II Midterm Paper of Operating System

Part – A
Q1
(A) Explain Seek time and rotational Latency?
Ans Seek Time: The time taken by the disk’s read/write head to move to the
cylinder containing the desired data. It depends on the distance between the
current and target position of the head.
Rotational Latency: The delay caused by the rotation of the disk platter, waiting
for the desired sector to align with the read/write head. It is typically half of the
time taken for one complete disk rotation.
(B) Define file Security .
Ans File security ensures the protection of files from unauthorized access,
modification, or deletion. It involves mechanisms such as:
• Authentication: Verifying user identity.
• Authorization: Granting specific access rights (read, write, execute).
• Encryption: Protecting data using cryptographic techniques.
• Access Control: Using file permissions or access control lists (ACLs).

(C) Explain absolute & relative path name of a file.

Ans Absolute Path: Specifies the complete path from the root directory to the
desired file or directory. Example: /home/user/documents/file.txt.
Relative Path: Specifies the path relative to the current working directory.
Example: ./documents/file.txt (if the current directory is /home/user).
(D) Explain Attributes, file mounting and Naming of file
Ans File Attributes: Metadata describing a file, including:
• Name: Identifier of the file.
• Size: Total file size in bytes.
• Type: File format (e.g., .txt, .exe).
• Permissions: Access rights (read, write, execute).
 • Timestamps: Creation, modification, and access times.
File Mounting: The process of making a file system available for use by attaching
it to a directory structure. Example: Mounting a USB drive to /media/usb.
File Naming: Assigning a name to a file to uniquely identify it. Names may follow
certain rules, such as allowing alphanumeric characters, avoiding special
characters, and maintaining a fixed length.
(E) Explain device drivers
Ans Device drivers are specialized software that allow the operating system to
communicate with hardware devices, such as printers, keyboards, and storage
devices. They act as a translator between the hardware and the OS, enabling
hardware to perform its specific tasks.
(F) Explain Time OS
Ans A Time-Sharing OS allows multiple users or tasks to share system
resources simultaneously by allocating small time slices to each task. It
ensures:
• Quick response to users.
• Efficient CPU utilization.
• Examples: UNIX, Windows Server OS.
It uses techniques like multi-programming and context switching to
achieve time-sharing.

Part – B
Q2 Explain Resource Allocation graph and unsafe state with example
Ans A Resource Allocation Graph (RAG) is a visual representation used in
operating systems to manage resources and avoid deadlocks. The graph consists
of nodes representing processes (P) and resources (R). Directed edges from a
process to a resource (P → R) indicate a resource request, while edges from a
resource to a process (R → P) represent resource allocation. If the graph contains
cycles, it indicates the possibility of a deadlock. An unsafe state arises when the
system cannot ensure the execution of all processes without entering a
deadlock. For example, in a system with three processes (P1, P2, P3) and two
resources (R1, R2), if the resource requirements collectively exceed available
resources and the processes are interdependent, the system transitions into an
unsafe state, increasing the risk of deadlock.
OR
Q2 Explain features of Linux operating system.
Ans The Linux operating system is renowned for its versatility and powerful
features. It is an open-source OS, meaning its source code is freely available and
can be modified as needed. Linux supports multi-user environments, allowing
several users to work on the same system simultaneously without interfering with
each other. It is a multi-tasking system, enabling multiple processes to run
concurrently, making it suitable for servers and desktops. The OS is highly secure,
offering features like file permissions, encryption, and advanced firewall tools.
Linux is also portable, capable of running on various hardware platforms, and
supports multiple file systems, such as ext, FAT, and NTFS, making it a robust
and adaptable choice for diverse applications.
Q3 Explain file access methods in detail.
Ans File access methods define how data in files can be retrieved and
manipulated. There are three primary methods: Sequential Access, Direct
Access, and Indexed Access. In Sequential Access, data is read or written
sequentially, starting from the beginning to the end, making it suitable for tasks
like text file processing. Direct Access, also called random access, allows data to
be accessed directly by specifying the location, enabling faster retrieval and
modification of data, such as in databases. Indexed Access uses an index to map
the locations of data blocks, allowing efficient access to specific parts of large
files, commonly used in large database systems. Each method is chosen based
on the application requirements and the nature of the file operations.
OR
Q3 Explain directory structure Explain directory Operation.
Ans The directory structure in an operating system organizes files into a
hierarchical arrangement. The single-level directory is the simplest, with all files
stored in one directory, but it lacks scalability. The two-level directory separates
user directories for better organization. Tree-structured directories extend this by
allowing subdirectories, enabling a hierarchical arrangement of files and folders.
Directory operations include creation (adding new directories), deletion
(removing directories), renaming, and searching for files within directories.
Advanced structures like acyclic-graph directories enable shared files by allowing
links between directories, while general graph directories add flexibility but
require cycle detection to avoid redundancy.
Q4 Explain Deadlock & Necessary condition for deadlock?
Ans A deadlock occurs in a system when a set of processes is indefinitely waiting
for resources that are held by other processes in the set, preventing further
progress. Four necessary conditions must be met for a deadlock to occur: Mutual
Exclusion, where at least one resource cannot be shared; Hold and Wait, where
processes holding resources can request additional ones; No Preemption, where
resources cannot be forcibly taken from a process; and Circular Wait, where a set
of processes form a circular chain, each waiting for a resource held by the next.
To avoid deadlocks, systems often prevent one or more of these conditions.
OR
Q4 Explain Data Structure of Bankers Algorithm
Ans The Banker's Algorithm is a deadlock-avoidance technique that ensures a
system remains in a safe state. It uses key data structures: Available, which tracks
the number of available resources of each type; Maximum, specifying the
maximum demand of each process; Allocation, showing resources currently
allocated to each process; and Need, calculated as Maximum - Allocation,
representing the additional resources a process may require. The algorithm checks
if the system is in a safe state by simulating resource allocation and ensuring all
processes can complete. If even one process cannot complete, the state is
considered unsafe, and the resource request is denied.

PART-C
Q5 Considering a system with five processes PO through P4 and three
resources of type A, B, C. Resource type A has 10 instances, B has 5 instances
and type C has 7 instances. Suppose at time t0 following snapshot of the
system has been taken find need matrix and safety sequence.

Ans
 OR
Q5 Explain deadlock prevention methods.
Ans Deadlock prevention is a strategy to ensure that the system never enters a
state of deadlock by negating one or more of the necessary conditions for
deadlock. The four necessary conditions for deadlock are: Mutual Exclusion,
Hold and Wait, No Preemption, and Circular Wait. To prevent deadlock, specific
techniques are employed to break these conditions.

1. Mutual Exclusion
This condition states that at least one resource must be non-shareable, meaning
only one process can use it at a time.
• Prevention:
o Design resources to be sharable wherever possible (e.g., read-only
files).
o For non-shareable resources (e.g., printers), deadlocks due to mutual
exclusion cannot be entirely eliminated but can be reduced by
efficient resource allocation policies.

2. Hold and Wait

This condition occurs when a process holding at least one resource is waiting for
additional resources.
• Prevention:
o Require processes to request all resources at once during the start of
execution (i.e., one-shot resource allocation).
▪ Example: Instead of requesting resources incrementally, a
process must request all required resources in a single step.
o Ensure processes release all currently held resources before
requesting new ones.
▪ This approach avoids scenarios where a process holds
resources while waiting, but it may lead to resource
underutilization.
3. No Preemption
This condition occurs when a resource cannot be forcibly taken away from a
process.
• Prevention:
o Allow preemption of resources:
▪ If a process holding a resource is waiting for additional
resources, the system preempts (takes back) the currently
allocated resources and reallocates them to other processes as
needed.
▪ The waiting process must release its resources and restart
when its full set of resources becomes available.
o Particularly effective for resources such as CPU time or memory but
less practical for physical devices like printers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Deadlock Prevention
Advantages:
• Prevents deadlocks entirely by design.
• Reduces the need for complex deadlock detection mechanisms.
Disadvantages:
• May lead to low system resource utilization, as processes might hold
resources unnecessarily or be delayed in execution.
• Imposing ordering or preempting resources can increase complexity in
system design and implementation.

Q6 Suppose disk drive has 1000 Cylinders. The head is at position 345 and
the queue Request is 123,874,692,475,105,376. Find Total Head Movement
using FIFO, SSTF, SCAN algorithm .
Ans 1. FIFO (First-In-First-Out)
In the FIFO scheduling algorithm, requests are processed in the order they
arrive.
Head Movements:
• Start at 345.
 • Process requests in the order: 123, 874, 692, 475, 105, 376.
Calculation:
1. ∣345−123∣=222
2. ∣123−874∣=751
3. ∣874−692∣=182
4. ∣692−475∣=217
5. ∣475−105∣=370
6. ∣105−376∣=271
Total Head Movement (FIFO):
222+751+182+217+370+271=2013 cylinders

2. SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First)

In SSTF, the next request is chosen based on the shortest distance from the
current head position.
Steps:
1. Start at 345.
2. Find the closest request to the current position. Process requests in this
order:
o Closest to 345: 376 (∣345−376∣=31)
o Closest to 376: 475 (∣376−475∣=99)
o Closest to 475: 692 (∣475−692∣=217)
o Closest to 692: 874 (∣692−874∣=182)
o Closest to 874: 123 (∣874−123∣=751)
o Closest to 123: 105 (∣123−105∣=18)
Calculation:
1. ∣345−376∣=31
2. ∣376−475∣=99
3. ∣475−692∣=217
 4. ∣692−874∣=182
5. ∣874−123∣=751
6. ∣123−105∣=18
Total Head Movement (SSTF):
31+99+217+182+751+18=1298 cylinders.

3. SCAN (Elevator Algorithm)

In SCAN, the head moves in one direction (up or down) servicing requests until
it reaches the end, then reverses direction.
Assumption:
• The head moves towards 0 first, then reverses towards the end of the
queue.
Steps:
1. Start at 345.
2. Move towards 0 servicing requests: 123, 105.
3. Reverse direction and service requests: 376, 475, 692, 874.
Order of servicing: 123→105→376→475→692→874
Calculation:
1. ∣345−123∣=222
2. ∣123−105∣=18|
3. ∣105−376∣=271
4. ∣376−475∣=99
5. ∣475−692∣=217
6. ∣692−874∣=182
Total Head Movement (SCAN):
222+18+271+99+217+182=1009 cylinders
Make diagram by yourself for FIFO, SSTF and SCAN
OR
Q6 Suppose disk drive has 200 Cylinders. The head is at position 98 and
the queue Request is 86,147,91,177,94,150,102,175, 130.Find Total Head
Movement using SCAN and C SCAN algorithm.
Ans
Make Diagrams by yourself for Scan and C – Scan
Q7 What is file management? Explain types & structure.
Ans File Management refers to the process of organizing, storing, retrieving, and
manipulating files within an operating system. It involves managing both the
physical and logical aspects of file storage, ensuring data integrity, access control,
and efficient use of storage resources. File management is a key responsibility of
the operating system, enabling users and applications to work with files easily
and securely.
Types of File Management:
1. Sequential File Management:
o In sequential file management, data is stored in a linear fashion
where records are accessed one after the other.
2. Direct (Random) File Management:
o This method allows for direct access to data without reading through
the entire file.
3. Indexed File Management:
o Uses an index to keep track of the location of data within the file.
4. Hashed File Management:
o Uses a hash function to compute the location of records, providing
constant time complexity for retrieval.
File Structure:
1. Flat File Structure:
o A flat file structure stores data in a single, continuous sequence
without any hierarchical organization.
o It is simple and easy to implement but can be inefficient for large
datasets or complex relationships.
2. Hierarchical File Structure:
o Data is stored in a tree-like structure where records have parent-child
relationships.
o This structure is useful for organizing files in a way that reflects a
hierarchy or tree of directories and subdirectories.
 3. Network File Structure:
o In this structure, files are organized in a graph, where records can
have multiple relationships with each other.
o It allows more flexibility compared to hierarchical structures but is
more complex to manage.
4. Relational File Structure:
o Used primarily in database management systems (DBMS), this
structure organizes data in tables with rows and columns.
o It supports complex queries and relationships between records.
File management ensures that data is stored efficiently and securely, allows users
and applications to access it easily, and maintains data integrity across different
operations.

OR
Q7 Explain file allocation methods.
Ans File Allocation Methods in an operating system refer to the strategies used
to store files on storage devices like hard drives. These methods determine how
files are organized, accessed, and managed on the disk. The goal is to maximize
performance, minimize space wastage, and ensure efficient file retrieval. There
are three main file allocation methods:
1. Contiguous Allocation:
• Description: In this method, each file is stored in a contiguous block of
memory or disk space. The starting block and the length of the file are
stored in the file control block (FCB).
• Advantages:
o Simple and fast access, as the system knows exactly where the file
starts and ends.
o Efficient for sequential file access.
• Disadvantages:
o Fragmentation: Over time, as files are created and deleted, free space
becomes fragmented, making it difficult to find large contiguous
blocks for new files.
 o It is inefficient in handling dynamic file sizes, as resizing a file may
require moving it to a new location if space is unavailable next to it
2. Linked Allocation:
• Description: In linked allocation, each file is divided into blocks that may
not be contiguous. Each block contains a pointer to the next block in the
file. The last block in the file contains a special marker (null or EOF)
indicating the end of the file.
• Advantages:
o Overcomes fragmentation issues since files do not need to be stored
contiguously.
o Efficient for dynamic file sizes, as blocks can be added or removed
as needed.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires extra storage for the pointer in each block.
o Random access is inefficient because the system needs to traverse
all the blocks in sequence to reach a specific point in the file.
3. Indexed Allocation:
• Description: In indexed allocation, a special block (called the index block)
is used to store pointers to the actual data blocks of a file. Each file has its
own index block, and the file's data blocks can be scattered anywhere on
the disk.
• Advantages:
o Direct access: Each block in the file has a direct pointer to its
corresponding data block, enabling efficient random access.
o No fragmentation issues because data blocks can be scattered across
the disk.
• Disadvantages:
o The index block itself must be stored, which adds overhead.
o The index block can become large for files with many blocks,
requiring additional management to handle large index tables.