5.

80286 (1982) With 16 MB of addressable

REVIEWER
memory and 1 GB of virtual memory, this 16-bit chip
ARCHITECTURE AND
is referred to as the first "modern" microprocessor.
Many novices were introduced to desktop computing
ORGANIZATION
with a "286 machine" and it became the dominant
chip of its time. It contained 130,000 transistors and
packed serious compute power (12 MHz) into a tiny

6. 80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)

The price/performance curve continued its
steep climb with the 386 and later the 486--
32-bit processors that brought real
computing to the masses. The 386, which
became the best-selling microprocessor in
history, featured 275,000 transistors; the 486
had more than a million.

7. Pentium (1993) Adding systems-

level characteristics to enormous raw
compute power, the Pentium supports
demanding I/O, graphics and
communicationsintensive applications with
more than 3 million transistors.

8. Pentium Pro (1995) The newest

Pentium has dynamic instruction execution
and other performance-enhancing features
such as a large L2 cache in the chip package,
in addition to its more than 5.5 million
transistors.
9. Pentium II (1997) The 7.5 million-
transistor Pentium II processor incorporates Intel
MMX TM technology, which is designed
specifically to process video, audio and graphics
data efficiently.

10.Pentium II Xeon
(1998) The Pentium II Xeon
processors are designed to meet the
performance requirements of mid-
range and higher servers and

11.Celeron (1999) Continuing Intel's

strategy of developing processors for
specific market segments, the Intel Celeron
processor is designed for the value PC
market segment.

12.Pentium III (1999) The Pentium III

processor features 70 new instructions. It was
designed to significantly enhance Internet
experiences, allowing users to do such things as
browse through realistic online museums and
stores and download high-quality video.

13.Pentium III Xeon (1999) The

Pentium III Xeon processor extends Intel's
offerings to the workstation and server market
segments, providing additional performance for
e-Commerce applications and advanced
business computing.
14.Core i3 Developed and manufactured by Intel,
the core i3 is a dual-core computer processor, available
for use in both desktop and laptop computers. It is one
of three types of processors in the "i" series (also
called the Intel Core family of processors).

15. Core i5 A quad-core processor will

outperform a dual-core processor in nearly all
cases, but the difference can be particularly
noticeable when running memory-intensive
software programs, such as Adobe's Creative Suite.
It has 1,750,000,000 transistors (1.750 billion)

16. Core i7 Intel recently launched its 7th

Generation processors to power fanless 2-in-1
(convertible laptop/tablet) devices and ultrathin
notebooks – known as the Y-series and U-series
processors. Theses processors are designed to
strike a balance between performance and
mobility, including longer battery life.

17.Core i9 As of this writing, the fastest

processor so far in the market today is the i9. If
you’re looking to outfit a workstation for
rendering, video editing, or other intensive tasks
that can take advantage of large numbers of
cores, then a Core i9 is worth considering.
LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
GENERAL-PURPOSE REGISTERS
AX (Accumulator Register) – AH/AL
BX (Base Address Register) – BH/BL
CX (Count Register) – CH/CL FOUR GENERAL-PURPOSE
DX (Data Register) – DH/DL REGISTERS
SI – Source Index Register
DI – Destination Index Register
BP – Base Pointer
SP – Stack Pointer

SEGMENT REGISTERS
CS – points at the segment containing the current program.
DS – generally points at segment where variables are defined.
ES – extra segment register, it’s up to a coder to define its usage.
SS – Stack Segment, points containing the stack.

ASSEMBLER
.org 100h - a directive telling the assembler to start writing at memory
location 100 (default memory)
.model small - header file that tells the assembler that you intend to use
the small memory model - one code segment, one data segment and one
stack segment.
.data - this section defines your data, values and initialization.
(variable declaration section)
.code - signifying the code segment. The source code follows.
.ret - allows your program to return to its main function after executing.
What are the functional requirements that is needed by computers?

1. Application area
-Target the type of computer to be used like intended for personal mobile
device, general-purpose desktop, servers, cluster/warehouse-scale
computers, embedded computing.

2. Level of software compatibility

- For AI programming language, or object code or binary compatible.

3. Operating system requirements

- Necessary features to support chosen OS like size of address space,
memory management and protection.

4. Standards
- Certain standards may be required by marketplace like floating point (for
large computations), I/O interfaces, OS, Networks, and programming
languages.

Program Counter (PC)

- the most important register points to the next instruction to be fetched for
execution. Instruction Register (IR)
- holds the instruction currently being executed.
The primary goal of CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computer) architecture is to complete a task in as few lines of
assembly as possible.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

David Patterson
(1980) quickly
Its emphasis was on simple instructions that could be executed
within one clock per cycle thus giving more performance on the computer.

MULT
- is what is known as a “complex instruction.” It operates directly on the
computer’s memory locations and does not require programmer to call any
loading and storing functions.

Pipelining
- One of the bottlenecks for instruction execution speed is the actual
fetching of instructions from memory.

Five-stage pipeline

Nine clock cycles

1.Multiprocessors
The processing elements in a data parallel processor are not
independent CPUs, since there is only one control unit shared among
all of them.

2.Multicomputer
To solve this problem, may designers have simply abandoned the idea
of having a shared memory and just build systems consisting of large
number of interconnected computers, each having its own private
memory and no common memory. These systems are called
multicomputer.
Microprocessor
- is computer Central Processing Unit (CPU) on a single chip providing
computational control. Microprocessors are also used in other
advanced electronic systems, such as computer printers, automobiles,
and jet airliners It contains millions of transistors connected by wires.

Classifications of Microcomputers (Intel)

1. 4004 (1970) Intel's Ted Hoff and
Federico Faggin designed and implemented
(respectively) the first general-purpose
microprocessor. The 4004 processor, used in a
hand-held calculator built by Busicom of Japan,
was part of a four-chip set called the 4000

2. 8008 (1972) The 8008 increased the

4004's word length from four to eight bits, and
doubled the volume of information that could
be processed. It was still an invention in search
of a market however, as the technology world
was just beginning to view the microprocessor
as a solution to many needs.

3. 8080 (1974) The 8080 were 20 times

as fast as the 4004 and contained twice as
many transistors. This 8-bit chip represented a
technological milestone as engineers
recognized its value and used it in a wide
variety of products.

4. 8088 (1979) Created as a cheaper

version of Intel's 8086, the 8088 was a 16-bit
processor with an 8 -bit external bus. This chip
became the most ubiquitous in the computer
industry when IBM chose it for its first PC. The
success of the IBM PC and its clones gave Intel
a dominant position in the semiconductor