TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE

ISO 9001:2015 CIP Grade1 (Outstanding)

COURSE NOTES

PLC and Automation Control

Course Code: UG11T4702 Prepared for Academic Year: 2024 – 2025

Compiled by: Lloyd Samuel

TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE

Talegaon Chakan Road, Induri. Taluka Maval, Pune -410507
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Monitoring and Control of Main Diesel Engine

Fig1: Propulsion control system of main engine

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List of Alarms, Slowdown and Shutdown

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VIT
The maximum firing pressure of the engine decreases as the engine power is reduced, which reduces
the thermal efficiency. To improve the thermal efficiency and the specific fuel oil consumption, it is
necessary to keep the maximum pressure even at low loads. It is achieved by advancing fuel oil
injection timing at low load.

The injection timing is varied so as to have maximum combustion pressures, Pmax, at low loads. VIT
helps in achieving the maximum combustion pressure at 75-100 % load range.

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VIT (in Sulzer) incorporates variable beginning of injection, variable ending of injection, (in MAN B&W)
incorporates adjustable timings as well as adjustable break point.

VEC
In order to optimise the exhaust valve operation over the normal load range, the closing point of the
exhaust valve is changed over 70-85% of MCR. During VEC operation the exhaust valve is closed earlier
which means that the compression stroke of the piston is increased. This will lead to higher
compression pressures and temperatures.

For instance if the normal closure of the exhaust valve is 130° BTDC, and this gives a compression ratio
of 10.6, then by closing the valve 10° earlier, the compression ratio will increase to 11.2, and the
compression pressure will rise by 4 bar, for the same scavenge air/load setting.

The unit achieves this by leaking some of the oil contained in the high pressure pipe when the valve is
in the open position. This will cause the valve to slightly close, but will mean that the exhaust valve
will be fully closed earlier than normal. Hence the piston can start to pressurise the cylinder contents
earlier. The amount the valve closure is dependent on the position of the VEC shaft and eccentric
mounted on the side of the exhaust valve actuator.
1st process is that scavenge port opens 42 °C before BDC.

2nd process is that the piston reaches BDC

3rd process is that scavenge port closes 42 °C after BDC.

4th process is that the exhaust valve closes 60 °C after BDC.

5th process is that around 15 °C before TDC fuel injection

starts.

6th process is that the piston reaches TDC.

7th process is that around 20 °C after TDC fuel injection stops.

8th process is that the exhaust valve opens 75 °C before BDC.

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VIT and VEC in Rt-flex engine

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Electronic Governor System

The Electronic Governor consists of three components, the CONTROLLER, a pc

board installed in the control panel. A MAGNETIC PICK-UP (MPU) installed in the
bellhousing over the engine flywheel and the linear ACTUATOR mounted on the
engine and attached by linkage to the injection pump throttle control

Basic Block Diagram

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 Monitoring and Control of Steam Boiler

Components/Subsystems of a boiler automatic control

Protective and safety functions of steam boiler

Safety Function Auto Mode Manual Mode

1. Flame failure Trip Alarm Trip Alarm
2. Too low water level Trip Alarm Trip Alarm
3. Fire in the wind box Trip Alarm
4. High steam pressure Trip Alarm
5. Low atomizing steam pressure Trip Alarm

6. Lance not in position Trip Alarm

7. High oil temperature Trip Alarm
8. Oil valve not in the right position Trip Alarm

9. High temperature in the uptake Trip Alarm

10. Combustion air fan overload Trip Alarm Alarm

11. Low oil temperature Trip Alarm

12. Burner sequence failure Trip Alarm

13. Low combustion air flow Alarm

14. Oil detection in feed water Alarm

15. Steam pressure low Alarm

16. Drum level low Alarm
17. Drum level high Alarm
18. Salinity high in feed water Alarm

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 19. Overload ignition burner pump Alarm Alarm
20. Auto standby fuel oil pump Alarm Alarm
started
21. Auto standby feed water pump Alarm Alarm
started

 The mentioned safeties will stop the burner, and an audio visual alarm will be raised.
Upon resetting the alarm (in auto mode) the sequence will start automatically from
the beginning (from the initial state).
 In manual emergency mode the safeties are limited only to flame failure and too low
water level, so caution should be exercised. The number of safeties in the manual
emergency mode varies among different makers.

Automatic combustion control

Fig: Fully Metered cross-limiting control scheme

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Single Point Positioning automatic combustion control (Only for Knowledge)

Fig: jackshaft control

• The simplicity of the FPC (Fixed position Control) control strategy makes it a very
economical choice for small burners with modest firing rate changes. However the
fact that the fuel and air are fixed means that the fuel/air ratio is also fixed. Because
of this fixed position arrangement the burner has no way to compensate for
environmental changes such as combustion air temperature or fuel pressure. This
control is also called as jackshaft control.
• Additionally, the FPC strategy has no feedback to the control element to insure that
the fuel and air end devices are actually functioning and in the correct position. This
could lead to a crossover condition in which the fuel crosses over the air flow and
results in a fuel rich furnace or other burner efficiency loses. To help prevent a fuel
rich furnace the FPC system is normally setup to allow additional excess oxygen to the
furnace, in the range of 4.5 to 8%. In practice the excess oxygen is normally set at 6%
to compensate for seasonal air temperature changes. This excess air results in lower
thermal efficiency by burdening the burner with unnecessary air, which only serves to
cool the furnace.

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Boiler Feed Water Level Control

Single Element Control

Fig: Single element control

 Single element control is used in boilers which has a constant load.

 Feed water pressure ought to be constant as only the position of the valve is controlled
by the level controller. Incase if the feed water pressure drops the valve position will
remain in the same position until the level drops further down. Therefore the water
level control becomes ineffective.
 Single element control is usually found in container and bulk carrier ship where steam
is used only for heating.

Boiler Water Level Control (Two and Three element control)

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Monitoring and Control of Oil Purifier

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Purifier full Sequence

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Purifier total desludging sequence

Partial desludging sequence

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Leakage Monitoring

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 Water Detection

Discharge detection

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Monitoring and Control of refrigeration system

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Monitoring and Control of air conditioning system

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Capacity control
Capacity control can be defined as a system which monitors and controls the output of the plant as
per the load on demand. As the load decreases, the capacity control system cut off one or more
units (depending upon the load) and maintains the efficiency of the plant by reducing stresses on
different parts. The simplest forms of capacity control are using a 1. Variable Speed Motor, 2.
Controlling on-off cycling of the compressor or on-off cycling of discharge to suction bypass valve, 3.
Using Cylinder unloading method of keeping the suction valve in open position.

Solenoid valves (3rd method) which are controlled by pressure switches (KP1) are used to operate the
opening and closing of the suction valves. They are fitted on top of the cylinders (near suction valves).
When de-energized (in some systems it is the vice versa), the solenoid keeps the suction valve open
bypassing the hot discharge gas directly to the suction line making the pressure of the unit low (zero bar),
and reducing the capacity of the compressor to 75% / 50 %, etc. With the solenoid valve energized (in
some systems it is the vice versa), the gas ports in the valve plate and cylinder head are open.

Capacity control
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 Monitoring and control of Steering gear system

Autopilot system
The main elements of the autopilot system are shown in figure. The actual heading (true course) is
measured by a gyro-compass (or magnetic compass in a smaller vessel), and compared with the
desired heading (set course) - dialed into the autopilot by the ship’s master. The autopilot, or
controller, computes the demanded rudder angle and sends a control signal to the steering gear
system. The actual rudder angle is monitored by a rudder angle sensor and compared with the
demanded rudder angle, to form a control loop.

The rudder provides a control moment on the hull to drive the actual heading towards the desired
heading while the wind, waves and current produce noise moments that may help or hinder this
action.

Some of Important points to be considered while operating Auto-pilot system are outlined below

1. Rate of Turn and Rudder Limits: The method of turn is the most important control of the Auto-Pilot
system. The system will use the selected turn method for course alterations. The user can input the
limit of such turn methods, which are as follows

a. Rate of Turn: This is the most commonly used turn method. In this method, the user can set a value
of turn rate between 1-300 degrees (varies on different models). When turning, the rudder will move
as much as it takes to attain the required turn rate without exceeding the set value. The officer must
consider the vessel’s manoeuvring characteristics and set a value safe for the vessel.

b. Rudder Limits: Rudder limit method allows the user to set a value from 1 degree to the max rudder
angle. In this method, while altering course the rudder will not exceed more than the set limit. Again,
the vessel’s manoeuvring characteristics should be considered while choosing the rudder value.

Modern systems allow turning by radius as well. In such method the user can input turn radius in
nautical miles.

2. Steering gear pumps: Steering gear pumps are used to pump hydraulic oil to actuate the steering
gear unit (RAM) which in turn moves the rudder in the required direction. That means, when more
pumps are running, the rudder will move more swiftly. The number of pumps available varies as per
the steering gear unit.

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If operating the auto-pilot in areas with traffic density where sudden and swift alterations are
required, maximum steering gear pumps shall be running.

In ocean cruising and open sea navigation with less traffic, the pumps running shall be reduced to its
minimum.

3. Off Course Alarm: An off-course alarm serves for the purpose of notifying the operator if there is
any difference in the set course and the actual heading of the vessel. The user can manually set the
required amount of degrees, after which an alarm will sound to notify the user that the set degree of
difference has exceeded.

4. Speed: The system works inefficiently on reduced speeds. The use of the auto-pilot is not
recommended when the ship is manoeuvring or steaming in very less speed.

The system allows the users to synchronise with the Speed Log to receive feeds on the ship’s speed.
The users should keep a check on the speed log as any error in the log speed will reflect in the auto-
pilot system.

The system also allows the users to manually input the speed, when doing so it is important to set a
value as close as possible to the actual speed of the vessel.

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 Fig. Block Diagram of the Automatic Isolating System (Safematic system)

Alarms in the steering gear system

1. No voltage alarm
2. Phase failure alarm
3. Motor Overload alarm
4. Hydraulic oil low level alarm
5. Hydraulic oil high temperature alarm
6. Hydraulic lock alarm

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 CONTROLLERS

Introduction

Two Step (On-Off) Control

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Features of On-Off Controller
 This is the simplest form of control. Here only two control positions are allowed; on or off. In the
case of a valve, it opens or closes by the signal from the controller. Examples for such control
system are; air compressor cut in cut off control (using pressure switches), temperature control
of water in calorifier (using thermostat), pressure control of water in hydrophore tank (using
pressure switches), HFO transfer system from HFO storage tank to settling tank (using float
switches) etc.
 An on-off controller doesn’t have intermediate states but only fully ON or fully OFF states. Due to
the switching logic, an on-off controller is often called a bang-bang controller or a two-step
controller. Regardless of the size of the error, the output of the on-off controller can only be fully
ON or fully OFF, it is not proportional with the error.

Without Hysteresis With Hysteresis

 We can see from the above figure (without hysteresis) how the on-off controller is switching the
output from ON to OFF around the setpoint value. The constant switching, with high frequency
around the setpoint, can lead to stress on the actuators and potential failure. For this reason, most
of the on-off controllers have an integrated hysteresis.
 The on-off controller with hysteresis will not switch around the setpoint but between an upper
and a lower limit. This way, the frequency of the switching will decrease but the variation
(overshoot) around the setpoint will increase.
 The error is not anymore compared against zero but against a hysteresis value. The higher the
hysteresis value, the lower the switching frequency and the higher the overshoot.
 On-off control is primarily used in non-critical applications, where the error between the setpoint
and plant output can vary with a relatively large amount. For example - temperature control
systems (calorifers in ship, water heaters in house). On-off controller lays the foundations for
more complicated controllers.

 Let us consider the case of a water heating system (Calorifier). It consists of a controller
(Thermostat) that continuously senses the system parameter (water temperature). This is called
as the measured value. The desired value or set point (temperature of water to be maintained) is
set on the thermostat (by using the range nut) by the operator. When the temperature of the
water drops below set point - hysteresis (Differential setting), the controller will switch ON the
electric heater. Now temperature of water starts increasing. When the temperature rises to the
set point, controller switches OFF the heater. Disadvantage of this control is the large deviation
from the desired value or set point. Hence the application of such control is limited. Advantage is

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 that there will be resting time for the heater in this example
(resting of the compressor in case of air compressor, pump
in the case of a hydrophore system, heater in the case of a
calorifier).

Thermostat (Simplified version)

Advantage of On-Off controller

 Advantage of this type of control action is that it is inexpensive and extremely simple.
 Resting period of machine can be increased by increasing the hysteresis setting.
 Controller tuning is very easy.

Disadvantage of On-Off controller

 Oscillatory error present in the controlled variable.

 It can be used only in applications where close control is not essential.
 Thus the application of on/off control in industry is severely limited. In most industrial applications
continuous control modes are widely adopted.
 If hysteresis is set low then the equipment like electrical motor, actuators, valves can be over
stressed and can be damaged.

PID Controller
Proportional Control

• This is a continuous control action in which the controller output is proportional to the deviation
between measured value and desired value.

• Let us take an example of a simple water lever control as shown in the figure below.

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• Consider a water tank with an outlet valve, a water supply valve, control lever on a pivot, control
strings, and float as shown in the figure. One end of the control lever is connected to the float
while other end to the water supply valve. The system is designed in such a way that, when float
goes down supply valve is opened more thereby increasing water supply to the tank. Similarly, an
elevation of the float results in closure of the supply valve. At this point quantity of water supplied
and flown out of the tank is same or the system is in equilibrium. Suddenly demand of water
increases or the discharge valve is opened more. This result in reduction in water level inside the
tank and causes float to lower. As float lowers it raises the control string connected to the water
supply valve, thereby increasing the supply of water.
• As shown in the figure above, a new equilibrium is attained by the system. Once again supply and
demand of water is same. But we can see a drop in water level from the desired value. This
deviation from the measured value and desired value is known as offset. It is an inherent property
of the proportional control. Offset can be reduced but cannot be eliminated in such systems. The
amount by which the input signal value must change to move the correcting unit between its
extreme positions is known as proportional band.
• Move the position of the pivot towards right (closer towards the float). Now we can see that a
small change in water level causes an amplified effect in opening or closing the supply valve. In
other words, the system becomes more sensitive. Also here the offset is reduced comparing to
the scenario before. Similarly, moving the pivot towards the left cause minor changes for the
supply valve even though float lowers or rises drastically. Here sensitivity of the system is less. It
is clear that offset can be reduced to minimum when sensitivity is higher. But this results
in hunting of the system. Hunting means excessive fluctuation of the measured value around
desired value.

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Definitions

• Proportional Band (Pb): It is the error percentage at which the control element moves from zero
(Full close) to maximum value (Full Open). (Pb=100/Kp)
• Proportional Gain (Kp): Gain is the ratio of output change (%) over the measured variable change
(%) that caused it.
• Steady State error (Offset): Steady-state error is defined as the difference between the input
(command) and the output of a system in the limit as time goes to infinity

Integral Control

• The function of integral action is to eliminate offset by continuously and automatically modifying
the controller output in accordance with the control deviation integrated over time.

• The Integral Action Time (IAT) is defined as the time taken for the controller output to change due
to the integral action to equal the output change due to the proportional action. Integral action
gives a steadily increasing corrective action as long as an error continues to exist. Such corrective
action will increase with time and must therefore, at some time, be sufficient to eliminate the
steady state error altogether.
• The IAT is adjustable within the controller: If it is too short, over-reaction and instability will result,
if it is too long, reset action will be very slow to take effect.

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  It can be seen that proportional action will be equal to Ke where K is the gain of the controller.
Reset action will cause a ramping of the output signal to provide the necessary extra control
action.
 After time, say t, the reset action has repeated the original proportional response; this is the
repeat time, the unit chosen for defining reset action. It can be seen that increased reset
action would increase the slope of the reset ramp.
 Note that proportional action occurs first followed by reset action.
 Reset action is defined as either reset rate (Ki) in repeats per minute (RPM) or reset time (Ti)
in minutes per repeat (MPR).

Derivative Control

• A Derivative action (referred to by the letter D) measures and responds to the rate of change of
process signal, and adjusts the output
of the controller to minimize overshoot.

• If applied properly on systems with time lags, derivative

action will minimize the deviation from the set point when there
is a change in the process condition. It is interesting to note that
derivative action will only apply itself when there is a change in
process signal. If the value is steady, whatever the offset, then
derivative action does not occur.
• D action is again adjustable within the controller, and
referred to as TD in time units:
• Derivative action time is the time interval during which the derivative action signal increases by
amount equal to the proportional action signal for a constantly changing deviation (a ramp input).

TD = 0 – Means no D action T D = Infinity – Means infinite D action.

Hunting

Often referred to as instability, cycling or oscillation. Hunting produces a continuously changing

deviation from the normal operating point. This can be caused by:

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• The proportional band being too narrow (Proportional gain too large). This will cause the
controller to behave as an ON/OFF controller and the final control element (Eg: Valve) will either
move from full close to full open (or vice versa) even for a small error, which will result in hunting
(rapid oscillation or movement of valve up and down).
• The integral time being too short.
• The derivative time being too long.
• A combination of these.

Output of a PID controller

or

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Cascade Control

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Temperature, level and pressure control system

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Boiler FO service system (Example for temp and pressure control)

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Split Range Control

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 MECHANICAL - HYDRAULIC CONTROLLER
Hydraulic governor without compensation

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Hydraulic Governor with compensation (reset/integral action)

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What is a governor?
Governor is a device which controls the speed of engine automatically in the prescribed limits.
The governor does its job in two steps.

 By measuring the speed and

 By controlling the amount of fuel supply to the engine.
What is the function of a governor?
To adjust the rate of fuel supply in such a way as to keep the engine running at a steady speed
regardless of the load.
To control the engine running at a steady speed under all conditions of load.
What is governor droop?
When considering the engine and governor
combination, the difference between the no load
speed and full load speed is called governor droop.

What are the types of governors?

 Mechanical governor.
 Hydraulic governor.
 Inertia governor [fitted on older slow speed engine]
 Electronic governor.

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What is compensation?
The use of temporary speed droop to prevent over correction of the fuel supply is called
compensation. The purpose of the compensation system is to give stability to the governor
and obtain steady state speed control.
It requires two actions:
Droop application – as the fuel supply is changed
Droop removal – as the engine response to the fuel change and returns to original speed.
What types of governor used in A/E and M/E?
A/E governor is a speed droop governor with over speed trip.
M/E governor is a constant speed governor with over speed trip.
What is hunting of governor?
It is a fluctuation of engine speed due to the over correction of the fuel supply. (Too much
increase or decrease fuel supply)
What is isochronous governor?
It is a constant speed governor.
Why speed droop governor is used at A/E?
It is fitted to get the load sharing ability since isochronous governor gives constant speed,
thus cannot share the load.

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 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
What is a PLC?
A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that
continuously monitors the state of input devices and makes decisions based upon a custom
program to control the state of output devices.

Almost any production line, machine function, or process can be greatly enhanced using this
type of control system. However, the biggest benefit in using a PLC is the ability to change
and replicate the operation or process while collecting and communicating vital information.

Another advantage of a PLC system is that it is modular. That is, you can mix and match the
types of Input and Output devices to best suit your application.

HISTORY OF PLCS
The first Programmable Logic Controllers were designed and developed by Modicon as a relay
re-placer for GM and Landis.

These controllers eliminated the need for rewiring and adding additional hardware for each
new configuration of logic.

The new system drastically increased the functionality of the controls while reducing the
cabinet space that housed the logic.
The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley in 1969
The first commercial successful PLC, the 184, was introduced in 1973 and was designed by
Michael Greenberg.

What Is Relay Logic?

Unlike software-based ladder logic, relay logic is a hardwired control system that leverages
instrumentation, timers, switches, contactors, relays, actuators, and motors. Traditionally,
the primary application of relay logic has been automating industrial machines and processes.
This has typically been achieved with heavy hardware, including electronic devices and wiring.

At one time, relay logic was a cutting-edge development for industrial automation. Today, it
is generally considered a legacy system, and its implementation is associated with challenges
such as high switchboard space use, labour-intensive installation, and tricky troubleshooting.
Any modifications to control functions are also complex and
tedious due to the hardware-centric nature of relay logic.
As microprocessors became more popular, programmers
realized that the functionality of relay logic controls could
be digitalized. And so began the task of programming relay
logic controls and storing them in computers. By the late
1960s, programmable logic controllers (PLC) became a
reality.
In a PLC, relay logic is used to formulate logical expressions
and automate industrial processes and machinery. The
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programming language used to create relay logic in a PLC is known as ladder logic. This
breakthrough in industrial automation is why relay logic is close to complete redundancy.

WHAT IS INSIDE A PLC?

The Central Processing Unit, the CPU, contains an internal program that tells the PLC how to
perform the following functions:
 Execute the Control Instructions
contained in the User's Programs.
This program is stored in "non-
volatile" memory, meaning that
the program will not be lost if
power is removed
 Communicate with other devices,
which can include I/O Devices,
Programming Devices, Networks,
and even other PLCs.
 Perform Housekeeping activities
such as Communications, Internal Diagnostics, etc.

HOW DOES A PLC OPERATE?

There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs; Input Scan,
Program Scan, Output Scan, and Housekeeping. These steps
continually take place in a repeating loop.
Four Steps In the PLC Operations

1. Input Scan: Detects the state of all input devices that are
connected to the PLC
2. Program Scan: Executes the user created program logic
3. Output Scan: Energizes or de-energize all output devices
that are connected to the PLC.
4. Housekeeping: This step includes communications with programming terminals,
internal diagnostics, etc.

WHAT PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE IS USED TO PROGRAM A PLC?

While Ladder Logic is the most commonly used PLC programming language, it is not the only
one. The following table lists of some of languages that are used to program a PLC.
Ladder logic Diagram (LD) is a programming language that represents a program by a
graphical diagram based on the circuit diagrams of relay logic hardware. It is primarily used
to develop software for PLCs used in industrial control applications. Programs in this language
resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a series of horizontal rungs between them, and
hence the name ladder.

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Traditional ladder logic is graphical
programming language. Initially
programmed with simple contacts
that simulated the opening and
closing of relays, Ladder Logic
programming has been expanded to
include such functions as counters,
timers, shift registers, and math
operations.

Function Block Diagram (FBD) - A

graphical language for depicting
signal and data flows through re-
usable function blocks. FBD is
very useful for expressing the
interconnection of control system
algorithms and logic.

Structured Text (ST): A high level text language that encourages structured programming. It
has a language structure (syntax) that strongly resembles PASCAL and supports a wide range
of standard functions and operators. For example:
If Speed1 > 100.0 then
Flow_Rate: = 50.0 + Offset_A1;
Else
Flow_Rate: = 100.0; Steam: = ON
End_If;

Instruction List (IL): A low level “assembler like” language that is based on similar instructions
list languages found in a wide range of today’s PLCs.
LD R1
MPC RESET
LD PRESS_1
ST MAX_PRESS
RESET: LD 0
ST A_X43
Sequential Function Chart (SFC): A method of programming complex control systems at a
more highly structured level. A SFC program is an overview of the control system, in which
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the basic building blocks are entire program files. Each program file is created using one of
the other types of programming languages. The SFC approach coordinates large, complicated
programming tasks into smaller, more
manageable tasks.

Comparison between hard-wired (Relay logic) and programmable control

operation (Ladder logic)

S.No Ladder Logic Relay logic

1 Programming
Here, “programming---which is nothing
Ladder logic is powered by software, which but wiring)” is labour-intensive and
means technical personnel must use requires wiring and hardware setup
specialized computer software for precision. This is time-consuming and
programming control logic. This enables a calls for an in-depth understanding of
simplified programming process and more electrical connections.
intricate control algorithms.

2 Flexibility Compared to ladder logic, relay logic

systems feature greater rigidity.
Ladder logic is highly adaptable and flexible. Changes or modifications to control
The control logic can be modified through logic would require personnel to make
changes in the software — no changes to physical changes to wiring, which is
wiring or physical connections are time-intensive and could affect
necessary. productivity levels during downtime.

3 Complexity Unlike ladder logic, relay logic cannot

handle complex control systems
Ladder logic is leveraged to handle intricate seamlessly. While it is theoretically
control tasks, as it can support counters, possible to deploy a complex relay logic
timers, and mathematical functions setup, setting up advanced functions
seamlessly. like counters and timers calls for the
addition of extensive hardware.

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 4 Space and cost Industrial environments that leverage
relay logic require extensive physical
An efficient ladder logic setup does not space due to the need for multiple
require an extensive deployment of physical contacts, wires, and relays.
switches, relays, and hardwired Naturally, the costs associated with
connections. The savings in cost and space purchasing and maintaining such a
offered by ladder logic are especially useful setup would be higher in the long run.
in industrial environments with limited
space and a high emphasis on cost-
effectiveness.

5 Maintenance Relay logic systems have higher

maintenance needs, which can be
For knowledgeable engineers, ladder logic challenging even for knowledgeable
systems are simple to troubleshoot and engineers. For one, relay logic
maintain. Technicians can leverage the troubleshooting generally involves
graphical representation to spot and fix manual inspection of hardware
issues swiftly. connections and relays. Not only is this
time-consuming, but it might also
require greater expertise.

6 Modernization
By many modern-day industrial
Ladder logic is compatible with modern automation standards, relay logic is
automation measures, simplifying its outdated and less compatible.
integration with PLCs and digital control If a need for modernization arises, a
technologies. This allows for seamless complete overhaul of the control
remote monitoring, data acquisition, and system might be required.
communication.

What are the advantages of PLC?

 Flexible in Nature: One model of PLC can be used for different operations as per
requirement.
 Easy to install and troubleshooting: In hard wired relay based systems, installation
time is more as compared to the PLC based control panels.
 Availability of Large contacts: PLC programming tools contain internal large number
of contacts that can be used for any change induced in different applications.
 Cost effective: Advanced technology and large production of PLC makes it cheaper
than the other controller or relay based systems.
 Simulation feature: PLC programming software comes with the simulation features
by default.
 Simple programming methods: PLC is provided with simple programming methods to
program the PLC like Ladder or Boolean type of programming.
 Ease of maintenance: As compared with the control systems like relay based or micro-
controller based systems, maintenance cost of PLC is low.
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  Documentation: The programmer can program and print easily the programs of PLC
for future use.

What is HMI?
"HMI" stands for Human Machine Interface. These devices are also known as Man Machine
Interface (MMI), Operator Interface Terminal (OIT), Local Operator Interface (LOI), Operator
Terminal (OT).

An HMI is exactly what the name implies: a graphical interface that allows human users to
interact with a system's machinery. In the context of manufacturing and process control
systems, an HMI provides a visual representation of the control system, and provides real
time data acquisition. An HMI can increase productivity by providing a centralized display of
the control process that is extremely user-friendly.
In manufacturing lines, HMIs have can monitor and control processes, and may be equipped
with data recipes, event logging, video feed, and event triggering. For a manufacturing line to
be integrated with an HMI, it must first be working with a Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) which acts as the CPU. The PLC takes the information from inputs (physical sensors or
commands from the HMI) and transforms it to processes for manufacturing. While these
inputs and processes are being performed, the HMI provides a display of received inputs,
control process outputs, and defined user variables being leveraged to perform the tasks.

How Does an HMI Work?

HMIs are typically used in conjunction with a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) to monitor
and control processes in an automated system. In general terms, the HMI allows the user to
communicate with the PLC via a graphical interface (typically a touchscreen). This interface
allows commands to be given, and also receives and translates feedback data from the PLC,
which is then presented in an easily accessible visualization on the screen. This provides the
operator with much-needed flexibility and control over a given system. There are three basic
types of HMIs: the pushbutton replacer, the data handler, and the overseer.
The Pushbutton Replacer

Before the HMI came into existence, a control might consist of hundreds of pushbuttons and
LEDs performing different operations. The pushbutton replacer HMI has streamlined
manufacturing processes, centralizing all the functions of each button into one location. The
pushbutton replacer takes the place of LEDs, On/Off buttons, switches, or any mechanical
device that performs a control function.
The Data Handler
The data handler is perfect for applications requiring constant feedback from the system, or
printouts of the production reports. With the data handler, you must ensure the HMI screen
is big enough to display information such as graphs, visual representations of data, and
production summaries.
The Overseer
Anytime an application involves SCADA or MES, an overseer HMI is extremely beneficial. The
overseer HMI will most likely require Windows to operate, and have several Ethernet ports.
The overseer works with SCADA and MES. These are centralized systems that monitor and
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control entire sites or complexes of large systems spread out over large areas. An HMI is
usually linked to the SCADA system's databases and software programs, to provide trending,
diagnostic data, and management information.

What is a Logic Gate?

A logic gate is an electronic circuit designed by using electronic components like diodes, transistors,
resistors, and more. As the name implies, a logic gate is designed to perform logical operations in
digital systems like computers, communication systems, etc.

Therefore, we can say that the building blocks of a digital circuit are logic gates, which execute
numerous logical operations that are required by any digital circuit. A logic gate can take two or more
inputs but only produce one output. The output of a logic gate depends on the combination of inputs
and the logical operation that the logic gate performs.

Logic gates use Boolean algebra to execute logical processes. Logic gates are found in nearly every
digital gadget we use on a regular basis. Logic gates are used in the architecture of our telephones,
laptops, tablets, and memory devices.

Applications of Logic Gates

Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of all digital circuits and devices like
computers. Here are some key digital devices in which logic gates are utilized to design their
circuits:

 Computers
 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
 Digital and smart watches
 Smartphones, etc.

Types of Logic Gates

A logic gate is a digital gate that allows data to be manipulated. Logic gates, use logic to
determine whether or not to pass a signal. Logic gates, on the other hand, govern the flow of
information based on a set of rules.
The logic gates can be classified into the
following major types:
1. Basic Logic Gates: There are three basic
logic gates
 AND Gate
 OR Gate
 NOT Gate

2. Universal Logic Gates: In digital

electronics, the following two logic
gates are considered as universal logic
gates
 NOR Gate
 NAND Gate
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 3. Derived Logic Gates: The following two are the derived logic gates used in digital
systems
 XOR Gate
 XNOR Gate

Maintenance of PLC and PLC controlled process

PLC Maintenance:
 Check environmental factors / operating conditions. Humidity, temperature and other
factors play an important role in the longevity and proper operation of your
components. Be sure that these factors are consistently within the range of your PLCs
optimal operating conditions.
 Clear debris, dust, and build-up from your units. A clean working environment for your
PLC is a great way to prevent downtime. Also, dust getting to the circuit boards could
cause a catastrophic short circuit.
 Clean or replace all filters installed in enclosures. This allows your PLC to get the
maximum airflow and ensures consistency.
 Check all your connections for a tight fit, especially I/O modules. This is a very simple
way to make sure everything is working smoothly. Also, a loose connection may cause
lasting damage to your components.
 Inspect I/O devices for proper adjustments.
 Check LED battery indicators on the RAM memory module in the CPU. If the OK LED is
on or flashing, replace the battery ASAP.
Maintenance of Control Systems
 Visual inspection of controller, valve and actuator
 Visual inspection of all wiring and terminations
 Check all electrical connections for tightness
 Check all pneumatic/hydraulic connections
 Check all FLR/AFR/pressure regulators
 Check configuration of controller to ensure optimum performance
 Dismantle control valve, clean and visually inspect valve internals
 Replace valve stem seals (once per annum)
 Check and clean all strainer screens, re-fit using new cap gaskets
 Adjustments (zero and span) for valves/actuator/positioners
 Check and calibrations of sensors (Temperature/pressure/level/flow) and other
feedback devices
 Check safety devices
 Check air drier unit for proper functioning
 Functionally test to ensure correct operation and satisfactory control

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