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Data, Statistics, and
Useful Numbers for
Environmental
Sustainability
Bringing the Numbers to Life

Benoit Cushman-Roisin
Bruna Tanaka Cremonini
Thayer School of Engineering,
Dartmouth College,
Hanover, NH, USA
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright
Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by
the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional prac-
tices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter
of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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ISBN: 978-0-12-822958-3

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Preface

In the context of environmental studies and sustainability, we frequently hear and

read statements like these: “By installing low-flow showerheads, my school will
save 1,250 gallons of water each year,” or “this clean source of electricity will
power 275,000 homes,” or “it takes 75,000 trees to print a Sunday Edition of the
Big-City Times.” Don’t you sometimes wish that you, too, could run the numbers
and make similar statements about your environmental aspirations and accom-
plishments or about the impacts of others? All it takes are a few numbers that
permit to translate paper usage into trees cut, electrical consumption into homes,
recycling into energy, and energy savings into a number of miles not driven.
But where are those numbers?
Many of these numbers exist but are scattered across scientific publications
and Internet postings, some more reliable than others. It takes time to find the
numbers, good numbers. At Dartmouth, the first author noted that his students
spent a fair amount of time looking for these numbers in the pursuit of their
assignments and projects, only to rediscover pretty much the same numbers course
after course. So, to save time to his students, he began to compile a list of numbers,
which he plainly titled “Useful Numbers” and posted it on one of his course
websites. This list kept growing as years passed, and soon it grew to such a size that
visitors to the website started asking questions: Where did you find this number?
Do you have numbers about that? And it dawned on him that there was a
definite need in the environmental community for an accessible and organized
compilation of “useful numbers.” The idea of gathering and organizing a relatively
comprehensive set of numbers into a small handbook became a natural outgrowth.
And so, by popular demand, here is the handbook that you may have been
looking for. It was prepared with diligence, from vetted information buried in
refereed scientific publications as well as reliable websites. Effort has also been
made to organize the disparate and often disconnected topics into some logical
order. There is no right organization for this type of material, of course, and
someone else would certainly have organized the topics differently. We the
authors only hope that most users will find the present organization sufficiently
practical.
This, obviously, is not a book that will ever be read from cover to cover,
unless one wishes to use it for sleep therapy. It is a handbook where the user
begins with the index pages in the back. Sources are cited and gathered at the end
of each chapter, to keep them close to the numbers that they provided.

xi
xii Preface

This little handbook should serve as a handy reference for researchers,

teachers, and students to find quickly the number they seek in the preparation of
their article, lecture, or assignment. Accessorily, it may also be useful for
journalists and others who reach the broader public. Perhaps it can become the
little book on the corner of your desk that, at the reach of the arm, puts meaning
in your number.
Chapter 1

Materials
Materials extraction in the world in 2013 was estimated at 84.4 billion (109)
metric tons (45.8% industrial and construction materials, 26.8% biomass,
17.2% fossil fuels, and 10.2% metals, excluding unused portion), or 11.8
metric tons per capita per year [1].
In the United States during 2013, materials consumption including fuels
was estimated at 6.5 billion (109) metric tons per year, corresponding to 23.6
metric tons per capita per year, 51% higher than in Europe [2].

1.1 Metals
1.1.1 Aluminum
Aluminum production from bauxite via alumina is one of the most energy-
intensive processes in the industry. According to a United Nations report
based on 1979 data, the energy profile of aluminum is as tabulated below.

Energy consumption in the production of aluminum

Energy consumption Energy type

Stage MJ/kg Fraction Electricity Gas Other

Mining 2.3 0.6% 6% 40% 54%
Alumina 44.5 17.1% 12% 80% 7.5%
Smelting 193.6 68.6% 85% 3% 12%
Fabrication 38.6 13.7% 38% 51% 11%
Total 279.0 100%

Source: [3] Table 7 page 76.

Technologies have evolved ([4] page 125) toward greater energy efficiency.
Compilation of multiple data sets for primary production (excluding the
fabrication stage) yields an embodied energy in aluminum of 210
10 MJ/kg
([4] page 471).
The carbon footprint for primary production is 12 kg of CO2eq/kg whereas
the water usage varies from 495 to 1,490 L/kg ([4] page 471).

Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822958-3.00012-1
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability

Recycling aluminum demands much less energy, only 26 MJ/kg for cast
aluminum and 26.7 MJ/kg for wrought aluminum [5]. Its carbon footprint is
2.1 kg CO2/kg (in average).

1.1.2 Copper and its alloys

According to a United Nations report using 1975 data, the energy profile of
copper is as tabulated below. Although these numbers are dated, the break-
down is illustrative.

Energy consumption in the production of copper

Energy
consumption Energy type

MJ/kg fraction Electricity Gas Oil Other

Mining 25.1 19.2% 42% 1% 35% 22%
Concentrating ore 49.1 37.7% 73% 6% 1% 20%
Smelting 44.3 34.0% 11% 48% 24% 17%
Refining 9.5 7.2% 43% 15% 39% 2%
Melting and casting 2.3 1.7% e e e e
Total 130.3 100% e e e e

Source: [3] Table 6 page 75.

Technologies have evolved, leading other sources to provide lower numbers.

Production impacts of copper and its alloys

Metal Embodied energy Carbon footprint Water usage

(MJ/kg) (kg CO2eq/kg) (L/kg)

Copperdpure
Primary 57e63 3.7 293e324
Recycled (40e45%) 12.9e14.3 1.07
Copper alloys
Primary 56e62 3.7 268e297
Recycled (40e45%) 12e15 0.83
Brass
Primary 52e60 3.7 310e340
Recycled (41e45%) 12e15 1.06
Bronze
Primary 58.2e64.9 3.7 280e314
Recycled (41e45%) 13.2e14.7 1.1
Source: [4]: page 477 and accompanying CES EduPack software.
 Materials Chapter | 1 3

1.1.3 Iron and Steel

The amount of energy consumed in steel production varies widely based on the
process used and on the fraction of scrap metal with iron ore in the feed
material. The Basic Oxygen Furnace consumes 23.2 MJ/kg while the Electric
Arc Furnace consumes 9.3 MJ/kg [6]. The theoretical thermodynamic limit is
7.6 MJ/kg ([3] page 76).
In the United States, the energy consumed for the production of steel is
about 19 MJ/kg from iron ore [3] and 10 MJ/kg from scrap metal ([3] page 76).
Almost 40% of the world’s steel production is made from scrap [7].
Recycling 1 kg of steel saves 1.1 kg of iron ore, 0.63 kg of coal, 0.055 kg of
limestone, 0.642 kWh of electricity, 0.287 L of oil, 10.9 thousand BTUs
(¼11.5 MJ) of energy, and 0.0023 m3 of landfill [7].

Production impacts of iron and steel

Embodied energy Carbon footprint Water usage

Metal (MJ/kg) (kg CO2eq/kg) (L/kg)

Cast iron
Primary 16e20 1.5 13e39
Recycled (40e45%) 10e11 0.52
Casting energy 10e11 0.79
Low-carbon steel
Primary 25e28 1.8 23e69
Recycled (40e44%) 6.6e8.0 0.44
Low-alloy steel
Primary 31e34 2.0 37e111
Recycled (40e44%) 7.7e9.5 0.52
Stainless steel
Primary 81e88 5.0 112e336
Recycled (35e40%) 11e13 0.73
Sources: [4] pages 463, 465, 467, and 469.

1.1.4 Lead
Production of 1 kg of lead (Pb) from ore (galena, PbS) requires 27 MJ,
175e525 L of water and generates 2.0 kg of CO2eq, while production of lead
from recycled sources (mostly discarded automobile batteries) consumes
7.5 MJ/kg and generates 0.45 kg CO2eq/kg. The single largest use of lead (70%
of total production) is as electrodes in lead-acid batteries ([4] page 479).

1.1.5 Magnesium
Production of magnesium causes the following environmental impacts.
4 Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability

Production impacts of magnesium

Embodied energy Carbon footprint Water usage

Metal (MJ/kg) (kg CO2eq/kg) (L/kg)

Magnesium
Primary 300e331 36.5 932e1,030
Recycled (37e41%) 46e51 5.5
Magnesium alloys
Primary 300e330 36 500e1,500
Recycled (36e41%) 23e26 2.9
Source: [4]: page 473 and accompanying CES EduPack software.

1.1.6 Nickel
Production of nickel causes the following environmental impacts.

Production impacts of nickel

Embodied Carbon Water

Energy Footprint Usage

Metal (MJ/kg) (kg CO2eq/kg) (L/kg)

Nickel-chromium alloys
Primary 173e190 11.5 564e620
Recycled (29e32%) 30e36 2.0
Nickel-based superalloys
Primary 221e244 11.6 134e484
Recycled (22e26%) 33.8e37.5 2.14
Source: [4]: pages 483 and 485.

Together with chromium and other elements, nickel is a component of

stainless steel. For example, 18/8 stainless steel contains 18% chromium and
8% nickel while 18/10 is 18% chromium and 10% nickel.
1.1.7 Specialty and precious metals

Production impacts of specialty and precious metals

Embodied energy Carbon footprint Water usage

Metal (MJ/kg) (kg CO2eq/kg) (L/kg)

Gold
Primary 240,000e265,000 26,500 126,000e378,000
Recycled (42%) 650e719 43

Continued
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 Materials Chapter | 1 5

Iridium
Primary 43,000e47,600 2,900 186,000e206,000
Recycled (0.7%) 2,000e2,210 165

Palladium
Primary 149,000e165,000 8,500 186,000e206,000
Recycled (3%) 5,140e5,680 426
Platinum
Primary 257,000e284,000 14,750 186,000e206,000
Recycled (3%) 7,760e8,570 642
Rhodium
Primary 531,000e587,000 30,450 186,000e206,000
Recycled (0.7%) 13,500e14,900 1,120
Silver
Primary 1,400e1,550 100 1,150e3,460
Recycled (66%) 140e170 9.3
Titanium alloys
Primary 650e720 46.5 470e1,410
Recycled (23%) 78e96 5.2
Source: [4]: pages 127, 474, 487, 488 and accompanying CES EduPack software.

1.1.8 Zinc
Production of zinc causes the following environmental impacts.

Production impacts of zinc

Embodied energy Carbon footprint Water usage

Metal (MJ/kg) (kg CO2eq/kg) (L/kg)

Zinc
Primary 43.9e48.5 3.3 327e361
Recycled (21e24%) 10.6e11.8 0.88
Zinc die-casting alloys
Primary 57e63 4.1 160e521
Recycled (21e25%) 10e12 0.67
Source: [4]: page 481.

1.2 Plastics and rubber

Except for biodegradable plastics, conventional plastics are made from so-
called feedstock derived from crude oil refining and natural gas processing.
The rule of thumb (borne by the numbers below) is that half the fossil fuel
goes into the plastic itself while the remaining half is combusted to provide the
energy during manufacture. Thus, it takes about 2 kg of fossil fuel to produce
1 kg of plastics. Since petroleum holds in average 43 MJ/kg, it takes
approximately 86 MJ to produce 1 kg of plastics, and, with about 3 hydrogen
6 Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability

atoms for every carbon atom in the fuel consumed in production (molar mass
of 15 g per mole), the CO2 emission (with a molar mass of 44 g per mole) is
44/15 ¼ 2.9 kg of CO2 for every kg of plastics produced1. Actual amounts vary
with the type of plastics, as the table below indicates.

Production impacts of plastics

Embodied Greenhouse
energy gas emission Water usage

Polymers and (kg CO2eq/

elastomers Acronym (MJ/kg) kg) (L/kg)
Acrylonitrile ABS 90e99 3.6e4.0 250e277
butadiene styrene
Recycling 42e51 2.5e3.1
Epoxy 127e140 6.8e7.5 107e322
Ethylene-vinyl- EVA 75e83 2.0e2.2 100e289
acetate
Recycling 42e52 2.5e3.1
High-density HDPE 100e111 3.43e3.79 166e183
polyethylene
Recycling 26.2 0.90e0.99
Phenolics 75e83 3.4e3.8 94e282
Polyamides (Nylons) PA 116e129 7.6e8.3 250e280
Recycling 38e47 2.3e2.8
Polycarbonate PC 103e114 5.7e6.3 142e425
Recycling 38e47 2.3e2.8
Polychloroprene CR 61e68 1.6e1.8 126e378
Polyester 68e75 2.8e3.2 100e264
Polyethylene PE 77e85 2.6e2.9 38e114
Recycling 45e55 2.7e3.0
Polyethylene PET 81e89 3.7e4.1 14.7e44.2
terephthalate
Recycling 35e43 2.1e2.6
Polyhydroxyalkanoate PHA 81e90 4.1e4.6 100e300
Recycling 35e43 2.1e2.6
Polylactide PLA 49e54 3.4e3.8 100e300
Recycling 33e40 2.0e2.4

Continued

1. Note: The amount of 6 kg of CO2 emitted per kg of plastic mentioned by Time for Change [8] is
inaccurate.
 Materials Chapter | 1 7

Polypropylene PP 75e83 2.9e3.2 189e209

Recycling 45e55 2.0e2.2
Polystyrene PS 92e102 3.6e4.0 108e323
Recycling 43e52 2.6e3.1
Polyurethane PU/PUR 82.7e91.5 3.52e3.89 93.5e103
Recycling 28.1e31.1 1.2e1.32
Polyvinyl chloride PVC 56e62 2.4e2.6 77e85
Recycling 32e40 1.9e2.4
Rubberdnatural NR 64e71 2.0e2.2 (15e20)  103
Rubberdbutyl rubber BR 112e124 6.3e6.9 63.8e191
Styrene 110e122 3.95e4.37 385e426

Source: [4]: Chapter 15 and accompanying CES EduPack software.

Recycling 1 kg of plastics saves 5.774 kWh of electricity, 2.604 L of oil, 98

thousand BTUs (=103 MJ) of energy, and 0.022 m3 of landfill [7].

1.3 Paper and cardboard

In general, there can grow 16e20 mature trees on 1 acre (40e59 trees per
hectare) [9], but the significantly smaller, softwood trees needed for the paper
(so-called pulpwood) can be grown 12 feet apart from one another, for a
density of 303 trees per acre (747 trees per hectare). Time from planting to
harvest ranges from 7 to 10 years [10]. In regions where trees are grown for
papermaking, the water needed for tree growth comes from natural precipi-
tation, thus causing no environmental impact.
A cord of wood is 8ft  4 ft  4ft ¼ 128 ft3 and if air-dried and consisting
of hardwoods weighs about 2 short tons (1,800 kg), about 15e20% of which is
still water. One cord of wood makes 1,000e2,000 lbs of paper, depending on
the process [11].
The production of 1 metric ton of paper requires 17 trees, in average, with
the following spread: 24 trees for 1 ton of uncoated virgin (nonrecycled)
printing and office paper but only 12 trees for 1 ton of 100% virgin (non-
recycled) newsprint, 15.36 trees for 1 ton of higher-end magazine paper (for
glossy magazines), and 7.68 trees for 1 ton of lower-end magazine paper (most
catalogs) [12].
8 Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability

The production of 1 metric ton of paper consumes 51,500 MJ of energy,

25 m3 of water, 680 gallons (¼2.57 m3) of oil and generates 1,150 kg of CO2eq
[4,12,13].
A “pallet” of copier paper2 (20-lb. sheet weight) contains 40 cartons and
weighs 1 metric ton. It contains 440 reams with each ream of paper containing
500 sheets and weighing 5 lbs (¼2.27 kg). Therefore, the energy, water, and
carbon footprints of a single page of paper are 234 kJ, 0.11 L water, and 5.23 g
CO2. It also follows that [12],
l 1 carton (10 reams) of 100% virgin copier paper uses 0.6 trees;
l 1 tree makes 16.67 reams of copy paper or 8,333 sheets;
l 1 ream (500 sheets) uses 6% of a tree;
l 1 ton of coated, higher-end virgin magazine paper (used for high-end
magazines) uses 15.36 trees;
l 1 ton of coated, lower-end virgin magazine paper (used for newsmagazines
and most catalogs) uses 7.68 trees.
In the United States, paper and cardboard recovery reached 66.8% in 2015.
Of this, 33.4% went to produce corrugated cardboard, 11.8% noncorrugated
cardboard (boxboard), 8.6% tissue, and 0.8% newsprint. Net exports
accounted for 39.8%. Also, 36% of the fibers used to make new paper come
from recycled sources [14].

1.4 Chemicals
In the United States, the chemical industry consumes an average of 6,935
BTUs per lb of product [15]. This energy intensity, however, depends widely
on the nature of the chemical, as illustrated in the table on the following pages.
Because different production paths consume different amounts of energy,
the energy used in the production of a chemical depends on its feedstock.
Chemicals obtained from the cracking and distillation of petroleum or inor-
ganic sources are called raw materials. Thus, the total energy consumed in the
production of a chemical is the sum of the energy inputs for its production and
that of all its predecessors (each with corresponding mass ratio deduced from
the stoichiometric ratio), starting from the raw material. Example: The energy
consumed in producing 1 lb of ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide (with mass
ratio 0.710:1) from ethylene as raw material (with mass ratio 0.637:1) is:
E ¼ 2,045 þ 0.710  (1,711 þ 0.637  8,107) ¼ 6,923 BTU/lb.
To such number may be added the energy necessary for the intermediate
production of the required hydrogen and chlorine.

2. Also called white office paper or printing and writing paper.

 Materials Chapter | 1 9

Energy consumption in the production of various chemicals

Energy consumption
BTUs/lb unless Mass
Chemical otherwise noted Made from ratio
Acetic acid (vinegar) 2,552 [16]
Acetone 7,850
Acrylonitrile 956 Propylene 0.793:1
Ammonia 12,150
Ammonium 323 Ammonia 0.944:1
Ammonium nitrate 341 Nitric acid 0.787:1
Ammonium phosphate 323
Ammonium sulfate 4,000 Ammonia 0.258:1
Benzene 1,255 Petroleum
Bisphenol A (BPA) 6 MJ/kg [17]
1,3-Butadiene 95 by-product of ethylene
Carbon black 3,703 MJ/ton [18]
Chlorine 4,800 Sodium chloride 1.648:1
Cumene 696 Benzene 0.650:1
(Isopropylbenzene)
Cyclohexane 1,743 Benzene 0.928:1
Ethyl benzene 1,404 Benzene 0.736:1
Ethylene 8,107 Petroleum
Ethylene dichloride 3,410 Ethylene 0.283:1
Ethylene glycol 2,045 Ethylene oxide 0.710:1
Ethylene oxide 1,711 Ethylene 0.637:1
Formaldehyde 150 kWh/ton [18]
Hydrochloric acid 1.2 MJ/kg [18]
Hydrogen 1.8 GJ/ton
Isopropyl alcohol 4,693 Propylene 0.700:1
Methanol 38.4 GJ/ton
Methyl tert-butyl ether 1,871 [19]
(MTBE)

Continued
10 Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability

Nitric acid 267 Ammonia 0.270:1

Oxygen 1.8 GJ/ton [19]
Phenol and acetone 7,850 Cumene 0.790:1
together
Phosphoric acid 4,300 Sulfuric acid 1.001:1
Polyethylene (PE) 1,178 Ethylene 1.000:1
Polypropylene 514 Propylene 1:000:1
Polystyrene 2,264 Styrene 1.000:1
Poly vinyl chloride 1,246 Ethylene
(PVC) dichloride
Propylene 1,351 Petroleum
Propylene glycol 2,045 Propylene oxide 0.763:1
Propylene oxide 2,557 Propylene 0.725:1
Sodium carbonate 3,393
Sodium chloride Negligible Sea salt
Sodium hydroxide 3,765 Sodium chloride 1.461:1
Sodium silicate 5,344 MJ/ton [20]
Sulfuric acid 1,047
Styrene 16,891 Ethyl Benzene 1.019:1
Styrene butadiene 2,271 1,3-Butadiene 1.000:1
(synthetic rubber) and Styrene
Terephthalic acid 1,779 Xylene
Titanium dioxide 24.8 GJ/ton [20]
Toluene 1,025 Petroleum
Urea 843 Ammonia 0.567:1
Xylene 1,025

Source: [15] based on 1997 data, unless otherwise noted.

1.5 Shaping of materials

Energy is not only spent in producing materials but also in shaping them into
their ultimate useful shapes. The table below lists the most common processes.
 Materials Chapter | 1 11

Environmental impacts of shaping materials

Energy use Carbon emission (kg

Material Shaping process (MJ/kg) CO2eq/kg)
Casting 8e12 0.4e0.6
Rough, foil, 3e5 0.15e0.25
rolling
Extrusion, foil 10e20 0.5e1.0
rolling
Metals1
Wire drawing 20e40 1.0e2.0
Metal powder 20e30 1e1.5
forming
Vapor phase 40e60 2e3
methods
Extrusion 3.1e5.4 0.16e0.27
Polymers
Molding 11e27 0.55e1.4
Ceramics Ceramic powder 20e30 1e1.5
form
Glasses Glass molding 2e4 0.1e0.2
Compression 11e16 1.6e2.3
molding
Spray/lay up 14e18 0.7e0.9
Composites
Filament winding 2.7e4.0 0.14e0.2
Autoclave 100e300 5e15
molding
1
For variations across metals, see Ref. [4].
Source: [4] page 133.

1.5.1 Primary shaping processes

Energy and carbon footprint of basic material processing techniques

Carbon
Energy use emission
Process type Variant (MJ) (kg of CO2eq)
Heavy 0.8e2.5 0.06e0.17
Finishing (light) 6e10 0.4e0.7
Machining (per kg
removed) Grinding 25e35 1.8e2.5
Water jet, EDM, 500e5,000 35e350
laser

Continued
12 Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability

Gas welding 1e2.8 0.055e0.15

Welding (per m welded)
Electric welding 1.7e3.5 0.12e0.25
Fasteners, small 0.02e0.04 0.0015e0.003
Fasteners (per fastener)
Fasteners, large 0.05e0.1 0.0037e0.0074
Cold 7e14 1.3e2.8
Adhesives (per m2)
Heat-curing 18e40 3.2e7.0
Solvent-based 50e60 0.63e0.95
2
Painting (per m ) Baked coating 60e70 0.9e1.3
Powder coatings 67e86 3.7e4.6
2
Plating (per m ) Electroplating 80e100 4.4e5.3

Source: [4] page 135.

1.5.2 Polymer shaping

Energy consumption and carbon footprint of shaping polymers

Molding Extrusion

CO2 CO2
Energy use footprint Energy use footprint
Polymer (MJ/kg) (kg/kg) (MJ/kg) (kg/kg)
Acrylonitrile 18e20 1.4e1.5 5.8e6.4 0.44e0.48
butadiene styrene
(ABS)
Polyamides 21e23 1.55e1.7 5.9e6.5 0.44e0.49
(Nylons, PA)
Polypropylene (PP) 20.4e22.6 1.5e1.7 5.9e6.5 0.44e0.49
Polyethylene (PE) 22.7e25.1 1.7e1.9 6.0e6.6 0.45e0.49
Polycarbonate (PC) 17e6.19.5 1.3e1.5 5.8e6.4 0.43e0.48
Polyethylene 18.7e20.6 1.4e1.55 5.8e6.4 0.44e0.48
terephthalate (PET)
Polyvinylchloride 13.9e15.4 1.05e1.16 5.6e6.3 0.42e0.47
(PVC)
Polystyrene (PS) 16.5e18.3 1.24e1.37 5.7e6.4 0.43e0.48
Polyhydroxyalka- 16.6e18.4 1.25e1.38 5.8e6.4 0.43e0.48
noates (PHA, PHB)
Polylactide (PLA) 15.4e17 1.15e1.27 5.7e6.3 0.43e0.47

Continued
 Materials Chapter | 1 13

Epoxy 21e23 1.7e1.85

Polyester 26e28 2.1e2.3
Phenolics 26e29 2.1e2.3
Natural 15e17 1.2e1.4
Rubber
Butyl 14e16 1.2e1.4
Ethylene-Vinyl- 13.8e15.2 1.1e1.2 5.4e6.0 0.43e0.48
Acetate (EVA)
Polychloroprene 17.2e18.5 1.37e1.5
(Neoprene, CR)
Source: [4] pages 492e525.

1.6 Miscellaneous materials

Energy and carbon footprints of miscellaneous materials

Primary production

Embodied Carbon
energy footprint (kg Water usage
Material (MJ/kg) CO2eq/kg) (L/kg)
Anti-freeze 76
Automotive Engine oil 60.2
Other fluids 52
Carbon fiber 450e500 33e36 360e1,367
Alumina 49.5e54.7 2.67e2.95 29.4e88.1
Glass 10e11 0.7e0.8 14e20.5
Glass- 7.4e9.0 0.44e0.54
recycling
Ceramics Glass - 27.7e30.6 1.67e1.84 28.7e31.8
laminated
Pyrex 27e30 1.6e1.8 26e37.5
Pyrex - 20e23 1.2e1.4 26e37.5
recycling
Brick 2.2e3.5 0.20e0.23 2.8e8.4
Cement 0.927
1
Construction Concrete 1.0e1.3 0.09e0.12 1.7e5.1
Sand 1.0
Stone 0.4e0.6 0.03e0.04 1.7e5.1

Continued
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14 Data, Statistics, and Useful Numbers for Environmental Sustainability

Cotton 44e48 2.4e2.7 7,400e8,200

Fiberglass (glass-fiber 107e118 7.47e8.26 105e309
reinforced plastic-GFRP)
Rigid 96e107 3.7e4.1 299e865
polymer
Foams
Flexible 104e114 4.3e4.7 181e544
polymer
Straw bale 0.1e0.3 1.1e0.9 0
Bamboo 1.23 0.0168 0
flooring2
Hardwood 9.8e10.9 0.8e0.94 500e750
Hardwood 0.46e0.55 0.022e0.027 0
during
construction
Plywood 13e16 0.78e0.87 500e1,000
Wood
Plywood 0.455e0.55 0.022e0.027 0
during
construction
Softwood 8.8e9.7 0.36e0.40 500e750
Softwood 0.46e0.55 0.022e0.027 0
during
construction
Wool 51e56 3.2e3.5 (1.6e1.8)  105
1
Including 10% of cement in the concrete mix.
2
Bamboo flooring has a negative carbon footprint because of the emissions during its production
amount to less than the amount sequestered by the plant [21].
Sources: [4] Chapters 5, 15 & 20, [21] for bamboo, Fig. 2.

A significant fraction of the CO2 emitted during the production of cement

is reabsorbed into the concrete over the course of its life cycle, in a process
called carbonation. A study estimates that 33e57% of the CO2 emitted during
cement production will be absorbed through the carbonation of concrete sur-
faces over a 100-year life span [22].

Sources
[1] Sustainable Europe Research institute (SERI) in cooperation with Vienna University of
Economics and Business. www.materialflows.net/fileadmin/docs/materialflows.net/WU_
MFA_Technical_report_2015.1_final.pdf. See also Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD). www.oecd.org/greengrowth/MATERIAL%20RESOURCES,%
20PRODUCTIVITY%20AND%20THE%20ENVIRONMENT_key%20findings.pdf
[2] University of Michigan e Center for Sustainable Systems e U.S, Material Use Factsheet, Pub.
No. CSS05-18, 2019. For older data, see U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 2009-3008, css.
umich.edu/sites/default/files/US%20Material%20Use_CSS05-18_e2019.pdf, pubs.usgs.gov/
fs/2009/3008/
 Materials Chapter | 1 15

[3] United Nations Center on Transnational Corporations e Climate Change and Transnational
Corporations e Analysis and Trends. U. N. Centre on Transnational Corporations, Environ.
Ser. 2 (1992). ST/CTC/112, ISBN 92-1-104385-9, Chapter 7 “Production of Energy
Intensive Metals”, 110 pages, ieer.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/1992/01/ClimateChange-
TransnationalCorp_1992-FULL.pdf.
[4] M.F. Ashby, Materials and the Environment e Eco-Informed Material Choice, second ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2013, 616 pages.
[5] M. Schubert, K. Saur, H. Florin, P. Eyerer, H. Beddies, Life Cycle Analysis e Getting the
Total Picture on Vehicle Engineering Alternatives, Automotive Engineering, March 1996,
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[6] U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration (eia) e 2011: Steel
Industry Analysis Brief e Energy Consumption. www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/iab98/steel/
intensity.html.
[7] Bureau of International Recycling, The Industry. www.bir.org/industry/.
[8] Time for Change, Plastic bags and plastic bottles e CO2 emissions during their lifetime.
timeforchange.org/plastic-bags-and-plastic-bottles-CO2-emissions.
[9] Wood M., Let Your Trees Grow For Profit (undated article). www.woodmagazine.com/
materials-guide/lumber/let-your-trees-grow-for-profit.
[10] How it’s Made, Forest for Paper (About Sappi Company in South Africa). howitsmade.co.
za/growing-forests-for-paper-pulp/.
[11] Sierra Club, How much paper does one tree produce? www.sierraclub.org/sierra/2014-4-
july-august/green-life/how-much-paper-does-one-tree-produce.
[12] Conservatree.org, Trees into Paper e How Much Paper Can Be Made from a Tree?
conservatree.org/learn/EnviroIssues/TreeStats.shtml.
[13] C. Thompson, Recycled Papers e the Essential Guide, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992,
200 pages. Quoted by, conservatree.org/learn/EnviroIssues/TreeStats.shtml.
[14] Paper Recycles. paperrecycles.org/statistics/paper-paperboard-recovery and. paperrecycles.
org/statistics/where-recovered-paper-goes.
[15] U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies e Energy and Environmental
Profile of the U.S. Chemical Industry, May 2000. www1.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/
resources/chemicals/pdfs/profile_full.pdf.
[16] M. Neelis, E. Worrell, E. Masanet, Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving
Opportunities for the Petrochemical Industry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, June
2008. www.energystar.gov/ia/business/industry/Petrochemical_Industry.pdf.
[17] R. Agrawal, A. Suman, Production of Bisphenol A, Dept. Chemical Engineering, Jaypee
University of Engineering and Technology, Guna, India, 2012. www.scribd.com/doc/
94377374/Production-of-Bisphenol-A#scribd.
[18] H.-J. Althaus, R. Hischier, M. Osses, A. Primas, S. Hellweg, N. Jungbluth, M. Chudacoff,
Life Cycle Inventories of Chemicals, Swiss Center for Life Cycle Inventories, Zürich,
Ecoinvent Report No. 8, 2007. December 2007, 957 pages, db.ecoinvent.org/reports/08_
Chemicals.pdf.
[19] E. Worrell, D. Phylipsen, D. Einstein, N. Martin, Energy Use and Energy Intensity of the
U.S. Chemical Industry, University of California Berkeley, 2000. LBNL-44314, April 2000,
34 pages, escholarship.org/content/qt2925w8g6/qt2925w8g6.pdf.
[20] European Commission e Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control e Large Volume
Inorganic Chemicals e Solids and Others Industry, August 2007, 711 pages, eippcb.jrc.ec.
europa.eu/sites/default/files/2019-11/lvic-s_bref_0907.pdf.
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