generator output power in p.u. Pm = '); else, end if exist('E')~=1

E = input('Generator e.m.f. in p.u. E = '); else, end if exist('V')~=1

V = input('Infinite bus-bar voltage in p.u. V = '); else, end if exist('X1')~=1

X1 = input('Reactance before Fault in p.u. X1 = '); else, end if exist('X2')~=1

X2 = input('Reactance during Fault in p.u. X2 = '); else, end if exist('X3')~=1

X3 = input('Reactance aftere Fault in p.u. X3 = '); else, end

Pe1max = E*V/X1; Pe2max=E*V/X2; Pe3max=E*V/X3; delta = 0:.01:pi;

Pe1 = Pe1max*sin(delta); Pe2 = Pe2max*sin(delta); Pe3 = Pe3max*sin(delta);

d0 =asin(Pm/Pe1max); dmax = pi-asin(Pm/Pe3max);

cosdc = (Pm*(dmax-d0)+Pe3max*cos(dmax)-Pe2max*cos(d0))/(Pe3max-Pe2max);

if abs(cosdc) > 1

fprintf('No critical clearing angle could be found.\n')

fprintf('system can remain stable during this disturbance.\n\n')

return

else, end

dc=acos(cosdc);

if dc > dmax

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fprintf('No critical clearing angle could be found.\n')

fprintf('System can remain stable during this disturbance.\n\n')

return

else, end

Pmx=[0 pi-d0]*180/pi; Pmy=[Pm Pm];

x0=[d0 d0]*180/pi; y0=[0 Pm]; xc=[dc dc]*180/pi; yc=[0 Pe3max*sin(dc)];

xm=[dmax dmax]*180/pi; ym=[0 Pe3max*sin(dmax)];

d0=d0*180/pi; dmax=dmax*180/pi; dc=dc*180/pi;

x=(d0:.1:dc);

y=Pe2max*sin(x*pi/180);

y1=Pe2max*sin(d0*pi/180);

y2=Pe2max*sin(dc*pi/180);

x=[d0 x dc];

y=[Pm y Pm];

xx=dc:.1:dmax;

h=Pe3max*sin(xx*pi/180);

xx=[dc xx dmax];

hh=[Pm h Pm];

delta=delta*180/pi;

if X2 == inf

fprintf('\nFor this case tc can be found from analytical formula. \n') H=input('To find tc
enter Inertia Constant H, (or 0 to skip) H = ');

if H ~= 0

d0r=d0*pi/180; dcr=dc*pi/180;

tc = sqrt(2*H*(dcr-d0r)/(pi*60*Pm));

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else, end

else, end

%clc

fprintf('\nInitial power angle = %7.3f \n', d0)

fprintf('Maximum angle swing = %7.3f \n', dmax)

fprintf('Critical clearing angle = %7.3f \n\n', dc)

if X2==inf & H~=0

fprintf('Critical clearing time = %7.3f sec. \n\n', tc)

else, end

h = figure; figure(h);

fill(x,y,'m')

hold;

fill(xx,hh,'c')

plot(delta, Pe1,'-', delta, Pe2,'r-', delta, Pe3,'g-', Pmx, Pmy,'b-', x0,y0, xc,yc, xm,ym), grid

Title('Application of equal area criterion to a critically cleared system')

xlabel('Power angle, degree'), ylabel(' Power, per unit')

text(5, 1.07*Pm, 'Pm')

text(50, 1.05*Pe1max,['Critical clearing angle = ',num2str(dc)])

axis([0 180 0 1.1*Pe1max])

hold off;

Observation:
a) To find tc enter Inertia Constant H, (or 0 to skip) H = 5
Initial power angle = 26.388

Maximum angle swing = 153.612

Critical clearing angle = 84.775

Critical clearing time = 0.260 sec.

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b) Initial power angle 26.388

Maximum angle swing 146.838

Critical clearing angle 98.834

Result:
Various aspects of the transient analysis of Single-Machine-Infinite Bus (SMIB) system has been
studied.

Viva Question:
1. What is transient stability in a power system?
2. How does transient stability differ from steady-state stability?
3. What factors affect the transient stability of a power system?
4. What is the critical clearing time, and why is it important?

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5. How does fault location impact transient stability?
6. What methods are used to improve transient stability?
7. How does the equal area criterion help in analyzing transient stability?
8. What role does rotor angle play in transient stability?

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 Experiment No. – 12

Aim: To determine the fault current and voltage in a single transmission line
system for the following Y-∆ transformer at specified location for LG, LLG faults.

Apparatus: MATLAB Software

Theory:

Fault analysis is the process of determining the nature and characteristics of faults that
can occur in a power system. Its key objectives include:
o Studying the type, location, and progression of faults
o Calculating fault currents and voltages
o Selecting protective devices and relay settings
o Rating equipment to withstand fault currents
o Ensuring power system stability during faults
o Locating faulty equipment for repair
Fault analysis helps provide continuous and reliable electric power by maintaining safety
margins between normal loads and equipment ratings.
It minimizes equipment damage, downtime, and costs from faults through coordinated
protection schemes.
Types of Faults in Power System
The faults in the power system are mainly categorized into two types:
1. Open Circuit Fault
2. Short Circuit Fault

1. Open Circuit Fault:

The open circuit fault happens due to the failure of one or two conductors. These faults
take place in series with the line so referred as series fault. Such types of faults have a
strong impact on the reliability of the system. The open circuit fault is classified as:
• Open Conductor Fault
• Two conductors Open Fault
• Three conductors Open Fault

2.Short Circuit Fault:

The short-circuit fault is commonly divided into symmetrical and asymmetrical types.
These faults are further categorized as one of five types. In order of frequency of
occurrence, they are:

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 • Asymmetrical Faults:

Asymmetrical faults mandate the calculation of positive negative and zero sequence
components separately.

Single Line to Ground Fault: This type of fault occurs when you have one of the phases (A,
B or C) is shorted with the ground.

Line to Line Fault: This type of fault occurs when you have one of the phases (A, B or C)
is shorted with the ground.

Double Line to Ground Fault: This type of fault occurs when two phases are shorted with
the ground together (A-B-G, B-C-G or C-A-G)

• Symmetrical Faults:

Symmetrical faults do not give rise to zero sequence or negative sequence components
because they are perfectly balanced, symmetrical faults only have positive sequence
values.

Three Phase Line to Ground Fault: The 3-phase to ground faults are faults in where all the
phases (A, B and C) are shorted together and they are grounded.

Three Phase Line to Line Fault: The three phase faults occur when you have A, B and C
phases are shorted together but ground is not involved.

Problem:
Consider a unsymmetrical fault occurring at three bus having impedances as follows z12
= j*.8; z13 = j*.4; z23 = j*.4; calculate the fault.

Program:
z12 = j*.8; z13 = j*.4; z23 = j*.4;

Ybus = j*[-8.75 1.25 2.5

1.25 -6.25 2.5

2.5 2.50 -5.0];

Zbus = inv(Ybus)

Zf = j*.16;

V0=[1; 1; 1];

I3F = V0(1)/(Zbus(3,3)+Zf)

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VF = V0-I3F*Zbus(:,3)

I12 = (VF(1) - VF(2))/z12

I13 = (VF(1) - VF(3))/z13

I23 = (VF(2) - VF(3))/z23

Observation:
Zbus = 0.0000 + 0.1600i 0.0000 + 0.0800i 0.0000 + 0.1200i
0.0000 + 0.0800i 0.0000 + 0.2400i 0.0000 + 0.1600i
0.0000 + 0.1200i 0.0000 + 0.1600i 0.0000 + 0.3400i
I3F = 0.0000 - 2.0000i
VF = 0.7600
0.6800
0.3200
I12 = 0.0000 - 0.1000i
I13 = 0.0000 - 1.1000i
I23 = 0.0000 - 0.9000i

Result:
Modeling and analysis of power systems under faulted condition was studied. Fault level,
post-fault voltages and currents for different types of faults, for the given network under
symmetric and unsymmetrical conditions were computed and verified using MATLAB
Software.

Viva Question:
1. What is a fault in a power system?
2. Explain the difference between symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.
3. Why is fault current calculation important in power systems?
4. What happens to voltage and current during a short-circuit fault?
5. How does a protective relay detect faults?
6. What methods are used to calculate fault current?
7. What is the role of symmetrical components in fault analysis?
8. What is a bus impedance matrix, and how is it used in fault analysis?
9. What are sequence networks, and why are they important?
10. Why is a three-phase fault considered the most severe?

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