Chapter 3

DC Generator
 CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Construction of DC Machines
 Working principle of DC generator
 Emf equation for DC Machines
 Types of DC generator
 Characteristics of DC generator
 Armature Reaction
 Commutator action
 Losses in DC generator
 Efficiency and Voltage Regulation
 Introduction
● A DC Machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device.
● It can work both as a generator and a motor.
● DC Machine is most often used as a dc motor because of their advantages of easy
speed control and torque regulation.
● However, their application is limited to mills, traction, mines, trains and overhead
cranes.
● In the past, automobiles were equipped with dc dynamos to charge their batteries.
● Even today the starter is a series dc motor.
● However, the recent development of power electronics has reduced the use of dc
motors and generators.
● The electronically controlled ac drives are gradually replacing the dc motor
drives in factories.
● Nevertheless, a large number of dc motors are still used by industry and several
thousand are sold annually.
Construction of DC Machine
The main parts of dc machine are:

1) Yoke:
● It is the outer frame of a dc machine.
● It acts as a protecting shield for the DC machine.
● It not only provides mechanical strength to the
whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.
● In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration,
yokes are made of cast iron.
● But for large machines, usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed.
2) Field Magnet system
● It is the stationary part of the machine.
● The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole
shoes.
● The pole shoes spread out the magnetic flux in the
air gap and also, being of larger cross-section,
reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path.
● They support the exciting coils or field coils.
● While constructing pole, the pole core itself may be a solid piece made out of either
cast iron or cast steel but the pole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face
by means of counter sunk screws.
● In modern design, the complete pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin
laminations of annealed steel having thickness of laminations varying from 1-0.25
mm which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure.
● Field coils are usually made of copper wire and are
wounded on the former.
● The wound coil is placed over the pole core and
are connected in series. They are wound in such a
way that, when energized, they form alternate
North and South poles.
● A small air gap exists between the pole pieces and the armature so that there
will be no rubbing in the machine. However, this gap is kept as small as
possible nearly about 1-6 mm, since larger the air gap, greater is the mmf
required to create the required flux.
3) Armature
● It is the rotating part of the machine.
● It is built in cylindrical or drum shaped with a
central shaft.
● The armature core is made of circular sheet steel
discs or laminations around 0.5mm thick.
● In every circular lamination, slots are either die-cut
or punched on the outer periphery of the disc and the
keyway is located in the inner diameter.
● Perforation exist in these laminations to provide axial flow of air through the
armature for cooling purposes.
● The purpose of armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide low
reluctance path to the flux from N pole to S pole through the armature.
● Armature winding is usually a former wound
copper coil which rests in armature slots.
● The armature conductors are insulated from
each other and also from the armature core.
● This is the winding in which working emf is
induced.
● Armature winding can be wound by one of the
two methods: lap winding or wave winding.
● The difference between these two is merely due to the different arrangement of
connections at the front or commutator end of the armature.
● Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used.
● A double layer winding means that each armature slot will carry two different
coils.
A) Lap winding

● In lap winding, finish end of one coil is

connected to a commutator segment and to
the start end of the adjacent coil under the
same pole and similarly all coils are
connected.
● The winding is known as lap winding
because the sides of successive coils overlap
each other.
● In lap winding, total number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles.
● In lap winding, the number of brushes is also equal to the number of parallel
paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive and the remaining half are
negative.
● Lap winding is suitable for high current and low voltage machines like welding
plants.
B) Wave winding
● In wave winding, finish end of one coil is
connected to the start of another coil. Thus,
winding progresses, passing every N pole
and S pole till it returns to the coil side from
where it was started.
● As the winding is wavy, the winding is,
therefore, called wave winding.
● Once it passing one round, then the armature winding falls into a slot toward the
left side of its beginning point. So this type of winding is named as retrogressive
windings.
● Similarly, once the windings of an armature fall on one slot toward the right then it
is named as progressive winding
● The wave winding gives always two parallel paths irrespective of number of poles.
● Wave winding is used for high voltage and low current machines like generators
used for lighting.
4) Commutator
● It is of cylindrical structure and is made from a number of wedge-shaped hard
drawn copper bars or segments.
● Each segment is insulated from each other by thin layers of mica.
● Each segment is connected with corresponding armature conductor through
segment riser i.e. the number of segments is equal to the number of armature
coils.
● It is very important in dc machines and serves the following purposes:
 It provides the electrical connection between rotating armature coils and the
stationary external circuit.
 As the armature rotates, it performs a switching action reversing the electrical
connections between the external circuit and each armature coil in turn so that the
armature coil voltages add together and result in dc output voltage.
 It also keeps the rotor or armature mmf stationary in space.
● It converts the ac current into unidirectional current.
5) Brushes
● The function of brushes is to collect current from the rotating commutator and
supply it to the stationary external load circuit.
● The brushes are made of carbon or graphite and are in shape of rectangular block.
● The brushes are housed in the brush holder usually of box type which are mounted
on the spindle.
● These brushes can slide in the rectangular box
which is open at both the ends.
● A flexible copper pig tail mounted at the top of
the brush conveys current from the brushes to the
holder.
● The number of brushes per spindle depends upon
the magnitude of the current to be collected from
the commutator
6) Bearings
● They are frequently employed because of their reliability.
● Balls and rollers are generally packed in hard oil for
silent operation.
● Sleeve bearings with ring lubrication are used in order to
reduce bearing wear.
● For larger machines, pedestal bearings are used.
● The function of the bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and
stationary parts of the machine.
● Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is a very
hard material
 DC Generator
● A DC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
● A DC generator works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.
● This principle states that “Whenever a conductor is moved in the magnetic field,
flux is cut by it, thereby inducing an emf which will cause a current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.”

● The direction of induced emf (and hence current)

is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
 Simple Loop Generator
Let us consider a single turn rectangular copper conductor loop rotating in anticlockwise
direction about its own axis.

Figure (a) shows the initial or starting position of the loop

and angle of rotation is measured from this position.
When this loop is just parallel to the faces of the field
magnets N and S or perpendicular to the magnetic field
lines, the flux linking with the loop is maximum but the
rate of change of linking flux is zero, as at this instant no
flux is cut by the coil sides AA' and BB' which are just
moving parallel to them. Therefore, no emf is induced in
the conductors. This position is called neutral plane
position.
When the loop rotates in anticlockwise direction from
its vertical position to its horizontal position i.e. from 0º
position to 90º position as shown in figure (b), the flux
linked with the coil is minimum as the coil plane is
parallel to the lines of flux but the rate of change of
flux linkage is maximum. The result is that the induced
emf in the coil builds up from zero to a maximum
value. As the loop gets closed there will be a current
circulating through the loop. The direction of the
current can be determined by Fleming's right hand
Rule. Now if we apply this right-hand rule, we will see
at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow
out of the slip ring A.
Now if we allow the loop to rotate further, it will
come again to its vertical position as shown in figure
(c), but now the upper side of the loop will be BB',
and lower side will be AA'. The flux linked with the
coil gradually increases but the rate of change of flux
linkage decreases. Hence, the induced emf decreases
gradually and is reduced to zero value.

From 0º to 180º position, the conductors of the loop have been moving in the same
direction through the magnetic field. Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage
has remained the same. This is shown by points A through C on the graph.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in a
horizontal position as shown in figure (d). But
now, BB' side of the loop comes in front of N
pole, and AA' comes in front of S pole. Here
the direction of the cutting action of the coils
through the magnetic field reverses. As a result,
the polarity of the induced voltage reverses and
according to Fleming's right-hand Rule, the
current flows in the reverse direction at this
position.
Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage is shown by points following the
sequence C, D and back to A on the graph.
The voltage output waveform for the complete revolution of the loop is shown on the
graph below.

In the absence of commutator segments and carbon brushes, there are two problems in
DC generator:
a) It is practically impossible to connect a stationary external load circuit across the
rotating armature.
b) The voltage output from the armature is AC, where as we are looking for DC voltage.

These two problems can be eliminated by introducing commutator segments and carbon
brushes in the machine.
Split rings are made of a conducting cylinder and splitted into two halves or
segments separated from each other by insulation and brushes are placed
diametrically opposite instead of being side by side. This forms a simple
commutator.
A single-loop generator with external circuit connected to split ring instead of
slip ring is shown in figure below. Here, the commutator is mounted on but
insulated from the rotor shaft. Two stationary carbon brushes C1 and C2 rest
on the commutator and lead current to the external load.
It can be observed that in the first half of the revolution, the coil sides AA' and
BB' are under N-pole and S-pole respectively. By considering the downward
component of the motion, if we apply Fleming’s right-hand rule, we will get a
current flowing from A' to A in the coil AA'. Because at that moment, the
direction of flux and motion are not parallel. So, the conductor AA' will be
able to cut the flux. Similarly, on the other side, one component of the motion
of conductor BB' is upward at the same moment. According to Fleming’s
right-hand rule, the direction of current in the coil BB' will be from B to B'.
At that moment, the commutator segment x connected to coil AA' comes in contact
with the C1 brush and the commutator segment y connected to conductor BB' comes
in contact with C2 brush. Hence, the circuit gets completed through the resistive load
and provides the path for circulating the loop current. The current flows along the
path A'AMLBB'A', i.e. brush C1 in contact with segment x acts as positive pole of
the supply and brush C2 in contact with segment y acts as negative pole.
In the next half of the revolution, the coil sides BB' and AA' are under N-pole and S-
pole respectively. By considering the downward component of the motion, if we
apply Fleming’s right-hand rule, we will get a current flowing from B' to B in the
coil BB'. Similarly, on the other side, one component of the motion of conductor AA'
is upward at the same moment. According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction
of current in the coil AA' will be from A to A'. At that moment, the commutator
segment y connected to coil BB' comes in contact with the C1 brush and the
commutator segment x connected to conductor AA' comes in contact with C2 brush.
Hence, the circuit gets completed through the resistive load following the path of
current along B'BMLAA'B', i.e. brush C1 in contact with segment y acts as positive
pole of the supply and brush C2 in contact with segment x acts as negative pole.
Therefore, in both half cycles, the direction of current through the external load
remains same (i.e. from M to L). This current is unidirectional and pulsating.
 EMF Equation for DC Machine
DC machine may either work as a dc motor or dc generator. In case of DC
generator, an induced emf is called generated emf and in case of DC motor,
induced emf is called back or counter emf. When armature of dc generator is
rotated by means of some prime mover, the armature conductors will cut the
magnetic flux produced by the field poles. Hence, according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, emf will induce across the armature coil. The induced
emf depends upon the type of winding of dc generator whether it is wave or lap.
Let us derive the emf equation for dc machine.
Let, Φ be the flux per pole in weber,
Z be the total number of armature conductor,
P be the number of poles,
A be the number of parallel paths in armature,
N be the rotational speed of the armature in revolution per minute (rpm).
As we know that the induced emf is proportional to time rate of change of the
magnetic flux i.e.
dΦ
e=
dt
During one revolution of armature in a P-pole generator, each armature
conductor cuts the magnetic flux P times, so flux cut by one conductor in one
revolution = PΦ Weber's
Since the number of revolutions made by the armature per minute is N so the
number of revolution made per second is N/60 and, therefore, flux cut by each
conductor per second is equal to product of flux cut by one conductor per
revolution and number of revolution of armature per second.
N
= PΦ × Webers
60
Consequently, the average emf induced in one conductor is given by
N
e = PΦ × Volts
60
The number of conductors connected in series between a positive brush and negative
brush is equal to the total number of conductors divided by the total number of
parallel paths i.e. the number of armature conductors per parallel path = Z/A
Therefore, the total emf generated between the terminals is given by
N Z
E = PΦ × × Volts
60 A
ZΦN P
∴E= × Volts
60 A
Note:
Number of parallel paths in wave winding, A = 2
Number of parallel paths in lap winding, A = P
For a given machine, the number of poles and number of armature conductors per
parallel path are constant, therefore, generated emf,
PZ
E = KΦN Where, K =
60A
or E α ΦN
Thus, we can see that the induced emf is directly proportional to the flux per pole
Φ and speed N. Moreover, the polarity of the induced emf depends upon the
direction of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation. If either of the two is
reversed, the polarity of the induced emf i.e. brushes are reversed, but when both
are reversed, the polarity remains unchanged.
 Types of DC Generators
Generally, DC generators are classified according to the ways of excitation of their
fields. There are three methods of excitation.
i) Field coils excited by permanent magnets – Permanent magnet DC generators.
ii) Field coils excited by some external source – Separately excited DC generators.
iii)Field coils excited by the generator itself – Self excited DC generators.

1) Permanent magnet DC Generator

When the flux in the magnetic circuit is established by the help of permanent magnets
then it is known as Permanent magnet DC generator. It consists of an armature and
one or several permanent magnets situated around the armature. The field developed
by the poles of such machines remains fairly constant. This type of DC generators
generates very low power. So, they are rarely found in industrial applications and are
normally used in small applications like dynamos in motorcycles, etc.
The main disadvantage of these machines is that the flux produced by the magnets
deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the characteristics of the
machine. The figure below shows the permanent magnet DC generator.
2) Separately Excited DC Generator
Since the operation of a dc machine depends upon a fixed polarity of the poles which
does not vary with the time, the field coils need energization from a dc source.
These are the generators whose field winding is excited from an independent external
DC source such as battery. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field
current with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles i.e. flux is
directly proportional to the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains
constant. The circuit diagram is shown below:
In this case, the current flowing through the armature Ia and load IL is the same.
On applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we have
Eg − Ia R a − V = 0
∴ Eg = V + Ia R a
Where, Ia R a is the voltage drop in armature and R a being armature resistance.
And, Power developed in the armature, Pg = Eg Ia
Here, V < Eg because of voltage drop in the armature winding resistance.
1) Self-excited DC Generators
A dc generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by the
generator itself is called a self-excited dc generator. In these type of machines,
field coils are internally connected with the armature winding. Due to residual
magnetism, some flux is always present in the poles of these machines. When the
armature is rotated, a small voltage is induced in the armature winding owing to
residual flux. This induced voltage causes a small current to flow in the field coils
and thus increase in flux per pole. The increase in flux causes increase in induced
voltage which further increases the field current and so the flux per pole. These
events take place rapidly and the generator builds up to the rated voltage.
According to the position of the field winding with the armature, the self-excited
DC generators may be classified as:
(i) Series wound generators
(ii)Shunt wound generators
(iii)Compound wound generators
1) Series Wound Generator
In series wound generator, there is only one field winding which is connected in
series with armature winding so that the whole current flows through the field
winding as well as the load. As series field winding carries the full load current, it is
designed with relatively few turns of thick wire. The electrical resistance of series
field winding R se is therefore very low (nearly 0.5Ω). Series generators are rarely
used except for special purposes i.e. as boosters. The connection diagram of series
wound generator is shown below.

Here, Ia = Ise = IL = I (say)

On applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we have
Eg − IR a − IR se − V = 0
∴ Eg = V + I(R a + R se )
And, Power developed in the armature, Pg = Eg I
2) Shunt Wound DC Generators
In shunt wound generator, there is only one field winding which is connected across
the armature circuit forming a parallel or shunt circuit. In shunt wound generator,
the voltage across the field winding is, therefore, the same as the voltage across the
terminal. The connection diagram of series wound generator is shown below.

Here, armature current Ia flowing from the

positive brush divides between two parallel
paths; the external circuit and the field
circuit. The shunt field current Ish and the
load current IL close the circuit at the
negative brush and their sum is equal to
armature current i.e. Ia = Ish + IL
The effective power of a generator is proportional to the current delivered to the
external circuit, therefore, it is required to keep shunt field current as small as
possible. For this purpose, the resistance of the shunt field winding R sh is generally
kept high (nearly 100 Ω) and large number of turns of fine wire are used for the
desired mmf.

3) Compound Wound DC Generators

In compound wound generators, there are two field windings (two separate coils on
the core of each pole). One of them is connected in series having many turns of
fine wire and the other is connected in parallel having few turns of thick wire with
the armature windings. Compound wound generators may be:
a) Short-shunt in which the shunt field winding is parallel with the armature
winding only.
b) Long-shunt in which the shunt field winding is in parallel with both the
armature winding and series field winding.
In a compound wound generator, the major portion of the excitation is usually
supplied by the shunt field. So, the shunt field is stronger than the series field.
When the series field assists the shunt field, generator is said to be cumulatively
compounded. On the other hand, if series field opposes the shunt field, the
generator is said to be differentially compounded.
a) Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Here, Series field current, Ise = IL

V + Ise R se
Shunt field current, Ish =
R sh
Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish
On applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we have
Eg − Ia R a − Ise R se − V = 0
∴ Eg = V + Ia R a + Ise R se
And, Power develped in the armature, Pg = Eg Ia
Also, Power delivered by the load, PL = VIL
b) Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

V
Here, Shunt field current, Ish =
Rsh

Armature current, Ia = Series field current, Ise

= IL + Ish
On applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we have
Eg − Ia R a − Ise R se − V = 0
∴ Eg = V + Ia (R a +R se)
And, Power develped in the armature, Pg = Eg Ia
Also, Power delivered by the load, PL = VIL
 Characteristics of DC generator

The curves or graphs giving the relationship between various quantities such as
excitation or field current, generated emf, terminal voltage, load current, etc are
known as generator characteristics. The most important characteristics of dc
generator are studied below:
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0 vs If )
2. Internal or Total Characteristic (E vs Ia )
3. External or Load Characteristic (V vs IL )
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load
characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf across
the armature at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at a given constant speed. The
O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is practically similar for all type
of generators. The connection arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is shown in the
figure below. The field current is gradually increased and the corresponding
terminal voltage is recorded. For shunt or series excited generators, the field
winding is disconnected from the machine temporarily and connected across an
external supply.
Here, OA is the emf generated across the armature
due to residual flux in the pole even in the absence
of field current.
ZΦN P
We know that, E = × volts and ΦαIf
60 A
Since, the armature is driven at constant speed,
EαΦ and hence, EαIf
Therefore, the no-load characteristics is a curve
representing a straight line that indicates the emf
increases proportionately with If up to the point B. After point B, the magnetic poles
get saturated and emf does not increase even if If is increased. It should be noted that
no-load characteristics curve for a higher speed will be above this curve and for lower
speed, it will be below this curve.
It is known that maximum voltage which a
generator can generate is given by the point of
intersection of field resistance line with the OCC
curve. If the line 'ob' represents the field
resistance, then the maximum emf generated is
OB1. If the field resistance is increased so that
the field resistance line becomes tangent to that
curve as line 'od', then emf generated is OD1 and
the value of resistance represented by this line is
called critical field resistance. If a line is further
increased beyond critical resistance as represented by line 'oe', the generator will not
excite as this line doesn’t intersect with the magnetic characteristic ignoring initial
portion of the curve.
2. Internal or Total Characteristic
An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated
emf in the armature (Eg) and the load current (IL). The on-load generated emf Eg is
always less than no-load generated emf E0 due to the armature reaction. Eg can be
determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction from no-load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies
below the OCC curve.

3. External Characteristic
An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V)
and the load current (IL). The terminal voltage V is always less than Eg on account
of voltage drop in armature. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the
internal characteristic curve. This characteristic is very important to determine the
suitability of a generator for a particular service. Internal and external
characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator.
a. Series Wound DC Generator

We have, Terminal voltage, V = Eg − I(R a +R se )

In the figure, OD curve is showing the

external characteristic of the series
wound DC generator. It can be observed
from the characteristics of series wound
DC generator, that with the increase in
load current, terminal voltage of the
machine increases. But after reaching its
maximum value it starts to decrease due
to excessive demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction. This phenomenon is
shown in the figure by the dotted line.
Dotted portion of the characteristic gives approximately constant current irrespective
of the external load resistance. This is because if load is increased, the field current is
increased as field is series connected with load. Similarly, the armature current is also
increased. But due to saturation, there will be no further significant raise of magnetic
field strength hence, no further increase in induced voltage. But due to increased
armature current, the effect of armature reaction increases significantly which causes
significant fall in load voltage. If load voltage falls, the load current is also decreased
proportionally since current is proportional to voltage as per Ohm’s law. So,
increasing load, tends to increase the load current, but decreasing load voltage, tends
to decrease load current. Due to these two simultaneous effects, there will be no
significant change in load current in dotted portion of external characteristics of series
wound DC generator. That is why series DC generator is called constant current DC
generator.
b) Shunt Wound DC Generator
When the generator is loaded, the
generated voltage is decreased due to
armature reaction. So, generated voltage
will be lower than the emf generated at no
load. Here in the figure below, AB curve
is showing the no load voltage curve and
AC is the internal characteristic curve. AD
curve is showing the external characteristic of the shunt wound DC generators. It is
showing the variation of terminal voltage with the load current. The ohmic drop due
to armature resistance gives lesser terminal voltage than the generated voltage. That is
why the curve lies below the internal characteristic curve.
We know, terminal voltage, V = Eg − Ia R a = Eg − (Ish + IL )R a
During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load
current increases. But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal
voltage also falls. So, load resistance can be decreased up to a certain limit, after
which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due to excessive armature
reaction at very high armature current and increased ohmic drop. Hence, beyond
this limit any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current.
Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted line
in the above figure and ultimately the terminal voltage becomes zero though there
is some voltage due to residual magnetism.
If a line from the origin is drawn tangential to internal characteristics curve, the
gradient of this line will give the minimum value of the external load resistance
for which the generator will excite on load. This resistance is called critical load
resistance. If the resistance of the external load circuit is less than this value, the
generator will fail to build up its voltage.
c) Compound Wound DC Generator

The below figure shows the external

characteristics of compound wound DC
generators. If series winding amp-turns are
adjusted so that, increase in load current
causes increase in terminal voltage then the
generator is called to be over compounded.
In such a case, as the load current increases,
the series field mmf increases and tends to
increase the flux and hence the generated voltage. The increase in generated
voltage is greater than the IaRa drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal
voltage increases as shown by curve AB. If series winding amp-turns are adjusted
so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even the load current is increased,
then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The series winding of such a
machine has lesser number of turns than the one in over-compounded machine and
therefore, does not increase the flux as much for a given load current.
Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage as
indicated by curve AC. If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that
would be required to be flat compounded, then the generator is called to be under
compounded as shown by the curve AD.
 Armature Reaction
In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present- armature flux and
main field flux. The effect of armature flux on the main field flux is called as
armature reaction.
EMF is induced in the armature conductors when they cut the magnetic field
lines. There is an axis (or we may say, a plane) along which armature conductors
move parallel to the flux lines and, hence, they do not cut the flux lines while on
that plane. MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis along
which no emf is generated in the armature conductors as they move parallel to
the flux lines. Brushes are always placed along the MNA because reversal of
current in the armature conductors takes place along this axis. GNA (Geometrical
Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the stator field
axis.
The effect of armature reaction is well illustrated in the figures below:
Figure (i) shows that there is no current flowing in the armature conductors and
only the field winding is energized. In this case, magnetic flux lines of the field
poles are uniform and symmetrical to the polar axis. The 'Magnetic Neutral Axis'
(M.N.A.) coincides with the 'Geometric Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.). The brushes of the
DC machines are always placed in this axis, and hence this axis is called the axis of
commutation. Let OFm be the vector representing the magnetic field produced by
the field poles.
Figure (ii) shows the condition in which only the armature conductors carrying
current and no current flows through their main poles. The direction of current
remains same in all the conductors which lying under one pole. The direction of
current induced in the conductor is given by the Fleming's right-hand rule. And the
direction of flux generates in the conductors is given by the cork-screw rule. The
direction of current on the left sides of the armature conductor goes into the paper
(represented by the cross inside the circle). The armature conductors combine their
MMF for generating the fluxes through the armature in the downward direction.
Similarly, the right-hand side conductors carry current, and their direction goes out of
the paper (shown by dots inside the circle). The conductor on the right-hand sides is
also combining their MMF for producing the flux in the downwards direction. Hence,
the conductor on both the sides combines their MMF in such a way so that their flux
goes downward direction. Let OFa be the vector representing the magnetic flux
produced by the armature.
Figure (iii) below shows the condition in which the field current and the armature
current are simultaneously acting on the conductor. Now the machine has two fluxes,
i.e. the armature flux and the field pole flux. These two flux combines and gives the
resultant flux. When the field flux enters into the armature, they may get distorted. The
distortion increases the density of the flux in the upper pole tip of N-pole and the lower
pole tip of the south pole. Similarly, the density of flux decreases in the lower pole tip
of the north pole and the upper pole tip of the south pole. The resultant flux induced in
the generator are shifted towards the direction of the rotation of generator.
The magnetic neutral axis of poles is always perpendicular to the axis of the
resultant flux. The MNA is continuously shifted with the resultant flux and the
brushes also get shifted that avoids sparking.
Due to shifting of brushes through an angle Ɵ so as to be along MNP,
distribution of current in armature conductors is changed because some
conductors which were under the influence of S-pole come under the influence of
N-pole and vice-versa. In this case, the armature flux is no more at right angles to
main field pole and the resultant armature flux will have two distinct
components.
(I) Demagnetizing component (Fd) which weakens the main field flux.
(II) Cross-magnetizing component (Fc) which distorts the main field flux.
Hence, the action of the armature current in establishing a mmf that distorts and
weakens the main field flux is called armature reaction.
 Commutator Action
The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC
generator is alternating in nature. The commutation in DC machine (especially in
DC generator) is the process in which generated alternating current in the armature
winding of a dc machine is converted into direct current after going through the
commutator and the stationary brushes. However, in DC Motor, the input DC is to
be converted in alternating form in armature and that is also done through
commutation.
This transformation of current from the rotating armature of a DC machine to the
stationary brushes needs to maintain continuously moving contact between the
commutator segments and the brushes. When the armature starts to rotate, then the
coils situated under one pole (say N pole) rotates between a positive brush and its
consecutive negative brush and the current flows through this coil is in a direction
inward to the commutator segments. Then this coil is short circuited with the
1
help of a brush for a very short fraction of time (about sec) called the
500
commutation period, after which it passes into a region between a negative
brush and its succeeding positive brush where the current is reversed which is
in the direction away from the commutator segments. This phenomenon of the
reversal of current is termed as commutation process.

For the explanation of commutation process, let us consider a DC machine

having an armature wound with ring winding. Let us assume that the width of
the commutator segment is equal to the width of the brush and current flowing
through the conductor is IC and the armature is moving from left to right. Then
the brush will move from right to left and concentrate on coil B.
At the first position (as shown in figure 1), the brush is
connected to the commutator segment ‘b’. Then the total
current conducted by the commutator segment ‘b’ into the
brush through two armature paths, each path carrying IC
current is 2IC.
When the armature starts to move right, then the brush comes
to contact of segment ‘a’. Then the armature current flows
through two paths and through the segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ (as
shown in figure 2). The total current (2IC) collected by the
brush remains same.
As the contact area of the segment ‘a’ with the brush
increases and the contact area of the segment ‘b’ decreases,
the current flow through the segment increases and decreases
simultaneously. When the contact area become same for both
the commutator segments ‘a’ and ‘b’, same current flows
through both the segment (as shown in figure 3).
When the brush contact area with the segment ‘b’
decreases with further rotation of armature, the current
flowing through the coil B changes its direction and
starts to flow counter-clockwise (as shown in figure 4).
When the brush totally comes under the segment ‘a’ (as
shown in figure 5) and disconnected with the segment
‘b’ then current IC flows through the coil B in the
counter-clockwise direction and the short circuit is
removed. Thus, during this period of short-circuit which
is also known as period of commutation, the current in
short-circuited coil should be reversed to full value.
The figure below shows how the current in the short-circuited coil varies during the
interval of the short circuit.
Curve B shows that the current changes from +IC to –IC linearly in the commutation
period. This is called Ideal Commutation or Straight-line Commutation and it gives
rise to uniform current density at the brush contact surfaces and the power loss at the
brush contact surface is minimum.
Curve A shows that the final rate of change of
current is very high which causes the sparking at
the trailing edge of the brush. This is known as
under commutation or delayed commutation.
Curve C shows that the current attains its final
value with a zero rate of change at the end of
commutation period. This is known as accelerated
or over commutation.
 Losses in DC generator
In DC generator, mechanical energy is converted into the electrical energy.
During this process, the total input power is not transformed into output power.
Some part of input power gets wasted in various forms. The form of this loss
may vary from one machine to another. These losses give in the rise in
temperature of the machine and reduce the efficiency of the machine. In DC
generator, there are broadly four main categories of energy loss:
i. Electrical or Copper losses
ii. Magnetic or Core or Iron Losses
iii. Mechanical Losses
iv. Stray Losses
i) Electrical or Copper Losses
These losses are also known as winding losses as the copper loss occurs because
of the resistance of the windings. The ohmic loss is produced by the current
flowing in the windings and connections which includes armature windings,
field windings, interpoles, and brush contacts.

a) Armature copper losses: This is given as Ia2Ra where, Ia is armature current,

and Ra is armature resistance. These losses are about 30 to 40% of the total full
load losses.

b) Field copper losses: This is further divided into shunt field, series field and
interpole losses. The shunt field copper loss is given as I2shRsh, where, Ish is the
current in the shunt field, and Rsh is the resistance of the shunt field winding.
This loss occurs in both shunt and compound dc machines and is practically
constant if applied voltage across the machine remains the same.
Interpole loss is given as Ia2Ri where Ri is the resistance of the interpole
winding. The series field loss is given as I2seRse, where, Ise is the current through
the series field windings and Rse is the resistance of the series field winding.
With the increase in load on machine, the armature current and therefore, series
field current increases resulting in interpole and series field losses. These losses
are almost 20 to 30% of the full load losses.
Brush contact loss attributes to resistance between the surface of brush and
commutator. It is not a loss which could be calculated separately as it is a part of
variable losses. Generally, it contributes to both the types of copper losses.

ii) Core or Iron or Magnetic Losses

As iron core of the armature is rotating in magnetic field, some losses occurs in
the core which is called core losses. Normally, machines are operated with
constant speed, so these losses are almost constant. Core losses are almost 10 to
20% of the full load losses. These losses are categorized in two form: Hysteresis
loss and Eddy current loss.
a) Hysteresis Losses
Hysteresis losses occur in the armature winding due to reversal of magnetization of
the core. When the core of the armature exposed to the magnetic field, it undergoes
one complete rotation of magnetic reversal. The portion of the armature which is
under S-pole, after completing half electrical revolution, the same piece will be
under the N-pole, and the magnetic lines are reversed in order to overturn the
magnetism within the core. The constant process of magnetic reversal in the
armature, consume some amount of energy which is called hysteresis loss. The
percentage of loss depends upon the quality and volume of the iron. The frequency
of magnetic reversal is given by
𝑃𝑁
𝑓=
120
Where, P = Number of poles and
N = Speed in rpm
The Steinmetz formula for the calculation of hysteresis loss is given by
Ph = η Bmax 1.6 fV joules second or watts
Where,η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
Bmax = Maximum flux Density in armature winding
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals
V = Volume of armature in m3.

b) Eddy Current Losses

When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also induced in
the core (just like it induces in armature conductors), according to the Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. Though this induced emf is small, it causes a
large current to flow in the body due to the low resistance of the core. This
current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to this current is known as
eddy current loss
The eddy current loss is given by the equation
Pe = K e Bmax 2 f 2 Vt 2 joules second or watts
Where, Ke = eddy current constant
Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density
V = volume of the core
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals
t = thickness of the magnetic material laminations
Core losses are almost 10 to 20% of the full load losses

iii) Mechanical Losses

These power losses occur due to friction of bearings, air-friction or windage, caused
by the motion of the moving parts through the surrounding medium and the friction
between brushes and commutator or slip rings. These losses are constant in a
machine operating at approximately constant speed and are independent of load.
These losses are usually very small about 10 to 15% of full load loss.
iv) Stray Load Losses
There are some more losses other than the losses which have been discussed
above. These losses are called stray-load losses. These miscellaneous losses are
due to the short-circuit current in the coil undergoing commutation, distortion of
flux due to the armature and many more losses which are difficult to find. These
losses are difficult to determine. However, they are taken as 1% of the whole load
power output.

Power Flow Diagram

The most convenient method to understand these losses in a dc generator is using
the power flow diagram. The diagram visualizes the amount of power that has
been lost in various types of losses and the amount of power which has been
actually converted into the output. Following is the typical power flow diagrams
for a dc generator
 Efficiency of DC generator
Efficiency is simply defined as the ratio of useful output to the total input. It is
output Input−total losses Output
expressed as: η = = or η =
input Input Output+total losses
The various efficiencies of DC generator are expressed as follows:
Electrical power developed by armature
Mechanical efficiency, ηm =
Total mechanical power inpu
Eg Ia
=
BHP of prime mover∗735.5

Useful electrical power output VIL

Electrical efficiency, ηe = =
Total electrical power developed Eg Ia
Commercial or Overall efficiency,
Useful electrical power output
ηG = ηm ηe =
mechanical power input
VIL
=
BHP of prime mover∗735.5
Let us derive the condition for maximum efficiency in dc generator
Generator output = VIL
Generator input = Output + losses
= VIL + Ia2 R a + Pc
= VIL + IL + Ish 2 R a + Pc
= VIL + IL2 R a + Pc
Where, IL is the load or output current
Ish is the current through the shunt field
Ia is the armature current
V is the terminal voltage
Ra is the resistance of the armature circuit including brush contact
resistance and resistance of series, interpole and compensating windings.
Mechanical losses = friction loss of bearings + friction loss at a commutator +
windage loss.
Core losses = hysteresis loss + eddy current loss
Constant losses = mechanical losses + core losses
The sum of the shunt field copper loss and constant losses gives the total fixed
or constant loss that does not vary with the load current IL and denoted by PC.
output VIL 1
Generator efficiency, η = = = I R
input VIL +I2L Ra +Pc P
1+ L a + c
V VIL
Efficiency will be maximum when denominator term will be minimum i.e. when
dη
=0
dIL
 d I R P
or, 1+ L a+ c =0
dIL V VIL
Ra Pc
or, − 2 = 0
V VIL
∴ Pc = R a IL2
Hence, efficiency will be maximum when variable losses will be equal to constant
losses.
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by the relation
PC
IL =
Ra
 Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation of a generator (independent of the kind of excitation
employed) is defined as
V0 −VFL
% Voltage Regulation = × 100%
VFL
Where,
VFL = Vrated = full-load voltage
V0 = no-load voltage corresponding to rated voltage at full-load,
excitation remaining unchanged