This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been

fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/TPEL.2014.2382565, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics

Virtual-Impedance-Based Control for

Voltage-Source and Current-Source Converters
Xiongfei Wang, Member IEEE, Yunwei Li, Senior Member IEEE, Frede Blaabjerg, Fellow IEEE, and
Poh Chiang Loh


Abstract—The virtual impedance concept is increasingly used control [16], sliding mode control [17], and Lyapunov-based
for the control of power electronic systems. Generally, the virtual control [18], etc. Those nonlinear control schemes may exhibit
impedance loop can either be embedded as an additional degree of a superior transient response and a globally stable behavior. Yet
freedom for active stabilization and disturbance rejection, or be
employed as a command reference generator for the converters to
they are at times compromised by their complex computations
provide ancillary services. This paper presents an overview of the and parametric sensitivities.
virtual-impedance-based control strategies for voltage-source and The virtual-impedance-based control schemes, among other
current-source converters. The control output impedance shaping linear control alternatives, provide an attractive way to shape
attained by the virtual impedances is generalized first using the the dynamic profiles of converters. The virtual impedance is in
impedance-based models. Different virtual impedances and their essence a lossless circuit-oriented control concept. It reveals the
implementation issues are then discussed. A number of practical
examples are demonstrated to illustrate the feasibility of virtual
physical insight into the different feedback/feedforward control
impedances. Emerging applications and future trends of virtual loops. The early attempt to use the virtual impedance concept
impedances in power electronic systems conclude this paper. can be found in the current mode control of DC-DC converter,
where the inner current control loop actually provides a virtual
Index Terms—Virtual impedance, voltage-source converter, series damping impedance with the output LC-filter [14].
current-source converter, active stabilization, fault ride-through, Over the last years, the virtual impedances are increasingly
power flow control, harmonic/unbalance compensation employed for controlling VSCs and CSCs, mainly driven by the
fast-growing renewable power generation systems and energy-
efficient loads in electrical grids. By shaping the control output
I. INTRODUCTION
impedance, the virtual impedance can not only be used for the

P OWER electronics is emerging as an enabling technology

to modernize electric power systems with the sustainability,
flexibility, and high efficiency [1]. Voltage-source converters
power flow control [56]-[64], but enable converters to provide
ancillary services, such as grid fault/disturbance ride-through
[84]-[88], harmonic/unbalance compensation [70]-[83], and the
(VSCs) and current-source converters (CSCs) are commonly programmable impedances [65]-[69]. Furthermore, the virtual
used in renewable energy systems [2], [3], variable-speed impedances can also improve the stability robustness of the
drives [4], flexible alternating current transmission system converters against the different grid/load conditions [19]-[55].
(FACTS) devices [5], high-voltage direct current transmission This function is getting more important in the emerging power
systems [6], and emerging micro-grids [7]. The increasing use electronics based power systems, where the interactions among
of VSCs can also be found in the transportation electrification, the control loops of the converters, passive filters, and other
e.g. electric automobiles [8], electric railways [9], shipboard reactive components may cause instability phenomena over a
power systems [10], and more electric aircrafts [11]. wide frequency range [24]. Another common application of the
Recent advances in power semiconductors and digital signal virtual impedances is the improved load sharing among the
processors are propelling the progress of control techniques for paralleled converters, such as paralleled uninterruptible power
power electronic converters. Numerous control strategies have supplies [77], and Distributed Generation (DG) units [81].
been developed ranging from the classical linear control system The virtual impedances are generally implemented based on
with single or multiple feedback/feedforward loops [12]-[15], the feedback of output filter states and/or the feedforward of the
to the nonlinear control methods, such as feedback linearization disturbance variables. The controllers within those loops can be
designed by a proportional term [36], [37], or the filter-based
Manuscript received June 6, 2014; revised September 15, 2014; accepted terms [38]-[41], for synthesizing different virtual impedances.
November 24, 2014. This work was supported by European Research Council Depending on the structures of the virtual impedance loops, the
(ERC) under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program
(FP7/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement no. [321149-Harmony]. characteristics of virtual impedances may be influenced by the
X. Wang, F. Blaabjerg, and P. C. Loh are with the Department of Energy time delays induced by the digital computation and pulse-width
Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark (e-mail: modulation (PWM) [44]-[49], and be subject to the dynamics
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]).
Y. W. Li is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
of the ac current/voltage control loops [49]-[51].
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada (e-mail: This paper reviews first the virtual impedance configurations
[email protected]).

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within the general control structures for VSCs and CSCs. The
shaping of control output impedances of the converters by the
virtual impedances are then illustrated, and a classification of
the virtual impedances in respect to their functions is presented.
This is followed by a discussion of different virtual impedance
controllers and their implementation issues. Further on, a series
of practical examples are demonstrated to show the feasibility
of virtual impedances. Lastly, emerging applications and future
trends of the virtual impedances are discussed.

II. GENERAL CONTROL STRUCTURES WITH VIRTUAL

IMPEDANCE CONFIGURATIONS *
* *
Fig. 1 shows the general control structures for three-phase
VSCs with LCL-/LC-filters. The LCL-filtered VSC operates as
a current source, which is given in Fig. 1 (a). The grid current ig * * *

is controlled by a current controller Gci(s), the dc-link voltage

Vdc is regulated as constant using a Proportional Integral (PI) (a)
controller. A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is employed for grid
synchronization at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC).
The LC-filtered VSC is controlled to behave like a voltage
source, which can operate in both grid-connected and islanded
modes, as shown in Fig. 1 (b). In this case, a constant dc-link
voltage is assumed, the PCC voltage is regulated by the voltage
controller Gcv(s), the active and reactive power are controlled
either using the active power synchronization and the PI-based
reactive power control [21], or by the active power-frequency
(P-ω) and reactive power-voltage (Q-V) droop control [7].
Generally, two virtual impedance loops can be configured to * *
shape the control output impedance.
1) The inner virtual impedance Zvi(s), which is directly
applied to the PWM modulator and is thus influenced *
*
by the time delays of the digital control system. It can *

either be based on the feedforward of the disturbance

variables with the controller Gvi,1(s), or be realized by
(b)
the feedback of filter states with the controller Gvi,2(s).
2) The outer virtual impedance Zvo(s), which modifies the Fig. 1. General current and voltage control systems with the virtual impedance
configurations for (a) LCL-filtered VSC, and (b) LC-filtered VSC.
reference of the ac current/voltage controller by using
the feedback of disturbance variable Gvo(s). Hence, it
is subject to the dynamics of ac current/voltage control
loops.
Fig. 2 illustrates a general control structure for three-phase
CL-filtered CSCs, which is controlled as a current source by the
controller Gci(s). The dc-link current idc is controlled as constant
by a PI controller, and a PLL is also used for synchronizing the
PCC voltage. According to the duality between the LC-filtered
VSCs and CL-filtered CSCs [13], i.e. iLf(VSC) → VCf(CSC), VLf(VSC)
→ iCf(CSC), VCf(VSC) → ig(CSC) , iCf(VSC) → VLf(CSC), the virtual
impedance loops based on the feedbacks of CL-filter states can
be readily formulated. Moreover, since the grid current is also *
controlled like LCL-filtered VSCs, the outer virtual impedance,
* *
which is based on the feedback of the disturbance variable, can
be configured in the same way as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
* * *
III. SHAPING OF CONTROL OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
The small-signal models of VSCs and CSCs are required to Fig. 2. General current control system with the virtual impedance configuration
illustrate the shaping of the control output impedance by virtual for CL-filtered CSCs.

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
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impedances. However, to account for the dynamics of the PLL,

the dc-link voltage/current control loop, and the active/reactive
power control loop, the multiple-input multiple-output transfer
matrices derived in the rotating dq-frame are usually demanded
* *
[19]-[21], which consequently complicate the syntheses of the
virtual impedances.
To facilitate the derivation of the impedance-based models,
the harmonic linearization model [22], and the reduced-order
d-q model [23] are reported to be used. However, most of the
virtual impedances are merely configured with the ac current or
voltage control loops, where only the ac filters are involved. (a)
The systems can thus be represented by the single-input single- ig
output (SISO) transfer functions in the stationary αβ-frame Zo(s)
[24]-[26], or the complex transfer functions in the rotating dq-
Gvo(s) Gvi,1(s)
frame [20]. Therefore, only the closed-loop dynamics of the ac
*
Vpccv
current and/or voltage control loops are accounted to illustrate *
Vpcc VM Vpcc
Gcv(s) Gd(s) Zp(s)
the influences of virtual impedances.
Fig. 3 shows the general diagrams for the ac current control
i/V
loop of the LCL-filtered VSCs and CL-filtered CSCs, and the ac Gvi,2(s) Gfv(s)
voltage control loop of the LC-filtered VSCs. Both the inner
and the outer virtual impedance controllers are included. Gfv(s)
denotes the transfer function from the grid current or the PCC (b)
voltage to the filter states, which are fed back in the inner Fig. 3. Block diagrams for the ac current/voltage control loops of converters.
virtual impedance loop. Gd(s) represents the time delays (a) Current control loop for LCL-filtered VSCs and the CL-filtered CSCs. (b)
inherited from the digital control system, which include one Voltage control loop for LC-filtered VSCs.
sampling period of computation delay as the worst case, and the
zero-order hold equivalent of the PWM effect. It can thus be
approximated as [27]:
*
Gd ( s )  e 1.5Ts s (1)

where Ts is the sampling period of the control system. Yp(s) and

Zp(s) are the transfer functions from the modulated current and
(a)
voltage to the output current and voltage, Yo(s) and Zo(s) are the
open-loop output admittance and impedance, respectively. The
closed-loop dynamics of systems are thus derived as follows:
*
Gci ( s )Gd ( s )Y p ( s )
Gcli ( s ) 
1  Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s )Y p ( s )G fv ( s )  Gci ( s )Gd ( s )Y p ( s )
(2)
(b)
Yo ( s )  Gvi ,1 ( s )Gd ( s )Y p ( s )
Yoc ( s )  Fig. 4. Impedance-based equivalent circuits for ac current and voltage control
1  Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s )Y p ( s )G fv ( s )  Gci ( s )Gd ( s )Y p ( s ) loops of converters. (a) Current-controlled, LCL-filtered VSCs and CL-filtered
CSCs, and (b) Voltage-controlled, LC-filtered VSCs.
(3)
Z o ( s )  Gvi ,1 ( s )Gd ( s ) Z p ( s )
ig  Gcli ( s) ig*  Gvo ( s)Vpcc   Yoc ( s)Vpcc Z oc ( s ) 
(4) 1  Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s ) Z p ( s )G fv ( s )  Gcv ( s )Gd ( s ) Z p ( s )
 Gcli ( s)i  Gcli ( s)Gvo ( s)  Yoc ( s)Vpcc
*
g (6)

Gcv ( s )Gd ( s ) Z p ( s ) Vpcc  Gclv ( s) Vpcc

*
 Gvo ( s)ig   Zoc ( s)ig
Gclv ( s )  (7)
1  Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s ) Z p ( s )G fv ( s )  Gcv ( s )Gd ( s ) Z p ( s )  Gclv ( s)Vpcc
*
 Gclv ( s)Gvo ( s)  Zoc ( s) ig
(5)
where Gcli(s) and Gclv(s) are the closed-loop transfer function of
ac current and voltage control loops, Yoc(s) and Zoc(s) are the

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closed-loop output admittance and impedance, respectively. [30]-[54]. The inner virtual impedance controllers are
Based on (4) and (7), the impedance-based models for the ac mainly used for performing this function, since the
current and voltage control loops can be drawn in Fig. 4 (a) and outer virtual impedance loop is influenced by the
(b), respectively. It can be seen that the outer virtual impedance bandwidth of the ac current/voltage control loop [31].
controller Gvo(s) takes no effect on Yoc(s) and Zoc(s). Instead, it The virtual impedances for power flow control are generally
synthesizes an admittance Yov(s) = Gcli(s)Gvo(s) in parallel with realized by the outer virtual impedance controller. At the steady
Yoc(s), and an impedance Zov(s) = Gclv(s)Gvo(s) in series with state, they can be employed to reduce the coupling between the
Zoc(s). Both of them are affected by the closed-loop responses active and reactive power flows in the low-voltage distribution
of the control loops Gcli(s) and Gclv(s). grids, and to improve the accuracy of reactive power sharing in
In contrast, the inner virtual impedance controllers Gvi,1(s) the paralleled, droop-controlled VSCs [55]-[63]. During the
and Gvi,2(s) have important effects on Yoc(s) and Zoc(s). From (3) transients, the virtual impedance can also enhance the dynamic
and (6), it is known that Gvi,1(s), which is with the feedforward performance of power controllers, and particularly the PI-based
of the disturbance variable forms an admittance in parallel with reactive power control of converters [58], [63]. In addition, the
Yo(s) and an impedance in series with Zo(s), while Gvi,2(s) that is virtual impedances can also be used as the command reference
based on the feedback of filter states affects the open-loop gains generators for converters to function as FACTS devices, which
of the control loops, which are depicted in (2) and (5). behave as the programmable impedances. Different synthesis
Further on, from Fig. 4, the closed-loop responses for the ac techniques have been developed for emulating the inductance
current/voltage control loop including the grid/load impedance [66], capacitance [64], and negative inductance [65]-[68].
can be derived in the following as: The harmonic/unbalance compensation is another important
function of virtual impedances. They can be used for reducing
Yeg ( s ) Yto ( s ) the harmonic/unbalance in the converter current or grid voltage
ig  Gcli ( s )ig*  Vg (8) [69]-[75], and for sharing the nonlinear and unbalanced loads in
Yto ( s )  Yeg ( s ) Yto ( s )  Yeg ( s )
the paralleled converters [76]-[82]. Similarly to the variable
impedance for power control, the variable impedances at the
1 1 harmonic frequencies and the negative-sequence can also be
Yeg ( s )   , Yto ( s )  Yoc ( s )  Gcli ( s )Gvo ( s ) (9)
Z L ( s) Z g ( s) synthesized by the virtual impedance controllers, which can be
either frequency- and sequence-dependent [76], [80], or purely
Z eg ( s ) Z to ( s ) resistive [78]-[79], [81]. In most of the cases, the outer virtual
V pcc  *
Gclv ( s )V pcc  ig (10) impedance controller is used for the harmonic or unbalanced
Z to ( s )  Z eg ( s ) Z to ( s )  Z eg ( s )
voltage mitigation, and the sharing of nonlinear and unbalanced
loads in the power systems. They are, however, limited to the
1 bandwidth of the ac current/voltage control loops. Hence, for
Z eg ( s )  , Z to ( s )  Z oc ( s )  Gclv ( s )Gvo ( s ) (11)
Yeg ( s ) high-power converters with the low pulse-ratios, the inner
virtual impedance controllers are usually preferred for the
Thus, if the converters are designed stable under the zero load voltage or current harmonics compensation [69]-[71].
conditions, i.e. the short-circuit at the PCC in Fig. 4 (a), and the Further on, the virtual impedances can also be used for fault
open-circuit at the PCC in Fig. 4 (b), the system stability will be current limiting under the grid fault or overload conditions
determined by a minor feedback loop, which is composed by [83]-[87], and for mitigating the inrush current in the step-up or
the total output admittance or impedance of the converter, Yto(s) step-down transformers of grid converters [88]. The current
or Zto(s), and the equivalent grid admittance or impedance seen limiting is of particular importance for riding through the grid
at the PCC, Yeg(s) or Zeg(s) [25]. faults and overloads. The current limiting is usually realized by
the current reference saturation limiter, which, however, may
IV. FUNCTIONS OF VIRTUAL IMPEDANCES lead to a loss of voltage control and the consequent instability
problem for the converters with a multiloop voltage control
Fig. 5 presents a classification of the virtual impedances in system [83]. Hence, to prevent the excessive current reference
respect to their functions, which comprises four major groups: generated by the voltage controller, the virtual impedance is
active stabilization, power flow control, harmonic/unbalance used to reduce the voltage reference. Besides the fault current
compensation, and fault ride-through. limiting for the converter itself, the virtual impedances can also
The virtual impedances for active stabilization can further be make converters function as a fault current limiter [85], [86],
classified as two types with regard to the oscillation frequency. which can further be integrated with the dynamic voltage
1) Damping of the subsynchronous oscillations caused restorer for the emergency control in distribution grids [87].
by the PLL [19]-[22], the dc-link voltage control [23], The inrush current in the step-up or step-down transformers
and the active/reactive power control loops [28]-[30]. of converters is another challenge for grid fault ride-through.
These virtual impedances can be realized by either the During the grid faults, the grid sag results in a decrease of the
inner or outer virtual impedance controllers. magnetic flux in the transformer, which may cause a dc offset
2) Mitigation of the harmonic instability resulting from in the magnetic flux, and the resulting inrush current when the
the ac current and/or voltage control loops [24]-[26], grid voltage restores to the normal level [88], [89]. In [88], a

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Fig. 5. A classification of virtual impedances for VSCs and CSCs in respect to their functions.

virtual resistance synthesized by the feedback of the dc current

components at both sides of transformer is introduced to speed
up the reduction of dc magnetic flux during the fault. It is
implemented in the inner virtual impedance loop.
* *
V. IMPLEMENTATION OF OUTER VIRTUAL IMPEDANCE
CONTROLLER
This section summarizes first the different forms of the outer
virtual impedance controller Gvo(s). The implementation issues
with the outer virtual impedance loop are then discussed. Fig. 6. General form of the outer virtual impedance controller Gvo(s) for the
voltage-controlled, LC-filtered VSCs.
A. Voltage-Controlled Converters
Fig. 6 shows a general form of the outer virtual impedance
controller for the voltage-controlled, LC-filtered VSCs, which
is a proportional-derivative controller:

Gvo ( s)  Rv  sLv . (12)

It can be implemented in different ways depending on the

expected functions, which are summarized in the following: Fig. 7. Simplified Thevenin equivalent circuit of the voltage-controlled VSCs
1) A virtual resistance for damping subsynchronous for power flow analysis.
oscillations [30], [58]-[61].
2) A virtual negative resistance or virtual inductance for analysis [58], or through the impedance-based stability analysis
the decoupling of active and reactive power flows, and given in (10) and (11) [25]. According to the frequency-domain
the improved reactive power sharing in the paralleled passivity theory [26], the system will be kept stable, provided
converters [55]-[63]. that the impedances in (10) are passive:
3) A virtual negative inductance for FACTS controllers 1) Zto(s) and Zeg(s) have no Right Half-Plane (RHP)
[64]-[68]. poles.
4) A virtual resistance for damping low-order harmonics 2) Zto(jω) and Zeg(jω) have non-negative real parts below
in distribution power systems [72], and sharing the the fundamental frequency.
nonlinear loads in the paralleled converters [77]-[79]. Thus, a virtual positive resistance can be chosen based on the
5) Selective virtual harmonic inductances, either positive passivity of Zto(s) to dampen subsynchronous oscillations.
or negative, for sharing nonlinear loads or mitigating To illustrate the effect of Gvo(s) on the active/reactive power
harmonic voltages [76], [80]. flows, a simplified equivalent circuit of Fig. 4 (a) is shown in
6) A virtual negative-sequence resistance for reducing Fig. 7, where the powers flowing from the VSC to the ac grid
unbalanced grid voltage or sharing unbalanced loads are derived as follows:
in microgrids [81], [82].
7) Adaptive virtual impedance for limiting current under VG
grid fault or overloads [58], [83]-[88]. P VCON cos   VG  cos   VCON sin  sin   (13)
Z 
The virtual resistance for the damping of the subsynchronous
oscillations can be designed either by means of the root locus

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VG
Q VCON cos   VG  sin   VCON sin  cos   (14)
Z  *

Z  Z to ( j1 )  Z eg ( j1 )
(15)
  arg{Z to ( j1 )  Z eg ( j1 )}

where VCON and VG are the magnitudes of the converter output

voltage and grid voltage at the fundamental frequency. δ is the
phase difference between the VSC and grid. Z and θ are the
magnitude and phase angle of the coupling impedance at the
fundamental frequency, which includes Zto(jω1) and Zeg(jω1) Fig. 8. General form of the outer virtual impedance controller Gvo(s) for the
with ω1 being the fundamental frequency. voltage-controlled, LC-filtered VSCs [83].
In the cases that the coupling impedance is mainly inductive,
(13) and (14) can be simplified to
the BPF, ωa is designed as lower than the fundamental
frequency.
VGVCON sin 
P (16) 2) A proportional controller, which synthesizes a virtual
Z conductance, is applied for the mitigation of harmonic
instability in the LCL-filtered VSCs [31], or the power
VG VCON cos   VG  system harmonics damping by the LC-filtered VSCs
Q (17)
Z [72], as given in Fig. 9 (b). However, its performance
is limited to the bandwidth of the current control loop.
Consequently, the power flows can be determined by the phase 3) Instead of virtual inductive impedance for the voltage-
difference δ and the voltage magnitudes. Moreover, the phase controlled VSCs, a proportional-derivative controller
difference δ is usually small, which implies that P and Q can be forms a virtual capacitive admittance, as shown in Fig.
separately controlled by δ and voltage magnitude difference, 9 (c), and a proportional-integral controller emulates a
and thus the P-ω and Q-V droops can be used for power sharing virtual inductive admittance, as depicted in Fig. 9 (d).
in the paralleled converters [55]-[61]. However, in distribution Those virtual admittances have been used as FACTS
systems, the R/X ratio of the line impedance is relatively high, controllers [66], [67]. Similarly, the selective virtual
which leads to a non-negligible effect of θ [55]. Hence, either harmonic capacitances can also be synthesized, which
the virtual inductance can be applied to adjust the phase angle are in parallel with the filter capacitor for reducing the
of the coupling impedance. In addition, the dynamically tuned low-order harmonic voltages or shifting the resonance
virtual inductance with or without communication links are frequencies [32].
also developed to improve the sharing of reactive power in the It is worth to note that both voltage and current controllers,
paralleled converters [56], [57]. Gcv(s) and Gci(s), play a critical role in the synthesis of the outer
Fig. 8 depicts an adaptive virtual impedance control scheme virtual impedance. A zero closed-loop tracking error is usually
to ride-through grid/load disturbance. Unlike Fig. 6, a converter needed to configure virtual impedances as expected. Hence, the
current control loop is used to synthesize the virtual impedance multiple resonant current controllers at the selective harmonic
[83]-[86], since the use of grid current may cause unexpected frequencies are generally adopted for emulating the sequence-
oscillations [83]. Gfv(s) is an equivalent transfer function from and frequency-dependent virtual impedances.
the PCC voltage Vpcc to the converter current iLf. Besides the
C. Derivative-Less Implementation of Gvo(s)
steady-state virtual impedance given in (12), an adaptive virtual
impedance term is added for current limiting, which is based on It is noted from (12) and Fig. 9 (c) that a derivative control is
a comparison between the magnitude of the converter current involved for realizing the virtual inductance with the voltage
|iLf| and a threshold current value iTH. control loop and the virtual capacitance in the current control
loop. However, due to the amplified measurement noises, the
B. Current-Controlled Converters derivative controller is rarely used in practice. Instead, several
The current-controlled converters include the LCL-/LC-filte- derivative-less control techniques have been developed, which
red VSCs and CL-filtered CSCs, as shown in Fig. 1 (a) and Fig. are next illustrated for configuring the virtual inductance with
2. Various forms of the outer virtual impedance controller have the voltage-controlled converters. They can also be used for the
been implemented for the current-controlled converter, which synthesis of the virtual capacitance with the current-controlled
are mostly designed with the converter current control loop for converters.
the LCL-/LC-filtered VSCs. A brief discussion of these control 1) Low-Pass Filtered (LPF)-Derivative Controller: A simple
schemes is given below: way is to insert an LPF in series with the derivative controller to
1) A Band-Pass Filter (BPF) is used with the feedforward attenuate the noises, as shown in Fig. 10 (a) [60]. This method
of disturbance variable, i.e. the filter capacitor voltage works well for the loads with a smooth current waveform, while
[28], as shown in Fig. 9 (a). The center frequency of it may induce high output voltage spikes in the presence of the

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* (a)

(a) (b)

ig *
Vpccv
ωcs
Rv + jω1Lv
s+ωc
(c)
*
*

(b)

VCf
Yo(s)
1
+ sCv Gvo(s)
Rv
*
iLf VM iLf *
Gci(s) Gd(s) Yp(s)

(d)

Fig. 10. Derivative-less forms of outer virtual impedance controller Gvo(s). (a)
(c) LPF-based derivative controller. (b) Algebraic approximation. (3) Transient
virtual impedance. (d) Cross-coupling feedback of current vector.
VCf
Yo(s)
(d) [58], [60]. However, this algebraic-type virtual inductance
1 1 is merely a steady-state or quasi-stationary approximation, and
+ G (s)
Rv sLv vo only takes effect at the fundamental frequency. Hence, multiple
*
iLf VM iLf cross-coupling feedback controllers that are individually tuned
Gci(s) Gd(s) Yp(s) at the low-order harmonics are required for sharing nonlinear
loads in the paralleled converters [76], [80].
3) Transient Virtual Impedance: As a continuation of the
algebraic-type virtual impedance, a transient virtual impedance
(d) controller is recently introduced, which integrates a High-Pass
Filter (HPF), as shown in Fig. 10 (c) [83]. It features with the
Fig. 9. Outer virtual impedance controllers for the converter current control of
LCL-/LC-filtered VSCs. (a) Band-pass filter. (b) Proportional controller. (c) zero voltage drops on the virtual impedance at the steady-state,
Proportional derivative controller. (d) Proportional integral controller. but with the required transient damping effect. This method is
thus more suitable for damping subsynchronous resonance and
nonlinear loads with a high slew rate [61]. Moreover, the phase transient load sharing. Yet it is limited for P-Q decoupling, and
shift caused by the LPF may change the characteristic of virtual the Q sharing in paralleled converters at the steady-state.
impedance. A higher cut-off frequency can be used to obtain a 4) Virtual-Flux-Based Virtual Impedance: The virtual flux
more accurate virtual inductance, but it deteriorates the output concept, which is based on the integral of the voltage, provides
voltage distortions [63]. another way to avoid using derivative controller. Fig. 11 shows
2) Algebraic-Type Virtual Inductance: Another method is the virtual-flux-based control diagram. The virtual inductance
the algebraic approximation of virtual inductance by replacing is implemented by a proportional controller, which is based on
the derivative term “s” with “jω1”, as shown in Fig. 10 (b). This (18) and (19) [38], [62].
approach is easy to implement in three-phase systems, since the
phase shift of virtual inductance can be readily attained by the
pcc (t )   Vpcc (t )dt (18)
cross-coupling feedback of current vector, as shown in Fig. 10

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where ZLg(s) is the impedance of grid-side inductor.

VI. IMPLEMENTATION OF INNER VIRTUAL IMPEDANCE

CONTROLLER
* * *
This section discusses the different forms of the inner virtual
impedance controllers, Gvi,1(s) and Gvi,2(s), shown in Figs. 1 to
3, and a particular attention is given to the current-controlled
converters. The influences of time delays on the inner virtual
impedance loop are also analyzed.
Fig. 11. Virtual-flux-based virtual impedance.
A. Shaping of Filter “Plant”
For the voltage-controlled converters, the controller Gvi,1(s)
within the disturbance feedforward loop is rarely used, whereas
the controller Gvi,2(s) based on the state feedback is equivalent
to the inner current control loop of a multiloop voltage control
scheme [13], [50]. Therefore, only the inner virtual impedance
(a) controllers for the current-controlled converters are discussed
in the following.
ZLg(s) Fig. 13 details the block diagrams of the converter and grid
Zoc(s)
current control loops for the LCL-filtered VSCs. The converter
Gclv(s)VCf* Vpcc current iLf, filter capacitor voltage and current, VCf and iCf, and
grid current ig, have commonly been used with the inner virtual
impedance control loops. A systematic derivation of the virtual
resistors based on the feedback of filter states is shown in [34],
*
VCf [35], where a mapping between those virtual resistors and the
Gb
passive damping resistors is made. However, it only applies to
(b)
the grid current control loop, since the filter capacitor voltage
and current are actually the disturbance variables instead of the
Fig. 12. Bootstrap virtual impedance. (a) Circuit diagram of voltage-controlled,
LCL-filtered VSCs. (b) Thevenin Equivalent circuit.
states of the filter “plant” when the converter current is control-
led. As shown in Fig. 13 (a), the filter “plant” of the converter
current control loop is merely the converter-side filter inductor,
while the feedback of filter capacitor voltage or current merely
pccv
*
(t )  Rv  ig (t )dt  Lvig (t ) (19) leads to a paralleled admittance with the open-loop admittance,
which has been illustrated in (3).
It is important to note that the pure integration of the measured To illustrate the shaping of filter “plant” by Gvi,2(s), the block
voltage may cause a saturation of the virtual flux because of the diagram algebra can be applied to Fig. 13, where the output of
potential dc-offset, which should be avoided. Gvi,2(s) is shifted to be subtracted from the modulated signal VM,
5) Bootstrap Virtual Impedance: The bootstrap impedance and thus the LCL-filter “plant” is shaped by Gvi,2(s)Gd(s). The
synthesis technique was firstly applied to the FACTS controller resulting equivalent circuits of the LCL-filter with the different
[68], which is later used for reducing the harmonic voltages at feedbacks of filter states are drawn in Fig. 14, among which the
the PCC of a voltage-controlled, LCL-filtered VSC [74]. The equivalent circuits for the feedbacks of converter current and
operation principle of the method is illustrated in Fig. 12, where filter capacitor voltage/current also apply to the LC-filters.
the filter capacitor voltage VCf is controlled by the feedback of Fig. 14 (a) shows that the feedback of the converter current
the PCC voltage instead of the grid current. The reference for forms a virtual impedance in series with the filter inductor Lf,
the filter capacitor voltage VCf* is given by which is Zvi,2L(s) = Gvi,2(s)Gd(s) [41], [42]. This equivalency can
be applied to either converter or grid current control loop. The
VCf*  GbVpcc (20) equivalent circuit based on the feedback of capacitor voltage or
current is given in Fig. 14 (b). A paralleled virtual impedance is
provided with the filter capacitor [43]-[47], which is given by
where Gb is the bootstrapping controller, which can be either a
real number for a virtual inductance and an imaginary number
Lf
for a virtual resistance, or a complex number for synthesizing a Z vi ,2Ci ( s ) 
virtual impedance. The resulting closed-loop output impedance Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s )C f
can thus be derived as (22)
sL f
Z vi ,2Cv ( s ) 
Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s )C f
Zoc ( s)  Z Lg ( s)
Zeq ( s)  (21)
1  Gclv ( s)Gb where Zvi,2Ci(s) is the virtual impedance based on the feedback

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(a)

(b)

Fig. 13. AC current control diagrams for VSCs with the feedbacks of the different filter states. (a) Converter current control (iLf). (b) Grid current control (ig).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 14. Equivalent circuits of LCL-filters with the inner virtual impedance controller Gvi,2(s) in the grid current control loop. (a) Converter current feedback (iLf). (b)
Capacitor voltage or current feedback in grid current control (VCf or iCf). (c) Grid current feedback (ig).

Fig. 15. AC current control diagram with the feedbacks of the different filter states for CL-filtered CSCs.

of capacitor current, and Zvi,2Cv(s) is the virtual impedance with This is derived by replacing the grid current with the voltage on
the feedback of capacitor voltage. They are obtained by shifting Lg, and moving the output of Gvi,2(s) to be subtracted by iLf [49].
the output of Gvi,2(s) to be subtracted by iLf, and replacing the Fig. 15 shows the current control diagram of the CL-filtered
capacitor current by capacitor voltage with a term sCf [43]. CSCs. The shaping of the CL-filter “plant” by Gvi,2(s) is readily
Fig. 14 (c) shows the equivalent filter “plant” based on the derived based on the duality between the CL-filtered CSCs and
feedback of the grid current, where the virtual impedance is in the LC-filtered VSCs, which are depicted in Fig. 16. As the dual
parallel with the grid-side filter inductor Lg [49]. of the converter current feedback in Fig. 14 (a), the capacitor
voltage feedback forms a virtual impedance in parallel with the
s 2 L f Lg capacitor [50]-[52], as shown in Fig. 16 (a). It is the reciprocal
Z vi ,2 g ( s )  (23) of Zvi,2L(s) in Fig. 14 (a), i.e. Zvi,2C(s) = 1/[(Gvi,2(s)Gd(s)].
Gvi ,2 ( s)Gd ( s)
Fig. 16 (b) shows the equivalent circuit for the feedback of
the grid current or filter inductor voltage [53], [54]. The virtual

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(a)

Fig. 17. LPF-based inner virtual impedance controller for the converter current
control loop.

stationary αβ-frame. In addition, the damping performance of

the lead-lag filter may also be degraded under a wide grid
impedance variation [38]. Although the second- or higher-order
(b)
digital filters can be used for Gvi,1(s) and Gvi,2(s), the time delays
Fig. 16. Equivalent circuits of CL-filters with the inner virtual impedance involved into the control loop will be increased proportionally
controller Gvi,2(s). (a) Capacitor voltage feedback. (b) Grid current feedback or to the filter order, which may not be suitable for the converters
grid-side inductor voltage feedback.
with a low sampling frequency [39].
impedances are in series with the filter inductor, which are the Further on, for the converters with a low sampling frequency,
reciprocals of the paralleled virtual impedances in Fig. 14 (b). Gvi,2(s) can also be used to reduce harmonic currents [69]-[71].
Fig. 18 illustrates an example of using Gvi,2(s) for the selective
harmonic current control in CSCs [69]. It is basically based on
Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s )C f
Z vi ,2 gi ( s )  the bootstrap virtual impedance concept [68], [74], where the
Lf bootstrapping controller Gbi is designed with an imaginary
(24)
Gvi ,2 ( s )Gd ( s )C f number for providing a virtual resistor. The Selective Harmonic
Z vi ,2 gv ( s )  Compensation (SHC)-PWM strategy is developed for realizing
sL f
the virtual impedance at harmonic frequencies. The SHC-PWM
is derived from the traditional Selective Harmonic Elimination
They are obtained by shifting the output of Gvi,2(s) to the output (SHE)-PWM. However, instead of removing certain harmonics
of 1/sCf, and replacing the inductor voltage VLf by grid current from the PWM waveform, SHC-PWM controls the harmonics
ig with the term sLf. together with Gbi. Therefore, an online SHC scheme is required
B. Design of Inner Virtual Impedance Controllers to track the PWM reference, which can be realized by a look-up
A wide variety of controllers have been applied in the inner table as shown in Fig. 18 [70], or with an online calculation of
virtual impedance control loop [26], [31]-[54]. Comparisons of the switching angle [71].
the proportional, derivative, and integral controllers, for Gvi,2(s) Fig. 19 shows the implementation of Gvi,2(s) for reducing the
in the grid current control loop [36], and Gvi,1(s) in the converter inrush current in the transformers of grid converters during grid
current control loop [37], have been carried out in detail. A fault [88]. To reduce the dc magnetic flux offset in the step-up
composite feedback control of two filter states is recently used or step-down transformer, when grid fault is cleared, a virtual
for CSCs to improve the transient damping performance [54]. dc resistance is configured by the feedbacks of the dc current
Besides these basic controllers, the LPF [26], and HPF [41], components on both sides of the transformer. The detection of
[47]-[53], as well as lead-lag filer [38]-[40], can also be used. the dc current components thus becomes critical for the virtual
Fig. 17 illustrates an LPF in Gvi,1(s) within the capacitor voltage impedance emulation. In this case, a second-order notch filter
feedback for stabilizing the converter current control loop [26], and an LPF are adopted, where the notch filter aims to trap the
where the LPF cut-off frequency can be below one-tenth of the fundamental component, and the LPF removes the ripple.
bandwidth of current control loop for damping subsynchronous C. Influences of Digital Computation and PWM Delays
oscillations, or be above the bandwidth of current control for The time delays involved in the digital control system, Gd(s),
mitigating harmonic instability. In [41], [50]-[52], the HPF is have important influences on the dynamics of the inner virtual
used in Gvi,2(s) for removing the fundamental component of the impedance loop and the ac current/voltage control loop. For the
feedback variable, i.e. the converter current of VSCs or the LCL-filtered VSCs, Gd(s) results in a negative real part of the
converter voltage of CSCs, such that the over-modulation with control output impedance of the converter current control loop,
the conventional proportional control in Gvi,2(s) can be avoided. which degrades the system stability robustness against the grid
However, it may degrade the transient response of the virtual impedance variation [48]. Yet, it furnishes an inherent damping
impedance loop [52]. The HPF is at times implemented in the in the grid current control loop, where no additional damping
rotating dq-frame, which is then equivalent to a notch filter in control is needed, provided that the LCL resonance frequency is
the stationary αβ-frame [50], [53]. Consequently, the emulated above one-sixth of the sampling frequency [44].
virtual impedance is different from implementing an HPF in the In [45], the influence of the time delays on the inner virtual

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* |
|iM5 Phase
-180o -175o ... SHC PWM
(Mag) Mag
ig5 *
iM5 0 [θsw1,...,θswn] [θsw1,...,θswn]
Gbi  (1,1) (1,2)

[θsw1,...,θswn] [θsw1,...,θswn]
0.002 (2,1) (2,2) PWM
* [θsw1,θsw2, ...θswn]
Gvi,2(s)  iM5

...
idc_ref (Phase) ..
.
[θsw1,...,θswn]
(i, j) (Switching Angles)

...
SHC look-up table

Fig. 18. Selective harmonic current compensation in CSCs by inner virtual impedance controller and SHC-PWM when a look-up table is used [70].

PCC Grid
Zg

Vdc Lf
Cf Vg
ZL
Load
iLf ig Vg
abc abc abc
αβ αβ αβ

Notch Notch
PWM &LPF &LPF
PLL

VMαβ θPLL
RV
Gvi,2(s) Zvi(s)
igαβ
*
igαβ
Gci(s) αβ
dq
Fig. 20. Relationship between the frequency for the virtual resistance being
Vdc* * negative and the cut-off frequency of the HPF [47].
igd i* =0
gq
PI
impedance is synthesized by the HPF. Together with the delay
Fig. 19. Inner virtual resistance for mitigating transformer inrush current of effect, the virtual impedance Zvi,2Ci(s) turns into
grid-connected converters [88].

impedance with the proportional feedback of capacitor current

Lf   
Z vi ,2Ci ( j )   cos(1.5Ts )  c sin(1.5Ts ) 
is discussed. By changing the exponential function of Gd(s) into kC f   
a trigonometric form, the virtual impedance Zvi,2Ci(s) in (22) is (27)
Lf   
derived as [46] j  sin(1.5Ts )  c cos(1.5Ts ) 
kC f   
Lf
Z vi ,2Ci ( j )  cos(1.5Ts )  j sin(1.5Ts ) (25) Compared to (25) based on the proportional capacitor current
Gvi ,2 ( j )C f feedback, the additional real and imaginary terms are added in
(27), which are tuned by the virtual capacitance. The frequency
It is clear that the virtual resistance formed by the proportional ωnr, above which the real part becomes negative, is determined
controller in Gvi,2(jω) is changed into a virtual impedance by the by the cut-off frequency of HPF ωc, rather than the sampling
time delays. This virtual impedance has a negative real part for frequency [47]. Fig. 20 plots the relationship between ωnr and
the frequencies above the one-sixth of the sampling frequency, ωc, where ωs is the sampling frequency in rad/s. It is seen that
which may result in a non-minimum phase response of the grid the frequency region of a positive virtual resistance is widened
current control. The imaginary part of this virtual impedance is as the increase of the HPF cut-off frequency. This HPF is
negative for the frequencies above the one-third of the sampling applied in the stationary αβ-frame, which can also be used in
frequency, which changes the actual LCL resonance frequency. the rotating dq-frame by using complex transfer functions.
To mitigate the non-minimum phase behavior of the control It is worth to note that the above analysis procedure can be
system, an HPF is used in Gvi,2(s) [47]. extended to the Gvi,2(s) based on the feedback of other filter
states. In [49], this method is used to analyze and design Gvi,2(s)
ks with a negative HPF-based feedback of grid current. It is found
Gvi ,2 ( s)  (26)
s  c that Gd(s) actually widens the frequency range of the positive
virtual resistance. The same applies to the HPF-based feedback
Consequently, instead of a virtual resistance, a virtual series RC of the grid current in the CL-filtered CSCs, which also explains
why a negative HPF is required for stabilization in [53].

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Fig. 21. Virtual impedance control for a high power CSR system [52].

Fig. 22. Simulated phase A line current is of a high power CSR system: left without virtual impedance control; right with virtual impedance control. (a) with a
reference current step change from 180 A to 90 A, and (b) with a grid voltage step change from 1.0 pu to 0.85 pu [52].

Fig. 21 gives an example of a high-power CSR [50], [52]. In

VII. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF VIRTUAL IMPEDANCES this example, a 4160 V, 1 MW CSR is considered, which has a
Three practical examples, which have been implemented for switching frequency of 540 Hz. Space Vector PWM (SVPWM)
VSCs and CSCs, are presented to demonstrate the feasibility of is used here for online active damping and virtual impedance
the virtual impedance control. They are the inner virtual control. The CL resonance frequency is around 4 pu with C=0.3
impedance loop for CL-filter resonance damping in CSCs, the pu and L=0.2 pu. Therefore, the main damping effort is made at
outer virtual harmonic impedance loop for mitigating low-order the 5th harmonic. A multi-sampling (at 3024 Hz) method is used
harmonics in distribution power grids, and the outer virtual to reduce the effects of time delays associated with such a low
fundamental impedance loop for the control of active and switching frequency. The control scheme given in Fig. 21 is
reactive powers in VSC-based microgrids. similar to the generalized virtual impedance control of CSCs in
Fig. 15. The only difference is that the dc current (id) is
A. Filter Resonance Damping in CSCs controlled (instead of the ac current) for a CSR system. As can
CSCs are popularly used in high power drive systems, where be seen in Fig. 21, the active damping provided by the virtual
the PWM Current Source Rectifiers (CSRs) and Current Source resistor is added to the PWM modulator input (after normalized
Inverters (CSI) are connected back to back. For such a current by the dc current).
source drive, the switching frequency is usually a few hundred To stimulate the resonance, two CL resonance excitations are
Hz, and the rectifier side capacitor and inductor may have a CL evaluated in the simulations: (a) dc current reference changes
resonance frequency slightly lower than the 5th harmonic to from 180 to 90 A at 0.25 s, and (b) a sudden grid voltage drop
filter out the switching ripples. Without sufficient damping, the from 1 pu to 0.85 pu is applied at 0.4 s. The CSR system
CL-filter resonance may be triggered by the 5th harmonic responses with and without the virtual resistor are shown in Fig.
produced from the converter or grid side. To actively dampen 22. It is obvious that the virtual impedance can effectively
the CL resonance for the CSR, the virtual impedance in parallel dampen the resonance (at 5th harmonics) excited from either the
with the filter capacitor can be added, as shown in Fig. 16 (a). converter side or the grid side.

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ft

5 f *
*
*
*
7 f K pc
*

11 f
*
*
13 f
f
*
ft *

Fig. 23. A simplified one-line diagram of a distribution system with a VSC interfaced DG unit [73].

Fig. 24 shows the experimental results for the DG unit in the

B. Power System Harmonic Damping
grid-connected and islanded operation modes without using the
Fig. 23 presents an example of using the virtual impedance virtual impedance control. The 7th harmonic resonance arises in
in a 5.5 kVA VSC-based DG unit for the damping of low-order the grid-connected mode, whereas the 5th harmonic resonance
harmonics resonance throughout a distribution feeder [73]. The occurs in the islanded operation mode. The experimental results
capacitors in LCL-filters, power factor correction devices, and with the designed virtual harmonic impedance are given in Fig.
capacitive load may resonate with distribution line inductance 25, where the resonances are effectively suppressed.
at low-order harmonic frequencies [72].
The outer virtual impedance controller is usually applied to C. Power Flow Control of VSC-Based Microgrids
configure a virtual harmonic resistance for damping harmonic Previous examples focus on the use of the virtual harmonic
resonance [78]. However, the grid-side inductance in the LCL- impedance for LC resonance or system harmonics damping. An
filter or the leakage inductance of the isolation transformer will important function of the virtual impedance at the fundamental
affect the damping effect of virtual resistance at the PCC [73]. frequency is for power flow control. In a low-voltage microgrid
Hence, in addition to the virtual resistance, the virtual negative with the distribution line impedance being mainly resistive, the
inductances at the selective harmonic frequencies are emulated power control of the grid converters is subject to the coupling of
using the algebraic-type virtual inductance, as shown in Fig. 8 active/reactive power, the inaccuracy of power sharing, or even
(b) and (d). stability problems. This is particularly the case for the voltage-
However, it is important to note that the virtual negative controlled VSCs, where the output voltage of the converter is
inductance should be kept smaller than the passive inductance controlled to regulate power flow so as to emulate the behavior
L2. This is a necessary condition for preserving the stability of of synchronous generators (droop control belongs to this type).
the virtual negative inductance control [66], [67]. Moreover, One solution to these power coupling and stability problems is
considering the magnetic core saturation, the magnitude of the to synthesize a virtual impedance at the VSC output to ensure
virtual negative inductance should be smaller than the effective the predominantly inductive impedance of the network.
inductance of a nonlinear inductor. A simple nonlinear inductor Fig. 26 shows an example of a virtual impedance control for
model can be found in [94], whose effective inductance can be power flow regulation. In this control scheme, the output active
given by and reactive power control loop can realized with droop control
(standalone mode) or a simple PI control in grid-connected
1 φ 1 φ mode. The outer virtual impedance controller is used here to
  (28)
Leq Lsat L modify the output voltage reference mainly at the fundamental
frequency. For the closed-loop voltage control, the typical
multi-loop control with an outer filter capacitor voltage control
where Leq is the equivalent inductance, Lsat is the saturated
and an inner converter current control loop is used.
inductance, and L is the nominal inductance. The angle φ is the
The function of the virtual impedance for power flow control
proportion of the fundamental period for which the inductance
is tested on a 4.5 kVA experimental microgrid system. Two
is saturated.
experiments are conducted. The first is the grid-connected

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 24. Measured bus voltages without the virtual harmonic impedance control [73]. (a) Grid-connected mode. (b) Islanded mode.

V1 [100 V/div] V2 [100 V/div] V3 [100 V/div]

[4 ms/div] [4 ms/div] [4 ms/div]

(a)

(b)
Fig. 25. Measured bus voltages with the virtual harmonic impedance control [73]. (a) Grid-connected mode. (b) Islanded mode.

Existing DG feeder impedance

iL P-Q Flows
To PCC
Vdc

Cf VDG ig
iL
abc
αβ
abc VDGαβ abc
PWM Generator
αβ αβ
Multi-loop voltage controller
Outer Virtual Impedance Gvo(s)
VPWMαβ iLαβ
Rv
Vvα* igα
igαβ
Current iLαβ Voltage V* vαβ ω 0L v
controller controller
ω0Lv
* * *
Vvβ igβ
From DG power Vabc abc Vαβ Rv
control loop αβ

Fig. 26. Virtual impedance for power flow control of a VSC-based microgrid [74].

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A. Sensorless Control of Variable Speed Drives

The back Electromotive Force (EMF)-based sensorless con-
trol is widely used with the Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Machine (PMSM) drives [90]-[93]. Generally, in the medium-
to high-speed range, the effects of the stator resistance, inverter
Power (W/Var)

nonlinearities, and current measurement errors on the rotor

position estimation are negligible [93]. The error of the rotor
position estimation is mainly influenced by the variation of the
machine inductance [92].
To minimize the error of estimation caused by the nonlinear
inductance, a virtual inductance based rotor estimation method
is recently developed [90]. To illustrate its operation principle,
Fig. 29 shows a general field-oriented sensorless speed control
diagram for PMSM drives. Generally, the stator flux linkage,
λαβ, is represented in the rotor dq-frame, which is given by

Fig. 27. Grid connected mode (with virtual inductance and negative virtual   (mpm  Ld id  jLqiq )e j r
(29)
resistance: Pa, Qa; with only virtual inductance: Pb, Qb.) [74].

where λmpm is the rotor PM flux. θr is the rotor position defined

as the angle difference between the rotor d-axis and the stator
phase-A-axis. Ld, Lq and id, iq are the d- and q-axes inductances
and currents, respectively.
To estimate the rotor position, (29) is equivalently expressed
Power (W/Var)

as follow:

  Lqi  (mpm  ( Ld  Lq )id )e j r

(30)

which is obtained by the following transformation:

Lq (id  jiq )e jr  Lqi (31)

Based on (30), the estimated rotor position θr,est can be derived

as
Fig. 28. Islanded operation with two VSC-based DG, virtual impedance
  Lqi
r ,est      Lqi   tan 1
control is disabled at 0.7 s (DG1: P1, Q1; DG2: P2, Q2) [74].
(32)
  Lqi
operation of a DG system and a step change of the active power
output of the DG is performed. A coupling disturbance into the
reactive power is brought by the resistive line impedance. From which shows that the q-axis inductance is the most important
the results in Fig. 27, it can be seen that with a negative virtual parameter for estimation of rotor position. It further implies that
resistance implemented, the power coupling can effectively be for both surface-mounted PMSM (theoretically Ld = Lq) and
mitigated. The second experiment is for the islanded operation interior PMSM (Ld ≠ Lq), the rotor position can be estimated by
of the microgrid with two VSC-based DG units. The system is only involving the q-axis inductance [91].
initially operating with the virtual inductance implemented on To mitigate the influence of the q-axis inductance variation,
both DG systems and then the virtual impedance is disabled to a virtual inductance, denoted as Lv, is introduced to insert a
both systems. As can be seen in Fig. 28, without the virtual virtual flux into the stator flux linkage, which is given by
inductance to ensure the predominantly inductive impedances,
the microgrid quickly becomes unstable.   Lvi  ( Lq  Lv )i  (mpm  ( Ld  Lq )id )e j r
(33)

VIII. EMERGING APPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL IMPEDANCES which is further transformed into

Two emerging applications of virtual impedance control are
discussed in this section, which are the mitigation of nonlinear   Lvi  (mpm  ( Ld  Lv )id  j( Lq  Lv )iq )e j . r
(34)
inductance effects on the sensorless control of variable-speed
drives [90], and the active damper concept for the stabilization
Similarly to (32), the rotor position can thus be estimated based
of ac distributed power systems [95]-[97].

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ω* iq* dq
va
PI PI vb
iq vc PWM
ω
id* abc
PI
θ ia
id ω&θ
ω ib
Estimation
ic
(32) or (35)
iq
dq
id PMSM
abc
Fig. 29. General field-oriented sensorless control diagram for PMSM [90].

ZS
Grid VS
ZS Source
or
ZS Load
Active Damper LCL-Filter

Point of Common VSC 1

Coupling (PCC)
Lf,D

Lf,D Source
Cdc,D or
Lf,D Load
LCL-Filter
VSC 2

Pulses
iLabc
Vdc,D Current Controller
& Virtual Impedance VPCC
Source
or
Load
LCL-Filter
VSC n

Fig. 30. An active damper for stabilizing multi-paralleled, grid-connected VSCs [95].

on the virtual inductance position, but it also allows a more insightful analysis on the
influence of machine inductance variation.
r,est      Lvi  B. Active Damper
(35)
   mpm  ( Ld  Lv )id  j( Lq  Lv )iq   r Aside from the virtual impedances embedded in the control
loop for active stabilization, an active damper concept, which is
based on a high-frequency, high-bandwidth (up to a few kHz)
The error of the rotor position estimation θr,err can be calculated power converter, is recently introduced to stabilize the ac
by distributed power systems [95]-[97]. In this case, the virtual
impedance is used as a command reference generator for active
( Lq  Lv )iq damper to adaptively emulate a programmable resistance at the
r ,err  r ,est  r  tan 1 (36) system resonance frequencies [95].
mpm  ( Ld  Lv )id
Fig. 30 shows an application of the active damper to stabilize
multi-paralleled, grid-connected VSCs. The VSCs are coupled
which reveals that how the machine d- and q-axes inductances through the grid impedance and interact with each other in the
affect the estimation of rotor position. Hence, the use of virtual system, resulting in instability phenomena in a wide spectrum
inductance not only provides a simple way to estimate the rotor [24], [97]. Instead of inserting active damping controller in

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