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1.2 The didactic elements of this book 9

Under the magnifying glass: The intermediate value theorem

In order to practice new terms, results or even calculation The function f : [a, b] → R is said to be continuous and therefore has a minimum digit x- and a maximum digit x+ on [a, b].
Then for every y ∈ [f (x-), f(x+)] there is a number xˆ ∈ [a, b] with
schemes with you, we have integrated numerous examples f(xˆ) = y.

in the text. You can recognize these (small) examples by Clarification of the statement: The statement is easy to
see on the graph of a continuous function like the one in the
Since a ∈ A, this set is guaranteed to be nonempty.
M o r e o v e r , the set is bounded, since obviously
the blue heading Example, the end of such an example is figure. The level line to y must obviously intersect the
graph for a continuous function. Exactly at
A ⊆ [a, b]. Thus A has a supremum, which we denote by
xˆ.
marked by a small blue triangle. of such a place lies the searched place xˆ.
What do we know about the function value of f at the
f (x) point xˆ ? If we consider a sequence (xn) of A convergent
to xˆ , it follows, due to the continuity of f , that
Example
The unit matrix E
⎛ ∈ Kn×n is symmetric.
⎞ f (x+) f(xˆ) = f( lim x ) = lim f(x ) ≤ y
n n n
12 i y
is.
n→∞ n→∞

33
The matrix A = ⎝ √2 -1 2i + 1 ⎠ ∈ C × is not f (x-)
Now we still have to show that f(xˆ) = y holds, i.e., we
have to exclude f(xˆ) < y. To do this, it is convenient
i+ 1 3 11 a A xˆ x+ x- b x
to construct a contradiction. Suppose,
f(xˆ) < y. Then, because of the continuity of f, we must also find
in

symmetrical. ( This estimation is valid for a sufficiently small

neighborhood of xˆ. In particular, there exist places x
Discussion of the proof idea: since we certainly cannot between xˆ and x+ for which f (x) < y. But this is a
contradiction
explicitly specify the location xˆ for an arbitrary
Figure 1.4 Smaller examples are integrated into the text continuous function, we have to reason more abstractly to the fact that xˆ is the supremum of A. For the formal
to get the proof this argumentation is cleaner to formulate.
existence of such a place. On the basis of what has been Using the ε-δ-description of continuity, the proof
proved so far, there are two possibilities, both of which constructs a number x˜ ∈ [xˆ, x+] for which f(x˜) < y
In addition to these (small) examples, there are (large) are essentially based on the completeness axiom.
construct. Either we construct explicitly a sequence (xn)
holds. Thus x˜ is an element of A, but larger than xˆ.
With these considerations we have completely
examples, most of which are complete. These examples, to which we can show convergence in [a, b], and try to
use the continuity of f to prove,
settled the case f (a) < y. For the case f(xˆ) > y we
can mirror the graph of f at the level line f(x) = y.
which are described in detail, usually deal with more that in the limit case just the function value y is assumed.
Alternatively, we can try to use continuity to find a
This is equivalent to considering g(x) = y - f(x), x ∈
[a, b]. In the case f(a) = y we have with a already
complex or more general problems whose solution takes up subset of [a, b] whose
Supremum is just the place we are looking for. In both
found the intermediate point. In total we have a
complete proof elaborated.
more space. Sometimes, a number of individual examples cases
a proof consists of two parts. One has to ensure the
Comments:
existence of xˆ and to consider that f(xˆ) = y holds. In the
relevant to the exam are clearly arranged in such a box. main text, the second possibility for the be-
A first rigorous proof of the intermediate value
t h e o r e m was carried out by the mathematician
Weis chosen.
Such a box has a title, an introductory text highlighted in Bernard Bolzano (1781-1848) in a paper from 1817.
Independently, a proof by Augustin Louis Cauchy
blue that describes the problem, a solution note that briefly Implementation of the idea: We restrict ourselves first
to t h e case shown in the figure, w h e r e f (a)
(1789-1857) appeared four years later.
The completeness axiom is not only used in the
< y. Graphically, it is clear that between a and x+ min-.
explains the procedure for the solution, and finally the at least one intersection with the level line f(x) = y
p r o o f , it is also fundamental for t h e
statement to be valid at all. Construct a
exists. To construct this, we define the set
detailed solution path (see Fig. 1.5). A through
counterexample yourself in the case of a continuous
function
x+
A = {x ∈ [a, ] | f(x) ≤ y} . f : [a, b]∩ Q → Q.
Abbildung 1.6 Sätze bzw. deren Beweise, die von großer Bedeutung sind,
betrachten wir in einer sogenannten Unter-der-Lupe-Box genauer.
Example: Amount and argument of complex
numbers
We are looking for the amounts and the arguments of the numbers z1
z1, z2, z1 + z2, and
z2 you should be able to answer the question. Use these
with z1 = -1 + i and z2 = 1 + √3i.
questions as a check to see if you are still on the ball. If you do
Problem analysis and strategy: First we calculate the amount and argument of z1 and z2. Then we use the calculation
rules to determine the other amounts and arguments. not know the answers, we recommend that you work
Solution: ) arctan
arg(z1=
-1
+π =-
π
4
+π=
3π through the previous text again. Short solutions to the self-
Let's start with the amounts of the given numbers: We 1 4
calculate
,
and √ tests ("Answers to the self-questions") can be found at the
√ √ 3 π
|z1| = ( -1) + 2 1 =2 2 and |
z2 | = 1 + 3 = 2 .
) arctan
arg(z2=
1
=,
3 end of the respective chapters.
√ √
For the sum follows further 3/2
where the identity sin(π/3)/ cos(π/3) = 1/2 = 3
√
|z1 + z 2 | = | - 1 + i + 1 + 3i| was used. We calculate the argument of the sum directly

?
, to
2
= (1 + √3) = 1 + √3 √ π
arg(z 1+z2)= arg((1 + 3)i) = .
For the quotient follows with the calculation 2
We calculate the amount of the quotient from
z1 z1z2 2 1 1
== |z1 z2 | = | z1 z2 | = 1√ .
rules
z1 z1z2
Determine the two solutions of the equation z2 = i.
z2 | | |z2| 4 | | 4 2 arg = arg |z2|2
z2
The main values of the arguments of z1 and z2 let = arg(z1z2)
can either be seen from a sketch of the numbers in the
numerical plane or we calculate them using the table of
= arg(z1) + arg(z2) 31
= arg(z1) - arg(z2) = π - π =
5
π.
Figure 1.7 Self-tests provide comprehension checks.
values for the trigonometric functions on page 104. 4 3 12

Abbildung 1.5 Größere Beispiele stehen in einem Kasten und behandeln

In general, we will teach you many theorems, properties,
komplexere Probleme. mnemonic rules and calculation techniques in the course of
a chapter. Whenever appropriate, we formulate the central
Some sentences or their evidence are so important that we results and rules in so-called overviews. Besides a title,
take a closer look at them. The boxes Under the each overview has an introductory text. In most cases, the
magnifying glass serve this purpose. Although these results or rules are listed in bullet points. An overview of
propositions and their proofs are always presented in detail the overviews is given in an index following the table of
in the continuous text, in these boxes we give further ideas contents - in this sense, the overviews also serve as a kind
and suggestions on how to arrive at these statements or of collection of formulas (see Figure 1.8).
their proofs. We often also give further information about Background and Outlook are often full-page boxes that
alternative proofs or possible generalizations of the deal with a topic that is of a more in-depth nature. In most
propositions (see Figure 1.6). cases, due to lack of space, the topic can only be touched
A very frequently used element is that of the self-test. Most upon, i.e. it can by no means be treated exhaustively. The
often, this self-test contains a question for you. You can design of these boxes is analogous to that of overviews.
recognize this feature by the question mark. With what you The topics that are addressed here may not be
have read
10 1 Mathematics - a science in itself

Overview: The classification of consequences

At the end of each chapter we have presented the essential
In this chapter, properties of certain classes of sequences were examined in more detail. Here, these properties and the
relationships between them are presented once again in a collected form.
contents, results and central procedures in a summary.
In the following Venn diagram, the properties of Example: Let us consider the sequence (an) with sequences
You should be able to understand the connections presented
we have studied in more detail, and their con-
as subsets of the set of all sequences. 1
here, and you should be able to deal with the described
an = 1 + , n ∈ N.
represents. For each class there is also a typical representative with
specified.
n calculation techniques and solution approaches.
Since, for all n ∈ N,0 ≤ 1/n ≤ 1, it follows that 1 ≤ an
≤ 2. The sequence is bounded and belongs to the yellow
set.
You can try out the techniques you have learned with the
all episodes Furthermore
numerous exercises at the end of each chapter. We
1 1 1
bounded sequences an+1 - an = - =-
n+1 n n (n + 1)
≤ 0.
distinguish between comprehension questions, arithmetic
convergent sequences (n)
(-1)n 1
(-1)n
n
The sequence is monotonically decreasing and thus belongs to the blue
monotone sequences
problems and proof problems - each with three different
set in the diagram. The monotonicity criterion states
n
now that the intersection of the blue and the yellow levels of difficulty. First try the exercises on your own.
set, i.e. just the green area in the diagram, consists only
(-1)n n
of convergent sequences. Thus (an) is convergent. Only if you are sure that you cannot do it on your own, you
should consult the hints at the end of the book or ask your
Figure 1.8 In overviews, different terms or calculation rules are compiled on a fellow students. You will also find the results here for
topic.
checking purposes. If you are unable to complete the task
despite the hints, you can find the solutions on the
immediately fundamental to the first year of study, but they publisher's website.
are intended to show you the variety and depth of different
mathemati- cal disciplines and also to stimulate an interest
in these topics (see Figure 1.9). 1.3 Advice on how to get
started in mathematics
As a freshman, you will soon find yourself in the situation
that thousands have been in before you and thousands will
be in after you: It is often not that difficult to follow the
proofs from the lecture, but it sometimes seems sheer
impossible to formulate a proof on your own.
But proving sentences is the be-all and end-all in
mathematics. And since there is no universal scheme that
gives you a way to proceed when proving statements, it is so
difficult - especially at the beginning of your studies - to even
find approaches that can lead to a proof of a statement.
But one rule is valid in any case: Experience makes the
master! If you know many different proofs, you have a
whole smorgasbord of ideas that have already led to
solutions; and having the right idea is often the decisive
factor in proving a theorem.

At the beginning of the study, one

watches large proofs and performs
only small proofs oneself

The lecture usually starts with a lot of discussion. One stirs in

the basics of mathematics, talks mostly about the induction
principle and the well-ordering principle and proves the
equivalence of these principles. Nobody expects you to
Figure 1.9 A Background and Outlook box provides insight into a more come up with this proof by yourself within a short time.
advanced topic. You should only be able to understand such proofs. The
proofs that are expected from you are of a much simpler
Please note that you do not need to know the background nature. In your exercises you initially prove, for example,
and outlook boxes or the under-the-lens boxes to inequalities, which you often prove by mathematical
understand the rest of the text in the book. These two transformations.
elements therefore only provide additional material; the
rest of the text does not refer to the in-depth elements.
 1.3 Advice for getting started in mathematics 11

Figure 1.10 In the proof of the prime property theorem, we refer back to the premises and to known results.

obtained. The formulation of extensive and complicated

proofs must be introduced slowly.
This includes ana- lyzing the evidence from the lectures, ie:
Check for correctness,
divide into sub-steps,
check where premises enter, compare with
evidence of similar statements,
compare alternative proofs of the same statement,
check whether modifications of the statement
(tightening, generalization, weakening) are provable
under modified conditions.
We will consider this with an example (see Figure 1.10).
Figure 1.11 In a lecture, one likes to keep proofs short and to the point. The
In a lecture, the proofs are usually not as detailed as in a book. lecturer's spoken words are often indispensable for understanding.
The blackboard inscription is much more concise there, but
for that there are still the explanatory words of the lecturer
difficulties, and so many "proofs" from first-year students are
in a lecture. It is important to keep up with the explanations
incomplete or flawed.
(Fig. 1.11).
You can sharpen your own evidentiary skills by

It is easier with fellow students and a lot of Detect incomplete and/or incorrect arguments in
background knowledge evidence,
complete incomplete evidence,
You learn a lot by teaming up with fellow students and Correct false evidence or refute it with counterexamples,
comparing the proofs to the different tasks that are given Pre- cise fuzzy hypotheses by means of proof tests.
during the course of your studies. Of course, as a beginner
you have
12 1 Mathematics - a science in itself

Overview: Advice for studying mathematics

There are no universal rules for this. We give advice that we have collected over many years.

About the lecture The concrete solving of tasks

– Think and write along. Writing helps you to – Read the task carefully: Is a solution or a solution
memorize the material better. set required? In the second case, you should also
– It is common not to understand all the content of a specify a quantity.
lecture immediately; however, always try to stay on – Is your result plausible? Are the units correct?
the ball. – In your solutions, note where you use which results
– Ask questions of the instructor if you do not from the lecture or exercise; on this occasion,
understand something. retrieve these used results.
– Lecturers also make mistakes, point it out to him if – What are the prerequisites in the task definition?
you notice it. Which terms of the task do you know from the
Homework and wrap-up of the lecture lecture or other similar tasks?
– Plan several hours for homework and wrap-up of – Don't be demotivated if you can't solve a task - you
lecture content. also learn when you try to solve it.
– Do you remember the themes, key definitions, – Work on many tasks, practice makes perfect.
phrases, and rules? – If you get stuck on a task, consider whether a
– Work through the lecture content using the similar task has been discussed in a tutorial/central
assignments. exercise. How was it solved there, if applicable?
– Be clear about terms and notations using your own – Even if you have found a (correct) solution, it is
simple examples. sometimes useful to think about other, possibly
– Do not learn stubbornly by heart, try to understand shorter ways.
the connections. Common mistakes
– Form working and learning groups with commii-
– If a precondition is not used, the result is rarely
tes you can work well with.
correct.
– Try the tasks yourself first and do not go into your
– Specify where their variables are from - so you
work group unprepared. Only ask for advice if you
always have control over your elements.
are not able to solve a task after you have worked on
– f -1(x) is often ambiguous; keyword inverse func-.
it intensively.
tion and original image set - note this especially on
– Explain the material to your fellow students.
your calculator.
– Formulate your solutions in such a way that
– If you divide by x a,- you must consider the case x a
someone else can understand and follow your train
separately
= - do not divide by zero!
of thought.
– Pay attention to signs when drawing roots.
– Have you weeded out all the errors in your lecture
– Reflect on your calculations and results. Page-long
notes?
transformations in homework or exams are often
Practice Groups
preceded by calculation errors or inappropriate
– Ask questions.
approaches. Also very large, calculation-intensive
– Take advantage of the opportunity to pre-calculate.
numbers indicate errors.
– Attend the same exercise group each week if
possible. – Does ⇔ really apply or only ⇒ or ⇐?
– Familiarize yourself with the tasks before the Exam preparation
exercise - do you understand all the terms? – Constant collaboration saves a lot of exam
The use of a textbook preparation.
– Read slowly. – Formulate the central definitions, sentences and
– Note all the preconditions in sentences. In rules separately in a detailed summary.
derivations, look for the places where the – Make yourself a cheat sheet with your own
preconditions are used. Look for general keyword-like outline: what you write down, you
preconditions, such as "X is a set". will know.
– Dashes could also be misinterpreted as minus signs.
– If you don't understand something at the end of a
line or page, look at the next line or page.
– Keep in mind that there can be typographical errors
in a book.
 1.4 A brief history of mathematics 13

When solving tasks you should use background The choice of the subject matter is also determined by the
knowledge, consider the following example. preferences of the author. A cultural-historical journey
through time is conveyed by reading "6000 Years of
Example We consider again the prime property theorem Mathematics" (Volume 1 and Volume 2) by Hans Wußing
and justify in a different way as done above that every (Springer-Verlag 2008/2009). From these two volumes the
prime p satisfies the following so-called prime property: author of this "short history of mathematics" has received
numerous suggestions. Thankfully, some illustrations could
also be taken over.
p | a b ⇒ p | a or p | b, where a, b ∈ N .

An obvious proof approach can be found as follows:

p | a b means that there is a c ∈ N with:
In the beginning was the number
pc = a b. (1.1)

Now we think of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, Numbers, used in all cultures at an early stage of
which is hopefully known to many from their school days. development for counting, calculating and comparing, also
This theorem states that every natural number n > 1, apart play an indispensable role in our everyday lives. Whether
from the sequence of factors, can be written telephone numbers, account balances, prices, interest rates
unambiguously as a product of prime numbers, i.e..: or time, numbers are omnipresent. One can say that the
history of mathematics begins with the invention of
symbols as representatives for numbers. An approximately
n = p1 - - - pr with prime numbers p1, . . . , pr .
25,000 year old testimony to this is the Ishango bone from
Zaire with line patterns representing numbers. More recent
Thus we can justify the above statement: If we decompose
are clay tablets with cuneiform characters from
ab into a product of prime numbers (which is possible
Mesopotamia. The Babylonians used their number system,
according to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic), then
which was based on the base 60, not only for trade and
according to equation (1.1) the prime number p appears
bookkeeping, but also for astronomical calculations. On the
as a factor in this decomposition of a b . Thus, the prime
famous tablet YBC 7289, an approximate value for 2 is
p must be a divisor of one of the factors a or b, possibly √
found in cuneiform writing to six digits (Fig. 1.12).
even of both. (

The example shows that you can often quickly prove

statements with known facts. So always keep in mind when
proving:

Are there any known statements or phrases that are

applicable?
Are there dependencies or similarities of the statement to
be shown to known statements?

For more advice, see the overview on page 12.

√2
Figure 1.12 Panel YBC 7289 with approximate value for to six digits (1
+ 24/60 + 51/602 + 10/603 ≈ 1.414213).

The positional system of the Babylonians with the basic

1.4 A brief history of number 60 was very powerful and superior to all number
mathematics systems of antiquity (such as those of the Greeks and
Romans).

The beginnings of mathematics reach far back into history. Our common system of digits with the base 10 and the
Cave paintings from southern France, Spain and North digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 is of Indian origin and came
Africa as early as 13,000 BC show a remarkable sense of to Europe via the Arabs. Around 500 BC, the Indians
formulas. Even in the older Stone Age, evidence of introduced a sign for "nothing" (in Latin "nullus"), namely
preliminary stages of counting and arithmetic can be found "0". This enabled them to write numbers like 25= 2 10
- 1 +
in the form of grooves on cave walls and edges in sticks or 100 103
5 - and 2050 2 =0 - 5 +0 -102 101 100
+ - + -
bones (30,000 to 20,000 B.C.). The following short history distinguish. Until the final clarification of the concept of the
of mathematics can only be a "real number" took quite a long time. This process
14 1 Mathematics - a science in itself

was not until the end of the 19th century (G. Cantor (1883), tions, the calculation of food requirements for soldiers, etc.
R. Dedekind (1888) ) completed. The fact that in a right-angled triangle with the cathets a
and b and the hypotenuse c the equation

a2 b2 c2
+ =
Mesopotamia (from ca. 3300 B.C. to ca. 100
B.C.) (so-called Pythagorean theorem) was known in
Mesopotamia. The special number triple 3, 4, 5 with 32 42
+ =
52 and similar number triples were known. Such triples were
It is probably no coincidence that the early advanced used by the harpedonapts (rope tighteners) to create right
civilizations developed around the so-called "fertile angles when measuring (because the inverse of the
crescent" on the Nile, the Euphrates and Tigris Pythagorean theorem is also valid!).
(Mesopotamia) and the Indus and in China around the
Huanghe. The nomadic cultures became sedentary farming The Babylonians were familiar with the method of
cultures. The importance of hunting decreased because it quadratic addition, and they developed approximation
was possible to breed sheep, pigs, goats and cattle. Thus, methods for the determination of square roots from natural
parts of the population could be freed from direct food numbers, if these numbers were not square numbers.
production. Specialized occupational groups in handicraft, Tables with square numbers have been handed down. If a
technology, administration, culture and military could natural number a, whose root was to be calculated, did not
develop. From about 3000 B.C. onwards, Mesopotamia, appear in the tables, one looked for a next smaller square0
the two-stream region between the Euphrates and the Tigris number x2 and calculated
:= with
- 0ε a x2 the root of a according
(today politically part of Iraq), developed into a flourishing to the formula
cultural landscape which was settled by different peoples ,
ε
(Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians). Cities like Babylon, √a = x2 0 + ε ≈ x0 + .
2x0
Nineveh, Nippur, Uruk and Ur are still known today. Rulers
like Hammurapi (1728-1686 B.C.) and Nebuchadnezzar II Z.
√ For example, for a = 27 = + 252 the approximate
(605-567 B.C.) are perhaps remembered (the latter value
probably also by the cruel treatment of prisoners during his 27 5 ≈+22 5 = 5.2 . Whether the Babylonians
procedure-
reign). The Babylonian captivity of the Jewish people also iterated the is not known, but probable. The
began under Nebuchadnezzar. Greeks were also familiar with the above approximation
formula;
The number system in Mesopotamia had in mature state it is often wrongly named after the Greek mathematician
two cuneiform characters (the wedge for one and the Heron of Alexandria ( 62 o.c.). By iteration,
≈ one obtains a
angled hook for ten). It was a positional system with the special case of the Newton method.
base 60 (sexagesimal system), because of the angle hook for
the number ten it had a decimal component. In figure 1.13, The Babylonians were also familiar with the method of
for example, the number 42= 4- 10 +2 can be seen in "quadratic addition" to solve a quadratic equation.
cuneiform lines.
x2 + 2x - 8 = 0

to solve, the Babylonians added 8 on both sides:

x2 + 2x = 8 .

Figure 1.13 The number 42 in cuneiform characters. Then add the square of half of 2 on both sides, that is, 12 =
1, and you get:
An inner gap sign (the zero) was introduced due to Indian
influence around 500 BC. Relics of this number system can x2 + 2x + 1 = 8 + 1 = 9
still be found today in the division of the full circle into
360°, the division of minutes into seconds. The fact that the or
basic number 60 has relatively many divisors simplifies the
(x + 1)2 = 9
calculation with fractions.

Mesopotamian mathematics is connected with practical and thus x 1 3 , i.e.,

+= x14 ±= -and x2 2 =are the
problems: Calculation of dams with mostly trapezoidal solutions of the initial equation. The Tower of Babel
cross-section, calculation of temple foundations-. described in the Bible (Genesis 11.1-11.9) also falls into
the following categories
 1.4 A brief history of mathematics 15

into this period. In summary, it can be said that in The development of progressive technology was
Mesopotamia, especially in Babylon, a powerful accompanied by knowledge of mathematics and
mathematics (geometry and arithmetic) based on the astronomy.
sexage- simal system was developed; however, theorems
Chinese mathematics also flourished early on. Particularly
and proofs were still missing, therefore one cannot speak of
noteworthy are the "Nine Books of Arithmetic Technique"
mathematics as a science yet.
(300-500 BC), a collection of 246 tasks from the fields of
land surveying, agriculture, taxes, trade revenue,
technology, solving equations, especially linear equations
Mathematics in ancient Egypt (ca. (the so-called Fang-Cheng method for solving systems of
3000 B.C. to ca. 300 B.C.) linear equations corresponds to the Gauss algorithm),
simultaneous congruences (Chinese remainder theorem).
Similar to Mesopotamia, the Egyptian settlements on the The Chine- sen essentially used a decimal system with zero.
banks of the Nile had to cope with annual flooding. In the transition from the 7th to the 8th century the Indian
However, the floods were crucial for agriculture and thus numerals were adopted. Around 300 CE, the rather good
for the entire life in Egypt. As the Greek historian approximation 3.14159 for the circular number π is found.
Herodotus reports in his great epic poem about the Persian The 13th century was a "Golden Age" for Chinese
Wars, the Egyptians used "geometria" to remeasure the mathematics (citation Wußing op. cit.). Pascal's triangle for
arable land after the floods. In doing so, one had to be able the calculation of binomial coefficients was familiar to
to create right angles. The Egyptians used the same method them, as well as interpolation formulas and sum formulas
as the Mesopotamians. Pythagorean number triples were and calculation methods for square and cubic roots.
the essential tool.
Während aus Mesopotamien zahllose Tontafeln überliefert
sind, sprudeln die Informationsquellen zur antiken ägypti-
The mathematics of the Maya
schen Mathematik nicht so reichlich. Die ersten beiden Ur-
kunden sind Beispielsammlungen von 84 bzw. 25 Aufgaben, The amazing intellectual achievements of the Maya and
die meist praxisorientiert waren und etwa die Verteilung von Aztecs and the Inca in South America concerning building
Löhnen auf mehrere Arbeiter, die Berechnung des Bedarfs (construction of palaces, gardens, etc.) and especially the
an Mehl zum Backen einer bestimmten Menge von Broten calendar calculation and the long-term prediction of solar
oder die Berechnung von Raum- und Flächeninhalten betra- eclipses are mentioned here only in passing. The Maya used
fen. So konnten sie etwa den Materialbedarf für den Bau ihrer a positional system with the base 20 and a
beeindruckenden Pyramiden berechnen. Für die Kreiszahl π, "Zero".
das Verhältnis von Umfang und Durchmesser eines Kreises,
2
they used the useful approximation 16 ≈ 3.1605.
9
Ancient
The Egyptians used a somewhat cumbersome decimal
system. For each power of ten there is an own sign in the In the course of the so-called Doric migration, the Greeks
form of a hieroglyph, which is repeated correspondingly settled the islands of the Aegean Sea and the west coast of
often: Asia Minor. Around 900 B.C. the development of a common
independent culture of the Greek tribes (who call their
country Hellas and themselves Hellenes) begins. Homer
wrote the epics "Iliad" and "Odyssey" in the second half of
the
8th century BC. In 776 BC the first Olympic Games were
held in Olympia. Around this time, Hellenistic civilization
and culture spread widely throughout the Mediterranean.
Colonies were established in lower Italy and Sicily, on the
Indian (ca. 1000 B.C. to 1000) and Chinese Bosporus and on the Black Sea. The Greeks, unlike the
mathematics (ca. 1000 B.C. to 1300) Mesopotamians and Egyptians, for whom practical
applications were paramount, had a philosophical interest
In India, urban cultures (Mohenjo-Daro, Har- appa, Dehli) in mathema- tics. Thales of Miletus (624-548 BC) is
developed in the Indus Valley and on the Ganges plain considered to be the first important natural philosopher. On
around 3000 BC. In the cities there were streets built at frequent business trips he came to Egypt, where he got to
right angles, houses with bathrooms, well thought-out know the Egyptian geome- try and made the acquaintance
sewage systems and citadels. These comparatively fort- with knowledge of the Babylonians. Thales is said to have
succeeded, with the help of Babylonian tables, in
explaining the solar eclipse on the
16 1 Mathematics - a science in itself

May 28, 585 BC. He is said to have helped the Lydian king the first "theoretical mathematicians", since applications
Croesus to win a battle, because his enemies - surprised by were not in the foreground for them.
the solar eclipse - took frightened flight. Numerous
They were familiar with the terms "even number and odd
geometrical propositions are attributed to Thales, whether
number".
the proofs originate from him is not certain because of
lacking testimonies. Theorems attributed to Thales include: They knew so-called "figured numbers" like triangular
numbers, that is:
Any peripheral angle over a diameter of a circle is a right
one. n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = ,
The diameter of a circle halves the area of the circle. 2
In an isosceles triangle, the base angles are equal.
Square numbers:
The vertex angle theorem: If two straight lines intersect,
the vertex angles are equal.
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + 2n - 1 = n2
Two triangles are congruent if they match in one side
and adjacent angles.
etc.
Thales is considered to be the first mathematician who also They knew examples of perfect numbers, e.g.: 6 = 1 +
gave proofs for his theorems. He was one of the first to
formulate new questions and problems from mathematics. 2+3
For many historians of science, mathematics as a science
begins with such questions, whereas before the focus was or
mostly on applications. 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 .

A natural number n is called perfect if it is the sum of its

From the Pythagoreans to Diophant divisors that are smaller than n.
They knew a formula to calculate so-called Pythagorean
number triples, i.e. natural numbers x, y, z with
Pythagoras of Samos ( ≈560-480 B.C.), after journeys to
Egypt and imprisonment in Babylon, founded in 529 B.C. x2 y2 z2
+ =
in Kroton (Lower Italy) a kind of Or- den, that is, a
religious community whose members had to live by strict
to generate.
rules.
The so-called "Pythagorean theorem", namely that in a
right triangle with the cathets a, b and the hypotenuse c
holds:

a2 b2 c2
+ = ,

was already known to the Babylonians, Chinese and

Indians long before Pythagoras.
The emblem of the Pythagoreans was the "pentagram"
(also called "druid's foot"). It is a five-pointed star, which is
created in the regular 5-corner by its diagonals. It shows that
the length of the side a to the diagonal x is in the ratio of the
"golden section":

a : x = x : (a + x) .

Figure 1.14 Pythagoras (≈ 560-480 BC). From this, the Pythagorean Hippasos concluded that the
side and diagonal of a regular 5-corner are not
commensurable. In our terminology today this means that
The Pythagoreans believed in the immortality of the soul, the ratio ax= √5-1 2≈ 0.618034 no rational number
is irrational. The golden ratio occurs in the
the transmigration of souls and were convinced that the
Nature in the growth of plants (phyllotaxis) and is often
gods had ordered the world according to numbers and
used in the visual arts from ancient times (Roman columns
numerical relationships. Their motto was "Everything is
and temples) until today.
number". They proved mathematical theorems on the basis
of postulates (axioms) and definitions. Their formulations The existence of such irrational numbers disturbed the self-
were often abstract and in many cases without reference to understanding of the Pythagoreans enormously and was the
reality. The Pythagoreans were reason,
 1.4 A brief history of mathematics 17

population be freed from the plague. Mathematically, the

problem is easy to formulate: If the given cube has the side
length a, then a cube with the side length x is searched, for
which x3 2a3 must be valid.
= The construction with compass
x
and ruler is not possible, but this will be explained only in
the
19th century could be proven exactly.

Plato was also familiar with the five so-called Platonic

bodies: Cube, Tetrahedron, Octahedron, Dodecahedron and
Icosahedron. They are characterized by the fact that their
a surface is bounded by regular n-corners.

Platonic solids (regular polyhedra)

Tetrahedron4 TrianglesFireCube
(Hexahedron) Squares Earth
Octahedron8 TrianglesAir
Figure 1.15 The lengths of the side a and the diagonal x are in the regular order. Dodecahedron12
moderate 5-corner in the ratio of the golden section a = √5-1 ≈ 0.618034, pentagons World
x 2
of an irrational number. Icosahedron20
triangles Water
The elements in the right column were created by
why the Greeks did not make further efforts to develop the Plato assigned the dodecahedron to the geometrical objects,
concept of numbers. The exception was only Eudoxos. where it appeared as the basic shape for the world.

Eudoxos of Knidos ( ≈ 400-350 BC) was a mathematician,

astronomer, physician, philosopher and geographer. He
studied in Taranto and in Sicily and then in Athens under
Plato. Around 500 B.C. there was a new upswing in politics
and economy in Athens due to political and economic
reforms.

The Socratic student Plato (427-347 B.C.) founded the

"Academy" in Athens in 387 B.C., a unique school for
philosophers. Above the entrance to the Academy was
written: "Let no one enter who does not know geometry". Figure 1.16 The five Platonic solids.
Plato had great influence on the mathematicians, and vice
versa he was strongly influenced by the mathematicians. A
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was the most important disciple of
special concern of Plato was the purity of methods in
Pla- ton. He was more a philosopher and biologist than a
mathematics. As a principle of construction in geome- try,
mathematician. However, the formal logic he developed is
he is said to have allowed "only the compass and ruler."
already based entirely on mathematical inference. His
There were three problems in particular that Greek
teachings dominated the philosophy of science for almost
mathematics dealt with:
2000 years. His discussion of the "potential and actual
the squaring of the circle, infinite" can be seen as a precursor of Cantor's set theory and
the doubling of the cube, thus Aristo- teles as a precursor of modern basic science.
the trisection of an angle. Aristotle was also one of the educators of Alexander the
Great.
The squaring of the circle consists in the problem of
transforming a circular area into a square of equal area. After the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC), the
That this problem cannot be solved with compass and ruler political power of Greece declined and at the same time its
was first proved in 1882 by F. Lindemann, by proving that leading position in the field of science. The new scientific
the circle number π is a transcendental number. However, center became the city of Alexandria, founded by Alexander
there have been useful approximation constructions at all the Great on the Nile delta, with the university (the Museion)
times. and the largest library in the world. Euclid of Alexandria
was active here in 300 B.C. (the exact dates of his life are
In Plato's day, an oracle speaker is said to have called for not known, but it is assumed that he lived from 340 B.C. to
the doubling of the cube-shaped altar in Deli so that the 270 B.C. and that his main period of activity was around
300 B.C.).
18 1 Mathematics - a science in itself

In the "Elements", which consist of 17 books (chapters), the about floating bodies (he discovered the law of buoyancy),
mathematical knowledge of the predecessors is about laws of levers and centers of gravity, furthermore he
summarized, arranged and at the same time also extended. dealt with the construction of pulleys and water screws.
In the course of the centuries innumerable editions have
Among other mathematicians of the Alexandrian Peri- ode,
appeared. The Elements are structured according to a strict
perhaps Aristarchus of Samos ( 310-230 ≈ BC) should be
system. They contain: Definitions, postulates, axioms,
mentioned. He was the representative of a heliocentric sy-
problems with solutions, theorems, auxiliary theorems and
stem, the earth and the other planets move in circular orbits
their proofs. The axiom system has many weaknesses and
around the sun (an idea which was rejected even by
inconsistencies, but the elements are probably the first
Archimedes). Furthermore Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( 276-
axiomatic theory. We turn our attention to the 5th postulate:
195 B.C.)≈ should be mentioned, who determined the
5. "And that if a straight line at an intersection with two circumference of the earth by determining the angle of the
straight lines causes that inside on the same side arising sun in Aswan and Alex- andria with approx. 46 000 km
angles become smaller than two rights, then the two straight (actual value approx. 40 075 km). From Eratosthenes comes
lines with extension into infinity meet on the side on which also the so-called sieve of Eratosthenes, a method to
the angles lie, which together are smaller than two rights". determine all prime numbers up to a given bound.
From the 5th postulate follows the famous axiom of The last in this series is Apollonios of Perge (265-170
parallels: For every straight line g and a point P there B.C.), who worked extensively on cone carvings and who
exists (in the plane defined by g and P) exactly one straight is also known for the so-called "cone".
line h, which passes through P and is parallel to the straight "Apollonios circle" is known. With Apollonios, Greek
line g. mathematics experienced a certain conclusion, because the
center of power shifted to Rome and the further
From the appearance of the elements until the 19th century,
development of science was not a central concern of Rome.
mathematicians were concerned with the question whether
Important individual mathematical achievements in the
the parallel axiom can be deduced from the other axioms
following periods were made by Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-
without using the 5th postulate (which is equivalent to the
126 B.C.), Heron of ≈ Alexandria (100 C.E.) as well as
parallel axiom). The answer is "no" and it followed in the
Ptolemy, who summarized the teachings and observations
19th century independently from
of his Ptolemaic world system in his "Almagest" (earth in
János Bolyai (1802-1860) and the center of the universe, sun, planets and moon move on
Nikolai Lobachevksi (1793-1856). circular paths around the earth). One of the most important
mathematicians of the antiquity was without doubt Dio-
They are considered the founders of "non-Euclidean"
phant of Alexandria (≈250 o.c.). His main work "Ma-
(hyperbolic) geometry.
thematika" had a strong influence on modern times ("Dio-
Euclid's form of proof, the division into premise, assertion, phant's equations"). Pappus of Alexandria ( 320 o.c.) is
proof, is still common today. Theorem 20 in Book IX considered as the last important mathematician ≈ of the
reads: "There are more prime numbers than any given antiquity, whose main work is the "mathematical
number of prime numbers". In our today's ter- minology collection". Hypatia of Alexandria (around 400), the first
we express it like this: "There are infinitely many prime known female mathematician, suffered a tragic fate: as a
numbers". According to experts, the "Elements" are the most member of the new Platonic school, she came into conflict
influential work in the entire mathematical literature. with fanatical Christians and was cruelly murdered by them.

The most important mathematician and the greatest scientific In 395 (o.c.) the Roman Empire was divided into the
genius of the so-called Alexandrian period (until 150 AD) Western Empire (end of 476) and the Eastern Empire (end
was Archimedes
≈ of Syracuse (287-212 BC). He came from of 1455). In 529, the Platonic Academy in Athens was
Syracuse, probably studied in Alexandria and was murdered forcibly closed by the Roman Emperor Justinian. After the
by a Roman legionary in Syracuse in 212. He calculated school of mathematics in Alexandria had already ceased to
the area of circles, ellipses, parabolas, the volumes of exist around 415, the year 529 marked the downfall of
cylinders, cones and spheres. He was familiar with the ancient mathematics in Greece, whose tradition, however,
geometric summation formula in a special case. He proved was maintained in Byzantium until about 1400.
the inequality 3 10 < π < 3 10 .
In 630, Muhammad (570-623) moves to his hometown of
71
Archimedes 70
was the first to develop limit values. He Mecca; his teachings establish Islam. Around 800, al-
developed technical aids for the army of Syracuse, so that Hwârâzmî from Khoraren (area around the Aral Sea) is the
Syracuse could withstand the onslaught of the Romans for a first Islamic author to deal with methods for solving
long time. Archimedes wrote writings equations (preferably linear and quadratic equations) in his
"Algebra.
 1.4 A brief history of mathematics 19

Middle Ages Johannes von Gmunden ( ≈1384-1442),

Georg von Feuerbach (1423-1461),
The year 529 CE marks the end of the Hellenistic period Johannes Müller (1436-1476) (called Regiomontanus).
and the beginning of the medieval period of mathematics in
the European occidental area with the closure of the Philo- The main achievements of these mathematicians are in the
sophenic School in Athens. After the end of the Roman field of astronomy and the necessary mathematical tools,
Empire, the Catholic Church tried to preserve the cultural especially trigonometry.
tradition of the Roman Empire. In the monasteries, writings
With the beginning of the 16th century, the guild of
of past centuries, especially those of the Arabs, were
arithmeticians (cossists) took an enormous upswing. Adam
translated into Latin and thus made accessible to a larger
Ries from Staffelstein near Bamberg published his algebra
circle of readers. The French monk Gerbert (940-1003),
textbook "Coß" in 1524. The needs of daily life (purchases
who later became Pope Sylvester II, was of particular merit
at the market, commercial accounting, interest calculations,
in this regard. He is also the author of the first known copy
etc.) made it necessary for larger sections of the population
of the abacus. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Italian cities
to be familiar with at least the basic arithmetic operations.
such as Pisa, Florence, Venice, Milan and Genoa
Especially these were taught by the calculating masters.
developed trade relations as far as the Near and Far East.
Adam Ries' algebra book went through 108 editions and
Growing trade, bookkeeping and warehousing required
was reprinted until the 17th century.
exact calculations. Mathematics, especially in the form of
arithmetic and measurement, was booming again.
The first universities were founded in Bologna (1119) and
Padua (1222), followed by the universities in Paris (1214),
Cambridge (1231), Prague (1348), Vienna (1356), Hei-
delberg (1386), Cologne (1388) and Erfurt (1392). An
important mathematician of this period is Leonardo of Pisa
(1179-1250)
≈ (called "Fibonacci" = son of Bonacci). In his
"liber abaci" he gives an overview of the state of arithmetic
and algebra of his time. He calculated systematically with
Arabic numerals. His work formed the basis for all
arithmeticians and algebraists of the following period. In
his "Practica Geometria" Fi- bonacci also treats cubic
equations. The so-called "Fibonacci numbers" also appear
in this work: Figure 1.17 Adam Ries.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, ...

Another important arithmetic master in Germany was
Each Fibonacci number is the sum of the two preceding
Michael Stifel ≈( 1487-1567), his main work "Arithmetica
ones, so the recursive definition is f1 = 1, f2 = 1 and fn 1
integra" was published in Nuremberg in 1544. In 1545, the
fn +fn=1 (n 1).
+ The- Fibonacci
≥ numbers are closely related
work "Ars magna sive de Regulis Algebraicis," written by
to the "golden ratio" (see chapters 8 and 14.).
Gerolamo Cardano (1501-1576), appeared. It contains
strategies for solving equations of the third and fourth
Renaissance degree, based on results of Nicolo≈Tartaglia ( 1506-1559)
and Sci- pione del≈ Ferro ( 1465-1525). Rafael Bom- belli
The period from about 1400 onwards is called Renaissance (1526-1572) unbiasedly calculated with roots from ne-
in Europe. It was in fact not only a rebirth of the scientific gative numbers and established rules for calculating with
and cultural works of antiquity, but new technologies and them. His rules can be seen as a precursor to calculating
theories were developed. The invention of the art of with complex numbers (see also the background box on
printing by Gutenberg (around 1445) played an essential page 144 in chapter 4).
role. It made it possible to disseminate information much
A revolution of the astronomical world view occurred in
more quickly. But it was decades before the first
1543 with the publication of "De Revolutionibus Or- bium
mathematical works were printed.
Coelestium", the main work of Nicolaus Copernicus (1423-
In the early days of the Renaissance, the University of 1543). Based on calculations and observations Copernicus
Vienna was the world center of mathematics. In the 15th came to the conclusion that his heliocentric system (the sun
century, three important scholars worked there: is the center of the planetary system) is much more
compatible with reality than the geocentric system of
Ptolemy. He thus followed ideas of Aristarchus of Samos
(≈ 310-230