Ch 1 Introduction to biostatistics:

Biostatistics is the application of statistical techniques to scientific research in health-related

fields, including medicine, biology, and public health, and the development of new tools to
study these areas. he statistics will help the biologist to: (1) understand the nature of variability
and (2) helps in deriving general laws from small samples. Francis Galton is called as the
'Father of Biostatistics.
Characteristics of Bio-Statistics (1) Statistics is the aggregate of facts. (2) Statistics is
numerically expressed. (3) Statistics is usually affected by multiplicity of causes and not by
single cause. (4) Statistics must be related to some field of inquiry. (5) Statistics should be
capable of being related to each other, so that some cause and effect relationship can be
established. (6) The reasonable standard of accuracy should be maintained in statistics.
Importance of Bio-statistics (1) Statistics help in presenting large quantity of data in a simple
and grouped form. (2) It gives the methods of comparison of data. (3) In enlarges individual
mind. (4) It helps in finding the conditions of relationship between the variables. (5) It proves
useful in almost every sphere of human activities.

Research design/ study design:

Approaches for RD
Treatment:
Control groups
Replication
Research design
Field based:

Lab based:

Two approaches for processing information:

Central tendency:
Dispersion:
Types of statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe data. They
include measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode) and measures of dispersion
(e.g., range, variance, standard deviation). Descriptive statistics provide a quick overview of the
data.
Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics involve making predictions or inferences about a
population based on a sample of data. This includes hypothesis testing, confidence intervals,
and regression analysis.
 Terms Basic statistical terms: Population, Sample, Data. Observation. Parameter and
Statistic. Characteristic. Attribute/Variable. Statistical error. Subscript and summations.
Functions of statistics. Array. Class interval, Class size, Class mark. Freq. distribution

MEASUREMENT AND MEASUREMENT SCALES

SAMPLING AND STATISTICAL INFERENCE

Statistical inference is the procedure by which we reach a conclusion about a population on the
basis of the information contained in a sample that has been drawn from that population
If a sample of size n is drawn from a population of size N in such a way that every possible
sample of size n has the same chance of being selected, the sample is called a simple random
sample

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

The scientific method is a process by which scientific information is collected, analyzed, and
reported in order to produce unbiased and replicable results in an effort to provide an accurate
representation of observable phenomena.
A research study is a scientific study of a phenomenon of interest. Research studies involve
designing sampling protocols, collecting and analyzing data, and providing valid conclusions
based on the results of the analyze
Experiments are a special type of research study in which observations are made after specific
manipulations of conditions have been carried out; they provide the foundation for scientific
research
 Ch. 2 Probability and counting rules

Statistics:

Probability and counting rules are fundamental concepts in statistics and probability theory that
help in quantifying uncertainty and determining the likelihood of various events. Here's an
overview of probability and some of the key counting rules:
Probability: Probability is a measure of the likelihood of an event occurring. It's expressed as a
number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents an impossible event, and 1 represents a certain
event. The probability of an event is denoted as P(A), where "A" is the event.
Sample Space (S): The set of all possible outcomes of the experiment. This is the entire range
of what could happen. For example, when rolling a fair six-sided die, the sample space is {1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6}.
Event (E): A subset of the sample space, which represents a specific outcome or a combination
of outcomes of interest. Events can be as simple as "rolling a 3" or more complex like "rolling
an even number."
Simple event vs compound event:

Probability (P): A measure of the likelihood of an event occurring. It's usually a number
between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates an impossible event, and 1 indicates a certain event. The
probability of an event E is denoted as P(E).
Randomness or Uncertainty: The key feature of a probability experiment is that the outcome
is uncertain, and you cannot predict it with absolute certainty. Instead, you can assign
probabilities to various outcomes based on knowledge or observations.
An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment.
Types of probability
Classical Probability: Classical probability, also known as a priori probability, is based on the
assumption that all outcomes in a sample space are equally likely. It is often used for simple,
well-defined experiments, such as rolling a fair six-sided die or flipping a fair coin.

Empirical Probability: Empirical probability, or experimental probability, is based on

observations and data collected from experiments or real-world events. It involves calculating
the probability of an event by counting the number of times it occurs in a sample and dividing
by the total number of observations.

Subjective Probability: Subjective probability is based on an individual's personal judgment,

experience, or belief regarding the likelihood of an event. It is subjective and varies from person
to person. Subjective probability is often used in decision-making under uncertainty.

The complement of an event E is the set of outcomes in the sample space that are not included
in the outcomes of event E. The complement of E is denoted by (read “E bar”)
Outcome representation:
A tree diagram is a device consisting of line segments emanating from a starting point and also
from the outcome point. It is used to determine all possible outcomes of a probability
experiment
Van diagram:

Chart :

Event vs outcome:

Simple event vs compound event:

Additional rules:
1. When two events A and B are mutually exclusive, the probability that A or B will occur
is
Two events are mutually exclusive events or disjoint events if they cannot occur at the same
time (i.e., they have no outcomes in common

2. If A and B are not mutually exclusive, then

 Ch 3 hypothesis testing
Hypothesis testing is a fundamental concept in biostatistics, which is the application of
statistical methods to biological and health-related data. It involves making inferences about
population parameters based on sample data. Here's an overview of hypothesis testing in the
context of biostatistics
A statistical hypothesis is a conjecture about a population parameter. This conjecture may or
may not be true.
In hypothesis testing, several basic terms are commonly used to describe the process and
results. Here are some key terms:
Null Hypothesis (H0): The default or status quo hypothesis. It typically represents the absence
of an effect, no difference, or no change in the population.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H1): The hypothesis that contradicts the null hypothesis. It
suggests the presence of an effect, a difference, or a change in the population.
Significance Level (α): The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true.
Commonly set at 0.05 or 5%, but other values like 0.01 are also used.
Type I Error (α): Occurs when the null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected. The probability of
making a Type I error is equal to the chosen significance level (α).
Type II Error (β): Occurs when the null hypothesis is incorrectly not rejected when it is false.
The probability of making a Type II error is denoted by β.
Power of the Test (1 - β): The probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis. Power
increases with sample size and effect size.
Test Statistic: A numerical summary of the data that is used to decide whether to reject the null
hypothesis. The choice of test statistic depends on the type of data and the hypothesis being
tested.
Critical Region (or Rejection Region): The set of values of the test statistic that leads to the
rejection of the null hypothesis. It is determined based on the chosen significance level.
The noncritical or non-rejection region is the range of test values that indicates that the
difference was probably due to chance and that the null hypothesis should not be rejected
P-value: The probability of observing a test statistic as extreme as, or more extreme than, the
one calculated from the sample data, assuming the null hypothesis is true. A smaller p-value
suggests stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.
Confidence Interval: An interval estimate that provides a range of plausible values for the
population parameter. If the interval includes the null hypothesis value, it suggests that the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected
The level of significance is the maximum probability of committing a type I error. This
probability is symbolized by a (Greek letter alpha). That is, P(type I error)
The choice of a statistical test in biostatistics depends on various factors, including the type of
data you have (categorical or continuous), the number of groups or variables you are
comparing, and the specific hypothesis you want to investigate. Here are some common types
of tests used in biostatistics:
1. T-Tests:
Independent Samples T-Test: Used to compare means between two independent groups.
Paired Samples T-Test: Compares means between two related groups (e.g., pre- and post-
treatment measurements).
2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA):
One-Way ANOVA: Used when comparing means across more than two independent groups.
Two-Way ANOVA: Extends the one-way ANOVA to two independent variables.
3. Chi-Square Test:
Chi-Square Test for Independence: Used to examine the association between two categorical
variables
4. Regression Analysis:
Linear Regression: Investigates the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables.
Logistic Regression: Used when the dependent variable is binary (e.g., presence or absence of
a disease).
5. Survival Analysis:
Kaplan-Meier Survival Analysis: Estimates the survival function from lifetime data.
Cox Proportional-Hazards Model: Examines the relationship between survival time and
covariates.
6. Nonparametric Tests:
Mann-Whitney U Test: Nonparametric alternative to the independent samples t-test.
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test: Nonparametric alternative to the paired samples t-test.
Kruskal-Wallis Test: Nonparametric alternative to one-way ANOVA.
7. Correlation Tests:
Pearson Correlation Coefficient: Measures the linear relationship between two continuous
variables.
Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient: Nonparametric measure of association for ordinal
variables.
8. Diagnostic Tests:
Sensitivity and Specificity Analysis: Commonly used in diagnostic testing to evaluate the
performance of a test or screening procedure.
9. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA):
Combines aspects of both ANOVA and regression, adjusting for one or more continuous
covariates.
10.Repeated Measures Analysis:
Used when measurements are taken on the same subjects over multiple time points or
conditions.
11.Bayesian Methods: Bayesian statistical methods can be applied to update prior beliefs
based on new data and provide posterior probability distributions.
Steps in hypothesis testing:
Solving Hypothesis-Testing Problems (Traditional Steps
Method
Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
Step 2 Find the critical value(s) from the appropriate table
in Appendix A.
Step 3 Compute the test value.
Step 4 Make the decision to reject or not reject the null
hypothesis.
Step 5 Summarize the results.
Chi square