Nervous system

Nervous system

• The brain is perhaps the most important organ in the body,

responsible for the unconscious autonomic activities
like breathing, blood pressure, temperature control, sensation,
movement, and thought process

• The nervous system is responsible for coordinating all of the body's

activities

• Neurons and neuroglia are the two types of cells that make up the
brain
 Nervous system Endocrine system

• Causes ultra fast as well as • Response is slow

localized reaction • Endocrine system bathes all
• There is direct wiring body cells with hormone, this
connections between a centre allow infinite interaction in a
and cells reduced space
• Operate through electrical • Operate through chemical
signals messengers
• Level of response to nerve • Effect of hormone is
stimulation is directly associated with the dose of
correlated with frequency of hormone and time of
pulse and the number of exposure
nerve fibers involved
Neuroendocrine inter-relation
 Fundamental cells of nervous system

The nervous system made up two types of cells

 Neurons (Greek neuron, nerve), 100 billion

 Neuroglia (Greek glia, glue), 10 times of neurons

• Their names reflect the fact that neurons give rise to nerves, while
neuroglia are thought of as cells simply holding neurons together
 Neurons
• Neurons are structural and functional unit of nervous system

• Longest lived cells

• Are irreplaceable i.e. their number are fixed and they did not
divide

• Have high metabolic activity

• Neurons are specialized kind of cells which receives, processes and

transmit information through electrical and chemical signals
• Neurons has a cell body, dendrite and an axon.

• Neuronal cell body consist of a nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum,

ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria.

• A Nissl body, also known as Nissl substance and Nissl material, is a

large granular body found in neurons.

• It occur in the cell body and dendrites but not the axon of neurons,
are composed of RNA and polyribosomes, are stained with basic
dyes (as methylene blue).
• Dendrites arise from the cell body and provide site for receiving
information from other neurons

• Most neurons have a single axon that emerges from the cell body
at the adjacent to axon hillock

• The axon is the major route by which one nerve cell sends signals
to the other neurons

• Action potential are initiated in neurons at the adjacent to the

axon hillock
• Axon hillock is the usual site of action potential initiation, i.e.
the trigger zone.

• This region has a much higher density of voltage-gated ion

channels.

• Distal end of an axon are called synaptic boutons or terminal.

• Synaptic boutons are swellings that contains neurotransmitter-

filled vesicles and form chemical synapse with other neurons.
• Axon may be surrounded by a wrapping of myelin formed by glial
cells

• Myelin serves as an insulator and prevents the leakage of current

• Myelin sheaths are interrupted at regular intervals along the length

of an axon by nodes of Ranvier

• This nodes of Ranvier is the place at which rapid ionic exchange

takes place, saltatory conduction of nerve impulse
• The speed of nerve impulses depends on both the diameter of the
axon and the amount of insulation it has

• Axons are myelinated in proportion to their diameter as large axon

have many layers of myelin, while smaller axons have fewer
wrappings

• Large axon have diameter of 20μm and can carry nerve impulses at
120m/sec while small axons have diameter of less than a tenth of a
micron and carry impulse far more slowly
 Classification of neurons
• Based on shape, neurons are broadly classified as:

Pseudounipolar: Have only one axon which is split into two

branches. Located within a dorsal root ganglion, responsible for
the sense of touch, pain and pressure.

Unipolar: characterized by one primary projection that serves as

both the axon and the dendrites. Most common neurons in
invertebrates.

Bipolar: Having an axon and a dendrite. Found in the retina and in

the olfactory system.

Multipolar: It has a cell body, a long axon, and many short

dendrites. Found in majority of neurons of the CNS.
 Based on their function

• Sensory (Afferent) neurons: these neurons are responsible for

carrying information towards the CNS.

• Interneurons: Local circuit neurons. Function is processing of

information.

• Motor (Efferent) neurons: responsible for carrying information

from the CNS towards the periphery.
 Glial cells (Glia)

• Also called as interstitial cells, neuroglia, or just glia

• The word "glia" literally means "neural glue"

• Supporting cells, and it can multiply by mitotic division

• Most abundant cell type in the central nervous system (10 times
than neuronal cells)

• This cells are important in normal functioning of the nervous

system
 Important functions of glial cells

• Participate in the blood brain barrier.

• Involved in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) production.

• Involved in calcium buffering and neurotransmitter reuptake.

• They release cytokines in disease processes and proliferate or

hypertrophy following injury.

• Provide pathways for neuronal migration during development and

for axonal guidance during regeneration.
 Types of glial cells

• Astrocytes

With the exception of microglia,

• Oligodendrocytes
which are derived from
mesodermal cells, all glial cells are
• Microglia derived from neuroectoderm

• Ependymal cells

• Schwann cells

• Satellite cells
1. Astrocytes: They look like stars, have more cytoplasm and lesser
organelles.
Two types:
1. Protoplasmic- found in gray matter
2. Fibrous- found in white matter

Important functions of Astrocytes:

 Participate in the blood brain barrier.
 As a result of injury, astrocyte tend to enlarge and proliferate
known as gliosis (glial scar).
 Regulating blood flow to the brain, provide nutrition to the
neurons.
 Reuptake the released neurotransmitter.
2. Oligodendrocytes (Oligodendroglia):
• Also found in both gray and white matter
• Have fewer and shorter processes than astrocytes.
• Main function is myelin sheath formation in the CNS.
• Multiple sclerosis disease in human being is one of the important
demyelinating disease.

3. Microglia:
• Smallest neuroglial cells.
• Called as macrophages of the CNS.
• Scattered throughout gray and white matter of CNS.
• Following injury, they proliferate, enlarge and display amoeboid
and phagocytic properties, thus ingest and digest tissue debris.
4. Ependymal cells:
• Makes the ependymal membrane in the brain ventricle and spinal
canal.
• Helps in CSF production.
• Also are involved in the BBB.

5. Schwann cells:
• function like oligodendrocytes for myelin sheaths formation in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS).
• Schwann cells are also part of the PNS's immune system.

6. Satellite cells:
• Satellite cells deliver nutrition to the neuron and absorb heavy
metal toxins.
• They're also believed to help in the transport of several
neurotransmitters.
 Degeneration & regeneration of nerve fibers

• There is little generation of new nerve cells once development is

completed.

• Although neurons can’t multiply by mitosis, damaged portion can

be replaced.

• When there is damage to axon, there will be some changes in the

soma & in portion distal to part of injury.

• These changes are broadly classified into two:

1. Axonal reaction (retrograde degeneration) 2. Wallerian
degeneration
 Axonal reaction
• When there is a damage to central or peripheral neuron, some of the
structural changes are seen in the soma
Chromatolysis:
 Disintegration of Nissl’s bodies.
 It happens 24-48 hours after injury
 It begins at the portion between nucleus & axon hillock and then
spreads to whole cell body results in increase in free ribosomes.
 Osmotic swelling occurs and nucleus may be pushed to one side (Off
centered nucleus)
 Wallerian degeneration
• Mostly the wallerian degeneration is confined to PNS neurons.

• 3-5 days after injury to the axon, the distal portion degenerate and
break up into fragments.

• Myelin sheath degenerate.

• The distal degenerating axons and myelin are removed by

macrophages.

• After a period of weeks, the Schwann cells on either side start

multiplying and the surviving axon begins to sprout and grow at
the rate of 1mm/day.
 Regeneration

Few Condition when cell have to regenerate:

1. Cell body must be intact.
2. Schwann cells must present with the nerve fiber.
3. Scar tissue formation should be slow enough.
Regeneration process:
 Following chromatolysis, RNA & protein synthesis are accelerated.
 Proteins will flow to the cut end of axon.
 Regenerating axon will sprout toward the distal end in the
Schwann cell covering.
 Myelin sheath is also formed.
 Division of nervous system

Based on location Based on function

Nervous system Nervous system

Central nervous Peripheral nervous Somatic Autonomic

System (CNS) System (PNS) (Brain, spinal cord, (Control
peripheral nerves) involuntary
(Control voluntary movements)
movements)
Brain Spinal cord
(Cerebrum,
Cerebellum,
Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric
Brain stem)
(Fight or flight) (Rest & digest state) (GI tract)
 Development of nervous system

• The CNS & PNS are derived from a thickened plate of ectoderm, the
neural plate, located dorsal to the notochord along the length of
the embryo

• The neural plate develops a shallow depression called the neural

groove

• As the groove deepens, the lips of the groove meet in the midline
and fuse, resulting in the formation of neural tube

• In the angle between the neural tube and overlying ectoderm on

either side lies a cluster of cells known as neural crest
• Central nervous system is derived from neural tube while the
peripheral nervous system develops mostly from neural crest cells.

• Neural crest cells also give rise to Schwann cells, melanocytes,

chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla and meninges.

• The lumen of the neural tube becomes the ventricular system of

the adult brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.
 Major brain division

Prosencephalon

Mesencephalon

Rhombencephalon
• At the early stage, the neural tube can be divided from the
rhombencephalon caudally into dorsal and ventral halves called as
alar plate and basal plate respectively.

• This division functionally correspond to sensory (dorsal) and motor

(ventral) regions of the spinal cord.
 Derivatives of neural tube
Primary Subdivision Lumen Major Cranial nerves
division derivatives
Prosencephalon Telencephalon Lateral Cerebral cortex I
ventricles Basal nuclei
Diencephalon Third ventricle Pineal, II
Thalamus,
Hypothalamus
Mesencephalon Mesencephalon Mesencephalic Tectum, III, IV
aqueduct Tegumentum
Rhombencepha Metencephalon Fourth Pons V
lon ventricles
Myelencephalo Fourth Cerebellum,
n ventricles Medulla VI, VII, VIII,
oblongata IX, X, XI, XII
Spinal cord Spinal cord Spinal canal Cervical,
Thoracic,
Lumbar, Sacral,
Coccygeal
 Brain ventricles and CSF

• Lateral ventricles (ventricles 1 and 2) in the cerebral hemisphere,

third ventricle in the diencephalon and fourth ventricle in the
medulla oblongata.

• The ventricular system is filled with CSF that is produced

continuously in the choroid plexus.

• CSF flows from the lateral ventricle into the third ventricle via the
interventricular foramina and from third to fourth ventricle via the
mesencephalic aqueduct (aqueduct of Sylvius).

• From the fourth ventricle, CSF flows into the spinal canal.

• CSF can be collected from the Cisterna magna and from the
subarachnoid space in the lumbar section of the spinal cord.
Nerves
 Division of nervous system

Based on location Based on function

Nervous system Nervous system

Central nervous Peripheral nervous Somatic Autonomic

System (CNS) System (PNS) (Brain, spinal cord, (Control
peripheral nerves) involuntary
(Control voluntary movements)
movements)
Brain Spinal cord
(Cerebrum,
Cerebellum,
Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric
Brain stem)
(Fight or flight) (Rest & digest state) (GI tract)
 Central nervous system
CNS is made up of
1. Brain
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Brain stem
(Midbrain, Pons and
Medulla Oblongata)

2. Spinal cord

Function- Memory,
problem solving and
input-output capabilties
Brain
Cerebrum
 Cerebrum

• Largest part of the brain

• Consist of
Cortex- Gray matter
Medulla- White matter
Basal nuclei- Previously known as basal
ganglia
Cortex

• Associated with conscious actions

• Seat of highest type of nervous corelation
• Posses motor area and sensory area
• Motor area works in contralateral fashion and its
size is directly related to the complexity of muscle
movement
• Sensory areas are somesthetic, visual, auditory
and olfactory
Medulla

• Consist of white matter

• Made up of:
Association fibers
Commisural fibers
Projection fibers

Brain stem

• Control semi-involuntary movements

• Highly developed in birds
 Cerebellum

• Collecting house for all the

information

• Prevent distortion of the

momentum

• Exert effect on the same side

of the body
 Brain Stem

Midbrain consist of
• Hypothalamus- pituitary gland
• Thalamus- relay center
• Epithalamus- pineal gland and olfactory center

Pons and Medulla Oblongata

• Regulate heart rate, vasomotor tone, respiratory and GIT
activity
 Nucleus Functions

Preoptic nucleus Thermoregulation

Supraoptic nucleus Vasopressin or ADH hormone
Paraventricular Oxytocin hormone
nucleus
Anterior Thermoregulation, Panting, Sweating.
hypothalamic nuclei
Suprachiasmatic Circadian rhythm
nuclei (SCN)
Lateral hypothalamic Hunger centre
nuclei
Ventral hypothalamic Satiety centre
nuclei
Dorso median nuclei Blood pressure, heart rate, GI stimulation
Mammillary nuclei Memory, learning, sleep.
 Peripheral nervous system

• The PNS consists of the nerves and ganglia outside

the brain and spinal cord.

• The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs
and organs, essentially serving as a relay between the brain and
spinal cord and the rest of the body.

• The cranial nerves are part of the PNS with the exception of
the optic nerve (cranial nerve II).

• The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract
of the diencephalon.
 Cranial nerves with their major function

I, II and VIII- Sensory, III, IV, VI, XI and XII- Motor

V, VII, IX and X- Mixed
 Terminology

• Nuclei : A nucleus is a nerve cell cluster or a group of nerve cell

bodies located inside the central nervous system.

• Ganglion: A ganglion is a nerve cell cluster or a group of nerve cell

bodies located outside the central nervous system
Autonomic Nervous System
Resting membrane potential
Action potential
Post synaptic potential
Refractory period
SYNAPSES CONSIST OF

1. A presynapticending that
contains neurotransmitters,
mitochondria and other cell
organelles
2. A postsynaptic ending that
contains receptor sites for
neurotransmitters and
3. A synaptic cleft or space
between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic endings. It is about
20nm wide.
Neurotransmitter
release
NEUROTRANSMITTER LIFE CYCLE

SYNTHESIS STORAGE

LIFE CYCLE

INACTIVATION RELEASE