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Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism
Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum

Edited by
Peter Schäfer (Princeton, NJ)
Annette Y. Reed (Philadelphia, PA)
Seth Schwartz (New York, NY)
Azzan Yadin (New Brunswick, NJ)

126
 Tal Ilan

Lexicon of Jewish Names

in Late Antiquity
Part III
The Western Diaspora 330 BCE – 650 CE

in collaboration with
Thomas Ziem

Mohr Siebeck
Tal Ilan, born 1956; 1991 Ph.D. on Jewish Women in Greco-Roman Palestine at the Hebrew Univer-
sity in Jerusalem; 1992–93 Guest Professor at Harvard; 1995 at Yale; 1997 at the Jewish Theological
Seminary, New York; 1998 at Frankfurt University; since 2003 Professor at the Freie Universität,
Berlin.

e-ISBN PDF 978-3-16-151459-3

ISBN 978-3-16-149673-8
ISSN 0721-8753 (Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism)
Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; de-
tailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at http: / /dnb.d-nb.de.

© 2008 by Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany.

This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copy-
right law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions,
translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems.
The book was typeset by Martin Fischer in Tübingen using Times typeface, printed by Gulde-Druck
in Tübingen on non-aging paper and bound by Buchbinderei Spinner in Ottersweier.
Printed in Germany.
Dedicated to my son
– Ido Garfinkel
 Acknowledgement

This is the second volume in this series. In the first volume, I had written that I need
two more volumes to complete this work, and that if they take me as long as the first
one has, I would complete the task in another forty years. This appraisal was both
too pessimistic and too optimistic. It has taken me only seven years to complete this
volume. But I am now convinced that I need, in addition to the volume I present
here, another two volumes (one for the Jews of Palestine 200–650 CE, to comple-
ment volume I and one for those of the eastern, Aramaic- and Arabic-speaking
Diaspora 330 BCE–650 CE). I am working on them intensively and I hope they too
will appear within the next couple of years.
The reason I was able to produce this volume within a reasonable time-span
is the generous funding I received for it from the German Research Association
(DFG – Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft), to which I am most grateful. This
grant allowed me to set up an onomastic-project at the Institute for Judaistik at the
Freie Universität, Berlin, and to employ an assistant, Thomas Ziem, without whom
the completion of this volume within these time limits would have been inconceiv-
able. Ziem has done much of the tedious and thankless work in this volume such
as cross-referencing, proof-reading and index compilation. He is also responsible
for the surprising and useful statistics presented at the end of the Introduction. I
am extremely grateful to him for all the effort and hard work he has put into this
volume. Thanks also go to Kerstin Hünefeld, Jeschua Hipp and Olaf Pinkpank, also
employed in the project, but working on the following volumes, who have all gener-
ously read and corrected the proofs of this volume at various stages.
Throughout the volume, I usually use material previously published. An excep-
tion to this is the book published by Colette Sirat, Les papyrus en charactères
hébraïques trouvés en Égypte (Paris 1985), which includes photographs of papyri,
but without suggested readings to them. I was helped in deciphering the names men-
tioned in these papyri by the wonderful epigraphist, and my friend, Ada Yardeni.
Much of the work for this volume was performed at the Freie Universität, Berlin,
but for some of the obscure publications mentioned in it I also had the benefit of the
Weidner Library in Harvard, the Sackler Library in Oxford and the National Library
in Jerusalem, the last of which I consider my second home. As before, I wish to
convey my particular thanks to this (last mentioned) library, and particularly to its
librarians of the Judaica Reading Room.
 Table of Contents

List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII

Lexicon of Jewish Names in Late Antiquity: Part III –

The Western Diaspora 330 BCE–650 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. The Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Transliteration and Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4. Find . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5. Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6. Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7. Provenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8. Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9. Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Biblical Names – Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Biblical Names – Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Greek Names – Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Greek Names – Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Latin Names – Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

Latin Names – Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

Persian Names – Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

Persian Names – Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626

Εgyptian Names – Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

Egyptian Names – Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656

X Table of Contents

Other (mostly Semitic) Names in the Hebrew Alphabet – Male . . . . . . . . . . . 663

Other (mostly Semitic) Names in the Hebrew Alphabet – Female . . . . . . . . . . 683

Other (mostly Semitic) Names in the Greek Alphabet – Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689

Other (mostly Semitic) Names in the Greek Alphabet – Female . . . . . . . . . . . 704

Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707

Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
Orthographical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
Index of the Names in English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
 List of Abbreviations

(Includes two kinds of abbreviations: 1. Abbreviations of references from the body of the
corpus; 2. Abbreviations of works cited more than once.)

Abd el-Ftah & Wagner, A. G. Abd el-Ftah and G. Wagner, “Épitaphes grecques
CRIPÉL 19 (1998) d’époque ptolémaïque de Sedment el-Gebel (IIe / Ier
siècles): une communauté juive dans la Chôra égyptienne,”
CRIPÉL 19 (1998) 85–96.
Abu’l Fath P. Stenhouse, The Kitab al-Tarikh of Abu’l Fath (Unpub-
lished PhD on microfiche) and translation (Sydney 1985).
Acta Philippi F. Bovon, B. Bouvier and F. Amsler, Acta Philippi (Corpus
Christianorum: Series Apocrypha 11; Brepols 1999).
Acta Xanthippae et Polyxenae M. R. James, in Apocrypha Anecdota (Texts and Studies 2;
Cambridge 1893) 58–85.
AE L’année épigraphique
AJA American Journal of Archaeology
Alexander, “Jewish Elements” P. Alexander, “Jewish Elements in Gnosticism and Magic,”
in W. D. Davies and J. Sturdy (eds.), The Cambridge His-
tory of Judaism 3 (Cambridge 1999) 1074–5.
Altercatio Simonis A. Harnack, “Die Altercatio Simonis Iudaei et Theophili
et Theophili Christiani nebst Untersuchungen über die antijüdische
Polemik in der alten Kirche,” Texte und Untersuchungen
zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur 1 / 3 (Leipzig
1883) 1–136.
AMB J. Naveh and S. Shaked, Amulets and Magic Bowls:
Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiquity (Jerusalem 1987).
Ameling, SCI 22 (2003) W. Ameling, “Eine jüdische Inschrift im Metropolitan
Museum, New York,” SCI 22 (2003) 241–55.
Anderson, JHS 19 (1899) J. G. C. Anderson, “Exploration in Galatia Cis Halym,
Part II,” JHS 19 (1899) 280–318.
AOFCI I. Eph‛al and J. Naveh, Aramaic Ostraca of the Fourth
Century BC from Idumaea (Jerusalem 1996).
APF Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete
Apfelbaum, Zion 19 (1954) S. Apfelbaum, “The Rebellion of the Jews of Cyrenaica in
the Times of Trajanus,” Zion 19 (1954) 23–56.
Archimedes, De Sphaera I. L. Heilberg (ed.), Archimedes, Opera Omnia I (Stuttgart
et Cylindro 1972).
Armoni, ZPE 132 (2000) C. Armoni, “Drei ptolemäische Papyri der Heidelberger
Sammlung,” ZPE 132 (2000) 225–39.
ASP American Studies in Papyrology
Audollent, DT, no. 271 A. Audollent, Defixionum Tabellae (Paris 1904) 373–8.
XII List of Abbreviations

Augustinus, Epistle 8* J. Divjak, Sancti Aureli Augustini Opera (Corpus Scrip-

torum Ecclesiartorum Latinarum 88; Vindobonae 1981)
41–2.
Avigad, IEJ 12 (1962) N. Avigad, “A Depository of Inscribed Ossuaries in the
Kidron Valley,” IEJ 12 (1962) 1–12.

B/F Biblical Female

B/M Biblical Male
Bakir-Barthel & Müller, S. Bakir-Barthel and H. Müller, “Inschriften aus der
ZPE 36 (1979) Umgebung von Saittai (II),” ZPE 36 (1979) 163–94.
Bartoletti, Milano V. Bartoletti, Papiri della Università degli studi di Milano
(P.Mil.Vogliano) 4 (Milano 1967).
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BCH Bulletin Correspondance Hellénique
Belivacque & de Romanis, G. Belivacque and F. de Romanis, “Nuova iscrizione
Rendiconti Series 9, 14 (2003) esorcistica daComiso,” Rendiconti Series 9, 14 (2003)
389–420.
Ben Zeev, Jewish Rights M. Pucci Ben Zeev, Jewish Rights in the Roman World:
The Greek and Roman Documents Quoted by Josephus
Flavius (Tübingen 1998).
Beth She’arim 2 B. Lifshitz and M. Schwabe, Beth She’arim II: The Greek
Inscriptions (Jerusalem 1976).
BGU 6 W. Schubart and E. Kuhn, Papyri und Ostraka der
Ptolemäerzeit (Ägyptische Urkunden aus den Staatlichen
Museen zu Berlin 6; Berlin 1922).
BGU 10, 2009 W. Müller, Papyrusurkunden aus ptolemäischer Zeit
(Ägyptische Urkunden aus den Staatlichen Museen zu
Berlin 10; Berlin 1970) 118.
BGU 12 W. Maehler, Papyri aus Hermupolis (Ägyptische Urkunden
aus den Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin 12; Berlin 1974).
BGU 13, 2319 W. M. Brashear, Greek Papyri from Roman Egypt (Ägyp-
tische Urkunden aus den Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin 13;
Berlin 1976) 145.
BGU 14 W. M. Brashear, Ptolämaische Urkunden aus Mumienkar-
tonage (Ägyptische Urkunden aus den Staatlichen Museen
zu Berlin 14; Berlin 1980).
Bingen, CÉ 55 (1980) J. Bingen, “Notes d’epigraphie grecque,” CÉ 55 (1980)
314–9.
Bitonto, Aegyptus 54 (1974) A. Di Bitonto, “Dichiarzione di censimento (?) (Papiri
documentari dell’università Cattolica di Milano),” Aegyp-
tus 54 (1974) 20–1.
Bogaert, ZPE 75 (1988) R. Bogaert, “Liste chronologiques des banquiers royaux
thébains 255–84 avant J.-C.,” ZPE 75 (1988) 115–38.
Bohak, “Good Jews, Bad Jews” G. Bohak, “Good Jews, Bad Jews and Non-Jews in Greek
Papyri and Inscriptions,” Akten des 21. Internationalen
Papyrologenkongresses Berlin, 13.–19.8.1995 (Archiv für
Papyrusforschung Beiheft 3; Stuttgart 1997) 109–10.
Bonner, Amulets C. Bonner, Studies in Magical Amulets Chiefly Greco-
Egyptian (Oxford 1950).
Brashear, ZPE 17 (1975) W. Brashear, “Vier Berliner Zaubertexte,” ZPE 17 (1975)
25–33.
 List of Abbreviations XIII

Buonopane, Epigraphica 57 A. Buonopane, “Schede e Notizie,” Epigraphica 57 (1995)

(1995) 187–302.

CA Josephus, Contra Apionem

Casanova, Aegyptus 62 (1982) G. Casanova, “Dai papiri della Collezione dell’Università
Cattolica,” Aegyptus 62 (1982) 65–8.
CCSL Corpus Christianorum Series Latina
CÉ Chronique d’Égypte
Ceylan & Corsten, EpA 25 A. Ceylan and T. Corsten, “Inscriptions from Laodikeia in
(1995) the Museum of Denizli,” Epigraphica Anatolica 25 (1995)
89–92.
Chain, Mélanges, 6 (1913) M. Chaine, “Sermon sur la Pénitence attribué à Sant-
Cyrille d’Alexandrie,” Mélanges de la faculté orientale,
Université Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth 6 (1913) 490–528.
Chase, HSCP 8 (1897) G. D. Chase, “The Origin of Roman Praenomina,” HSCP 8
(1897) 103–84.
Cheikho, Mélanges 14 (1929) L. Cheikho, “Catalogue raisonné des manuscrits de la
bibliothèque Orientale. VI. Controverses,” Mélanges de
la faculté orientale, Université Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth 14
(1929) 41–106.
CIJ J. B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaicarum (2 vols.;
Rome 1936–52).
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
CIS 4 / 2 Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum 4 / 2 (Paris 1911).
CJO L. Y. Rahmani, A Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries in the
Collections of the State of Israel (Jerusalem 1994).
CJZC G. Lüderitz, Corpus jüdischer Zeugnisse aus der
Cyrenaika (Wiesbaden 1983).
Clarysse, “Jews in Trikomia” W. Clarysse, “Jews in Trikomia,” in A. Bülow-Jacobsen
(ed.), Proceedings of the 20th International Congress of
Papyrologists, Copenhagen 1992 (Copenhagen 1994),
193–203.
Cohen, Beginnings of Jewishness S. J. D. Cohen, The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries,
Varieties, Uncertainties (Berkeley 1999).
Cohen, Lĕšonénu 38 (1974) N. G. Cohen, “The Greek and Latin Transcriptions Mariam
and Maria: Their Sociological Significance,” Lĕšonénu 38
(1974) 170–80 (Hebrew).
Cohen, “Shabtai” N. Cohen, “The Name ’Shabtai’ in the Hellenistic-Roman
Period,” in A. Demsky (ed.), These are the Names:
Studies in Jewish Onomastics (Ramat Gan 1999) 11*–28*
(Hebrew).
Conteléon, REG 13 (1900) Al.-Ém. Conteléon, “Inscriptions inédites,” REG 13 (1900)
493–503.
Conybeare, AZTA F. C. Conybeare, The Dialogues of Athanasius and Zac-
chaeus and of Timothy and Aquila (Anecdota Oxoniensia
viii; Oxford 1898).
Corell, ZPE 130 (2000) J. Corell, “Invocada la intervención de Iau en una defixio
de Sagunto (Valencia),” ZPE 130 (2000) 241–7.
Cousin, BCH 23 (1899) G. Cousin, “Termessos de Pisidie,” BCH 23 (1899)
165–93.
XIV List of Abbreviations

Cowley, JEA 2 (1915) A. E. Cowley, “Notes on Hebrew Papyrus Fragments from

Oxyrhynchus,” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 2 (1915)
209–13.
Cowley, JQR 16 (1904) A. E. Cowley, “Hebrew and Aramaic Papyri,” JQR 16
(1904) 1–8.
C. P.Gr 1, 8 M. M. Masciadri and O. Montevecchi, I Contratti di Bali-
atico (Corpora Papyrorum Graecum 1; Milano 1984) 76–9.
CPJ V. Tcherikover, A. Fuks and M. Stern, Corpus Papyrorum
Judaicarum (3 vols.; Cambridge MA, 1957–64).
CPR Corpus Papyrorum Raineri Archeducis Austriae (Wien).
CRIPÉL Cahier de Recherches de l’Institut de Papyrologie et
d’Égyptologie de Lille
Cronin, JHS 22 (1902) H. S. Cronin, “First Report of a Journey in Pisidia, Lycao-
nia and Pamphilia, Part II,” JHS 22 (1902) 338–76.
Cross, Leaves F. M. Cross, “The Hebrew Inscriptions from Sardis,” in
Leaves from an Epigrapher’s Notebook: Collected Papers
in Hebrew and West Semitic Epigraphy (Winona Lake
2003) 149–54.
CWSSS N. Avigad and B. Sass, Corpus of West Semitic Stamp
Seals (Jerusalem 1997).

Dagron & Feissel, Inscriptions G. Dagron and D. Feissel, Inscriptions de Cilicie (Paris
de Cilicie 1987).
Damascaius, Vitae Isidori C. Zintzen (ed.), Damascii Vitae Isidori Reliquiae (Hild-
esheim 1967).
Delehaye, AB 31 (1912) H. Delehaye, “Saints de Trace et de Mésie,” Analecta
Bollandiana 31 (1912) 161–300.
Demangel & Laumonier, R. Demangel and A. Laumonier, “Inscriptions d’Ionie,”
BCH 46 (1922) BCH 46 (1922) 307–55.
Derda, ZPE 115 (1997) T. Derda, “Did the Jews use the Name of Moses in Anti-
quity?” ZPE 115 (1997), 257–60.
Di-Segni, SCI 13 (1994) L. Di-Segni, “ in Palestinian Inscriptions,” SCI 13
(1994) 94–115.
Doctrina Jacobi V. Déroche, “Doctrina Jacobi Nuper Baptizati,” T & M Byz
11 (1991) 47–219.
Donadoni, Egyptian Religion S. Donadoni, “Due epitaffii acquistati a Tebe,” in W. Clar-
ysse, A. Schoors, H. Willem (eds.), Egyptian Religion the
Last Thousand Years: Studies Dedicated to the Memory of
Jan Quaegebeur 1 (Leuven 1998) 357–8.
Drew-Bear, Greek, Roman and T. Drew-Bear, “Local Cults in Greco-Roman Phrygia,”
Byzantine Studies 17 (1976) Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 17 (1976) 247–68.
Drew-Bear et al., Phrygian T. Drew-Bear, C. M. Thomas and M. Yildizturan, Phrygian
Votive Steles Votive Steles (Turkey 1999).
Dunst, APF 16 (1958) G. Dunst, “Ciakav,”Archiv für Papyrusforschung und
verwandte Gebiete 16 (1958) 169–89.

E/F Egyptian Female

E/M Egyptian Male
ECASS R. Pummer, Early Christian Authors on Samaritans and
Samaritanism (Tübingen 2002).
EI Eretz Israel
 List of Abbreviations XV

EJ Encyclopedia Judaica
Emmanuel, MGWJ 74 (1930) J. S. Emmanuel, “Saloniker Grabschriften aus dem 16. und
17. Jahrhundert,” MGWJ 74 (1930) 421–9.
Engel, Lĕšonénu 53 (1989) E. Engel, “A Palaeographic Study of Oxford Ms. Heb d.69
(P),” Lĕšonénu 53 (1989) 265–86 (Hebrew).
Epistola Anne ad Senecam Epistola Anne ad Senecam, in B. Bischoff, Anecdota
Novissima. Texte des vierten bis sechzehnten Jahrhunderts
(Stuttgart 1984) 1–9.
ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel
Esteban, SP 7 (1968) F. Díaz Estaban, “Cuatro nuevos papiros hebreos postcris-
tianos,” Studia Papyrologica 7 (1968) 111–28.
Études Thasiennes 3, 20, no. 3 J. Pouilloux, Recherches sur l’histoire et les cultes de
Thasos 1: De la fondation de la cité à 196 avant J.-C.
(Études Thasiennes 3; Paris 1954) 20, no. 3.
Excerpta Latina Barbari S. J. D. Cohen, “Sosates the Jewish Homer,” HTR 74
(1981) 391–6.

Feissel, REG 113 (2000) D. Feissel, “Bulletin Épigraphique,” REG 113 (2000) 598.
Ferrua, Historiam pictura A. Ferrua, “Ultime iscrizioni di S. Sebastioni,” in
Historiam pictura Referet: Miscellanea in onore di Padre
Alejandro Recio Veganzones O. F. M. (Vatican 1994)
231–6.
Ferrua, Sicilia A. Ferrua, Notes e giunte all iscrizioni Cristiane antiche
della Sicilia (Vatican 1989).
Fiema, JARCE 22 (1985) Z. T. Fiema, “A Hebrew Inscription from Komm el-Dikka,
Alexandria, Egypt,” Journal of the American Research
Center in Egypt 22 (1985) 117–8.
Fikhman, “CPJ IV” I. F. Fikhman, “L’état des travaux au ’Corpus Papyrorum
Judaicarum’ IV,” Akten des 21. Internationalen
Papyrologenkongresses: Berlin 13.–19.8.1995 (Archiv
für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete Beiheft 3;
Stuttgart 1997) 290–6.
Fikhman, SCI 13 (1994) I. F. Fikhman, “Review of P. Sta. Xyla. The Byzantine
Papyri of the Greek Papyrological Society,” SCI 13 (1994)
210–5.
Fikhman, SCI 15 (1996) I. F. Fikhman, “Les Juifs d’Égypte à l’époque byzantine
d’apres les papyrus publiés depuis la parrution du “Corpus
papyrorum Judaicarum” III,” SCI 15 (1996) 223–9.
Fischer, Novae Concordantiae B. Fischer, Novae Concordantiae Bibliorum Sacrorum
iuxta Vulgatam Versionem Critice Editam (Stuttgart 1977).
Foraboschi, Onomasticon D. Foraboschi, Onomasticon Alterum Papyrologicum
(Supplemento al Namenbuch di F. Preisigke) (Milano
1967).
Forselv, Symbolae Osloenses 57 I. L. Forselv, “Two Papyri from the Oslo Collection,”
(1982) Symbolae Osloenses 57 (1982) 127–36.

G/F Greek Female

G/M Greek Male
Galen, Compositione C. G. Kuhn (ed.), Claudii Galeni Opera Omnia 13
Medicamentorum (Leipzig 1827) 362–1058.
XVI List of Abbreviations

Gascou, CRIPÉL 7 (1985) J. Gascou, “Papyrus Michigan XIII 665: complément

textual – notes critiques,” CRIPÉL 7 (1985) 129–35.
GCS 3 n. F. G. C. Hansen, Theodorus Anagnostes, Kirchengeschichte,
(Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten
Jahrhunderte 3. neue Folge; Berlin 1995).
Gelasius, fr. 43; 45 A. Thiel, Epistolae romanorum pontificium genuinae 1
(Brunswick 1868) 506–8.
Giarbina, Meligunìs Lipára, 1 R. Giarbina, Meligunìs Lipára, Vol. XI Parte 1 di gli
scavinella necropolis Greca e Romana di Lipari nell’area
del Terrano Vescovile (Sicily 2001).
GLAJJ M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism
(3 vols.; Jerusalem 1974–84).
Goodenough, Jewish Symbols E. R. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman
Period (13 vols.; New York 1953).
Grafton, El Arabah J. Grafton-Milne, “On the Greek Graffiti,” in J. Garstang,
El Arabah: A Cemetery of the Middle Kingdom: Survey
of the Old Kingdom Temenos: Graffiti from the Temple of
Sety (London 1901) 37–9.
Grégoire, BCH 33 (1909) H. Grégoire, “Rapport sur un voyage d’exploration dans le
Pont et en Cappadoce,” BCH 33 (1909) 3–147.
Griveaux, Revue de l’Orient R. Griveaux, “Histoire de la conversion des Juifs habitant
Chrétienne 13 (1908) la ville de Tomei en Égypte d’après d’anciens manuscrits
arabes,” Revue de l’Orient Chrétien (2nd Series 3 (1908))
298–313.

H & R Suppl. E. Hatch and H. A. Redpath, A Concordance to the

Septuagint and the Other Greek Versions of the Old Testa-
ment (Including the Apocryphal Books) Supplement (Graz
1975).
Hagel & Tomaschitz, S. Hagel and K. Tomaschitz, Repertorium der west-
Westkilikische Inschriften kilikischen Inschriften (Wien 1998).
Harding, ICPIANI G. Lankester Harding, An Index and Concordance of Pre-
Islamic Arabian Names and Inscriptions (Toronto 1971).
Harvey, ‘Good Jews’ G. Harvey, “Synagogues of the Hebrews: ’Good Jews’
in the Diaspora,” in S. Jones and S. Pearce, Jewish Local
Patriotism and Self Identification in the Greco-Roman Pe-
riod (JSP Supplement Series 31; Sheffield 1998) 132–47.
Heltzer & Ohana, Extra- M. Heltzer and M. Ohana, The Extra-Biblical Tradition of
Biblical Tradition Hebrew Personal Names (Haifa 1978) (Hebrew).
Hicks, JHS 12 (1891) E. L. Hicks, “Inscriptions from Western Cilicia,” Journal
of Hellenistic Studies 12 (1891) 225–73.
Holladay, Fragments C. R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic-Jewish
Authors 1–4 (Chico CA; Atlanta GA 1983–96).
Homolle, BCH 18 (1894) T. Homolle, “Nouvelle et correspondance,” BCH 18
(1894) 175–200.
Honeyman, PEQ 93 (1961) A. M. Honeyman, “Two Semitic Inscriptions from Malta,”
PEQ 93 (1961) 151–3.
Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs P. W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs (Kampen
1992).
Hyman, Toldoth A. Hyman, Toldoth tannaim ve-amoraim (3 vols.; London
1910) (Hebrew).
 List of Abbreviations XVII

ICUR 7 J. B. De Rossi and A. Ferrua, Inscriptiones Christianae

Urbis Romae 7 (Rome 1980).
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
IG Inscriptionum Graecum
IGR 3 R. Cagnat and G. Lafaye, Inscriptiones Graecae ad res
Romanes Pertinentes 3 (Paris 1906).
IGUR L. Moretti, Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae 3 (Rome
1979).
IJO 1 D. Noy, A. Panayotov and H. Bloedhorn, Inscriptiones
Judaicae Orientis I: Eastern Europe (Tübingen 2004).
IJO 2 W. Ameling, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis II: Kleinasien
(Tübingen 2004).
IJO 3 D. Noy and H. Bloedhorn, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis
III: Syria and Cyprus (Tübingen 2004).
Ilan, “Yohana bar Makoutha” T. Ilan, “Yohana bar Makoutha and Other Pagans Bearing
Jewish Names,” in A. Demsky (ed.) These are the Names:
Studies in Jewish Onomastics 3 (Ramat Gan 2002)
109–20.
Iohannis Ephesini, Historiae E. W. Brooks (ed.), Iohannis Ephesini, Historiae Ecclesi-
asticae (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium
54–5; Louvain 1952).
Israeli, Ancient Glass Y. Israeli, Ancient Glass in the Israel Museum: The Eliahu
Dobkin Collection and other Gifts (Jerusalem 2003).

Jastrow, DTTBYML M. Jastrow, A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud

Babli and Yerushalmi and the Midrashic Literature (New
York 1926).
JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies
JIGRE W. Horbury and D. Noy, Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-
Roman Egypt (Cambridge 1992).
JIWE 1 D. Noy, Jewish Inscriptions of Western Europe, Volume
1: Italy (Excluding Rome), Spain and Gaul (Cambridge
1993).
JIWE 2 D. Noy, Jewish Inscriptions of Western Europe, Volume 2:
The City of Rome (Cambridge 1993).
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review
JSQ Jewish Studies Quarterly
Justi, INB F. Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch (Marburg 1895).

Kasovsky, Mishnae C. Y. Kasovsky, Thesaurus Mishnae: Concordantiae

Verborum quae in Sex Mishnae Ordinibus Reperiuntur
(4 vols.; Tel Aviv 1957).
Kasowski, Thosephthae C. J. Kasowski, Thesaurus Thosephthae: Concordantiae
Verborum que in Sex Thosephthae Ordinibus Reperiuntur
(6 vols.; Jerusalem 1958).
Kaufmann, REJ 13 (1886) D. Kaufmann, “La synagogue de Hammam-Lif,” REJ 13
(1886) 46–61.
Kiouritzian, Cyclades G. Kiouritzian, Recueil des inscriptions Grecques Chré-
tiennes de Cyclades de la fin du IIIe au VIIe siècle après
J.-C. (Paris 2000).
XVIII List of Abbreviations

Klevan, Qadmoniot 12 (1979) A. Klevan, “Hebrew Inscriptions on Ossuaries Discovered

in Central Asia,” Qadmoniot 12 (1979) 91–2 (Hebrew).
Knibbe et al., JÖAI 59 (1989) D. Knibbe, H. Engelmann and B. Ipilikçioğlu, “Neue
Inschriften aus Ephesos,” Jahreshefte des Österreichischen
Archäologischen Instituts 59 (1989) 162–238.
Kolbe, AM 32 W. Kolbe, “Arbeiten zu Pergamon, IV. Ephebienlisten”,
Mitteilungen des Archäologischen Instituts 32 (1907)
415–73.
Kosovsky, Yerushalmi M. Kosovsky, Concordance to the Talmud Yerushalmi:
Onomasticon Thesaurus of Proper Names (Jerusalem
1985).
Kosowsky, Babylonico B. Kosowsky, Thesaurus Nominus quae in Talmude
Babilonico Reperiuntur (5 vols.; Jerusalem 1976–83).
Kotansky et al., Muséon 105 R. Kotansky, J. Naveh and S. Shaked, “A Greek-Aramaic
(1992) Silver Amulet from Egypt in the Ashmolean Museum,” Le
Muséon 105 (1992) 5–24.
Kotansky, Paul J. Getty R. Kotansky, “Two Amulets in the Getty Museum: A Gold
Museum Journal 8 (1980) Amulet for Aurelia’s Epilepsy,” Paul J. Getty Museum
Journal 8 (1980) 181–4.
Kraemer, HTR 82 (1989) R. S. Kraemer, “On the Meaning of the Term ’Jew’ in
Greco Roman Inscriptions,” HTR 82 (1989) 35–53.
Kraemer, HTR 84 (1991) R. S. Kraemer, “Jewish Tuna and Christian Fish: Identify-
ing Religious Affiliation in Epigraphic Sources,” HTR 84
(1991) 141–62.
Kropp, Koptische Zaubertexte A. M. Kropp, Ausgewählte koptische Zaubertexte (3 vols.;
Bruxelles 1931).

L/F Latin Female

L/M Latin Male
LA Liber Annuus
Łajtar, JJP 33 (2003) A. Łajtar, “Notationes Legentis,” Journal of Juristic
Papyrology 33 (2003) 181–7.
Le Bohec, Ant. Afr. Y. Le Bohec, “Inscriptions Juives et Judaïantes de
l’Afrique Romaine,” Antiquités Africaines 17 (1981)
165–207.
Leon, Jews of Rome H. Leon, The Jews of Ancient Rome (Philadelphia 1960).
LGPN I P. M. Fraser and E. Matthews, A Lexicon of Greek
Personal Names I: The Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Cyrenaica
(Oxford 1987).
LGPN II M. J. Osborne and S. G. Byrne, A Lexicon of Greek
Personal Names II: Attica (Oxford 1994).
LGPN IIIA P. M. Fraser and E. Matthews, A Lexicon of Greek
Personal Names IIIA: The Peloponnese, Western Greece,
Sicily and Magna Graeca (Oxford 1997).
LGPN IIIB P. M. Fraser and E. Matthews, A Lexicon of Greek
Personal Names IIIB: Central Greece from Megarid to
Thessaly (Oxford 2000).
LGPN IV P. M. Fraser and E. Matthews, A Lexicon of Greek Per-
sonal Names IV: Macedonia, Thrace, Northern Regions of
the Black Sea (Oxford 2005).
 List of Abbreviations XIX

Lifschitz B. Lifschitz, Donateurs et Fondateurs dans les Syna-

gogues Juives (Cahiers de la RB 7; Paris 1967).
Lifschitz, “Names and D. Lifschitz, “Humorous Names and Nicknames in the
Nicknames” Talmud,” in A. Demsky (ed.), These are the Names:
Studies in Jewish Onomastics 3 (Ramat Gan 2002) 95–110
(Hebrew).
Lifschitz, “Prolegomenon” B. Lifschitz, “Prolegomenon,” in CIJ 1, 21–107.
Lifshitz, SCI 2 (1975) B. Lifshitz, “Notes philologiques et épigraphiques,” SCI 2
(1975) 97–109.
Linder, JRIL A. Linder, The Jews in Roman Imperial Legislation
(Jerusalem 1987).
Liesker & Tromp, ZPE 66 W. H. M. Liesker and A. M. Tromp, “Zwei ptolemäische
(1986) Papyri aus der Wiener Papyrussammlung,” ZPE 66 (1986)
79–89.
Lipiński, Studies E. Lipiński, Studies in Aramaic Inscriptions and Onomas-
tics (Leuvan 1975).
Loewe, JTS 24 (1923) 129 H. Loewe, “The Petrie-Hirschfeld Papyri,” Journal of
Theological Studies 24 (1923) 126–41.
Lomia, Studi Magrebini 6 M. R. Lomia, “Iscrizione Punica in carratteri Greci sulla
(1974) base di una parasta dell’arco de Marco Aurelio a Leptis
Magna,” Studi Magrebini 6 (1974) 45–50.

Malalas, Chronographia I. Thurn (ed.), Ioannnis Malalae, Chronographia (Corpus

Fontium Historiae Byzantinae 35; Berlin 2000).
Malay, Greek & Latin H. Malay, Greek and Latin Inscriptions in the Manisa
Inscriptions Museum, Wien (1994).
MAMA Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua
Manganaro, PdP 52 (1997) G. Manganaro, “Nouve tavolette di piombo inscritte
Siceliote,” Parola del Passato: Rivista di studi antichi 52
(1997) 306–41.
Mann, Gardens and Ghettos V. Mann, Gardens and Ghettos: The Art of Jewish Life in
Italy (Berkeley 1989).
Mareck, EpA 32 (2000) C. Mareck, “Der höchste, beste, größte, allmächtige Gott,”
Epigraphica Anatolica 32 (2000) 129–46.
Mastrocinque, JSJ 33 (2002) A. Mastrocinque, “Studies in Gnostic Gems: The Gem
of Judah,” Journal for the Study of Judaism 33 (2002)
164–70.
Mastrokostas, REA 66 (1964) E. Mastrokostas, “Inscriptions de Locride et de Thessalie,”
Revue des Études Anciennes 66 (1964) 291–319.
McGiffert, Christian and Jew A. C. McGiffert, Dialogue Between a Christian and a Jew
(Marburg 1889).
Merkelbach, IK 16 R. Merkelbach and J. Nollé (eds.), Inschriften griechischer
Städte aus Kleinasien 16: Ephesos (Bonn 1980).
Merkelbach et al., IK 17 R. Meric, R. Merkelbach, J. Nollé and S. Sahin (eds.),
Inschriften griechischer Städte aus Kleinasien 17: Ephesos
(Bonn 1981).
MGWJ Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des
Judentums
Miller, RA 21 (1870) E. Miller, “Inscription Grecque trouvée a Memphis,”
Revue Archéologique 21 (1870) 109–25.
XX List of Abbreviations

Miranda, Capri E. Miranda, “Le iscrizioni Latine,” in E. Federico and

E. Miranda (eds.), Capri Antica dalla preistoria alla fine
dell’età romana (Capri 1998) 343–71.
Miranda, EA 31 (1999) E. Miranda, “La comunità giudaica di Hierapolis di Frigia”
Epigraphica Anatolica 31 (1999) 109–55.
Mishor, Lĕšonénu 53 (1989) M. Mishor, “A New Edition of a Hebrew Letter: Oxford
Ms. Heb.d.69 (P),” Lĕšonénu 53 (1989) 215–64 (Hebrew).
Mishor, Lĕšonénu 55 (1991) M. Mishor, “Papyrus Fragments in Hebrew Letters,”
Lĕšonénu 55 (1991) 279–88.
Monceaux, RA 40 (1902) P. Monceaux, “Païns judaïsants: Essai d’explications d’une
inscription Africaine,” Revue Archéologique 40 (1902)
208–26.
Montevecchi, Aegyptus 63 O. Montevecchi et alteri, “Papiri documentari
(1983) dell’Universitta Cattolicà di Milano,” Aegyptus 63 (1983)
4–96.
Mussies, “Jewish Personal G. Mussies, “Jewish Personal Names in Some Non-
Names” Literary Sources,” in J. W. van Henten and P. W. van der
Horst (eds.) Studies in Early Jewish Epigraphy (Leiden
1994) 242–76.
ms(s) Manuscript(s)
MSF J. Naveh and S. Shaked, Magic Spells and Formulae:
Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiquity (Jerusalem 1993).

Nachtergael, MA 27 (1994) G. Nachtergael, “Ostraca du Musée Archéologique de

Cracovie (O. Mus. Cracovie),” Materialy Archeologiczne
27 (1994) 39–54.
Nagel, CÉ 49 (1974) M. Nagel, “Un Samaritain dans l’Arsinoïte au IIe siècle
après J.-C. (à propos du nom Sambas)” CÉ 49 (1974)
356–65.
Nau, Oriens Christianus 3 F. Nau, “Le texte grec récits utiles à l’âme d’Anastase
(1903) (le Sinaïte),” Oriens Christianus 3 (1903) 56–90.
Naveh, OMS J. Naveh, On Stone and Mosaic: The Aramaic and Hebrew
Inscriptions from Ancient Synagogues (Jerusalem 1978)
(Hebrew).
Negev, Qedem 32 A. Negev, Personal Names in the Nabatean Realm
(Qedem 32; Jerusalem 1991).
Nielsen & Worp, ZPE 149 B. E. Nielsen and K. A. Worp, “New Papyri from the New
(2004) York University Collection, IV,” ZPE 149 (2004) 103–24.
Noth, IPRGN M. Noth, Die israelitischen Personennamen im Rahmen
der gemeinsemitischen Namengebung (Stuttgart 1928).
Nystrom, HTR 74 (1981) B. P. Nystrom, “A Symbol of Hope from Thessalonica,”
HTR 74 (1981) 325–30.

O. Ashm. Shelton 42 J. C. Shelton, Greek Ostraca in the Ashmolean Museum

(Papyrologica Florentina 17; Firenze 1988) 48–9.
O. Claud. 32 J. Bingen, A. Bülow-Jacobsen, W. E. H. Cockle, H.
Cuvigny, L. Rubinstein and W. Van Rengen, Mons
Claudianus: Ostraca Graeca et Latina I (O. Claud. 1 à
190) (Institut Français d’archéologie orientale du Caire,
Documents de fouilles 29; 1992) 51.
 List of Abbreviations XXI

O. Heid. 1, 18, 19, 325 C. Armoni, J. M. S. Cowey and D. Hagedorn, Die grie-
chischen Ostraka der Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung
(Heidelberg 2005) 3, 24–25, 296–7.
O. Leiden 377 R. S. Bagnell, P. J. Sijpesteijn and K. A. Worp, Greek
Ostraca (Zutphen 1980) 165.
Oehler, MGWJ 53 (1909) J. Oehler, “Epigraphische Beiträge zur Geschichte des Ju-
dentums,” MGWJ 53 (1909) 292–302; 443–542; 525–38.
Olympiodorus M. P. E. Berthelot, Collection des ancients alchemiste grecs
2 (Paris 1888) 69–106.
Orsi, Römische Quartalschrift P. Orsi, “Gli Scavi a S. Giovanni di Siracusa,” Römische
10 (1896) Quartalschrift 10 (1896) 1–59.
Ovadiah, Te’uda 12 (1997) A. Ovadiah, “Jewish Communities in Macedonia and
Trace in Late Antiquity,” Te’uda 12 (1997) 39*–51*
(Hebrew).

P/F Persian Female

P/M Persian Male
P. Amst. 93 R. P. Salomons, P. J. Sijpesteijn and K. A. Worp, Die
Amsterdamer Papyri I (Zutphen 1980) 200.
P. Ant. III, 189 J. W. B. Barns and H. Zilliacus, The Antinoopolis Papyri III
(London 1967) 160–1.
P. Bodl. 8 R. P. Salomons, Papyri Bodleianae 1 (Amsterdam 1996)
19–22.
P. Brooklyn 15 J. C. Shelton, Greek and Latin Papyri, Ostraca and
Wooden Tablets in the Collection of the Brooklyn Museum
(Papyrologica Florentina 22; Firenze 1992) 25–6.
P. Cair. Zen. 59701 C. C. Edgar, Catalogue Général du Antiquités Égyptiennes
du Musée du Caire Nos. 59532–59800: Zenon Papyri
(Cairo 1931) 130–1.
P. Enteuxeis 64, 82 O. Guéraud, Enteuxeis: Requêtes et plaintes adressées
au roi d’Égypte au IIIe Siècle avant J.-C. (Cairo 1931)
157–60; 198–9.
P. Harrauer 33 G. Messeri, “Registro di pagamenti del SUNTAXIMON
(in un quartiere Ebraico?),” in B. Palme (ed.), Wiener
Papyri als Festgabe zum 60. Geburtstag von Hermann
Harrauer (Wien 2001) 81–92.
P. Haun. 25 A. Bülow-Jacobson, “Petition to the Strategus Dionysod-
orus,” in H. Melaerts (ed.), Papyri in Honorem Johannis
Bingen Octogenarii (Leuven 2000) 241–3.
P. Heid IV, 333 B. Kramer and D. Hagedorn, Griechische Texte der
Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung (P. Heid IV) (Heidelberg
1986) 225–36.
P. Heid VI, 382 R. Duttenhöfer, Ptolemäische Urkunden aus der Heidel-
berger Papyrus-Sammlung (P. Heid. VI) (Heidelberg 1994)
147–53.
P. Heid. VIII, 417 D. Kaltsas, Dokumentarische Papyri des 2 Jh. v. Chr. aus
dem Herakleopolites (P. Heid VIII) (Heidelberg 2001).
P. Herm. no. 40; 52–3 B. R. Rees, Papyri from Hermopolis and Other Documents
of the Byzantine Period (London 1964) 80–1; 89.
P. Kell. G 61 K. A. Worp, Greek Papyri from Kellis: I (P.Kell.G) Nos
1–90 (Oxbow Monograph 54; Oxford 1995) 62–4.
XXII List of Abbreviations

P. L. Bat. 25, 27 F. A. J. Hoogendijk and P. Van Minnen, Papyri, Ostraca,

Parchments and Waxed Tablets in the Leiden Papyrologi-
cal Institute (P. L. Bat. 25) (Leiden 1991) 134–40.
P. Mich. XII 638 G. M. Browne, Michigan Papyri (P.Mich XII) (ASP 14;
Toronto 1975) 45–6.
P. Mich. XIII 662, 40 P. J. Sijpesteijn (ed.), The Aphrodite Papyri in the Univer-
sity of Michigan Collection (P. Mich. XIII) (Zutphen 1977)
43–54 (line 40).
P. Mich. 224 H. C. Youtie, V. B. Schuman and O. M. Pearl, Tax Rolls
from Karanis (Michigan Papyri 4; Ann Arbor 1936).
P. Mich. Inv. Nr. 880 E. A. Hanson, “Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabes and
Ioudaioi in the First Century A. D. Tax Archive from
Philadelphia: P. Mich. Inv. Nr. 880 Recto and P. Princ. III
152 Revised,” in J. H. Johnson (ed.), Life in a Multicultural
Society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond
(Chicago 1992) 133–48.
P. Michigan Koenen 781 J. Dillery, “A List of Ptolemaic Cleruchs,” in P. Michigan
Koenen (=P. Mich XVIII): Michigan Texts Published in
Honor of Ludwig Koenen (Amsterdam 1996) 167–89.
P. Oxy. 2599 J. W. B. Barns, P. Parson, J. Rea and E. G. Turner, The
Oxyrhynchus Papayri 31 (1966) 161–5.
P. Oxy. 3125 J. R. Rea, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 43 (London 1975)
90–3.
P. Oxy. 3203 A. K. Bowman, M. W. Haslam, J. C. Shelton and J. D. Tho-
mas, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 44 (London 1976) 182–4.
P. Oxy. 3314 J. R. Rea, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 46 (London 1978)
103–5.
P. Oxy. 3574 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 50 (London 1983) 183–7.
P. Oxy. 3805 J. R. Rea, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 55 (London 1988)
144–74.
P. Oxy. 4611–2 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 67 (London 2001) 222–9.
P. Petrie 2.28, 3.66 J. P. Mahaffy, The Flinders Petrie Papyri 2 (Dublin 1893)
87–96; 3 (Dublin 1905) 187–90.
P. Sorb. II 69 J. Gascou, Un Codex Fiscal Hermopolite (P. Sorb. II 69)
(ASP 32; Atlanta GA 1994).
P. Stras. 361, 609, 686 J. Schwartz, Papyrus Grecs de la Bibliothèque Nationale
et Universitaire de Strasbourg Nos. 301–500 (Strasbourg
1973) vol. III, 76–7; vol. V 1–2 (1976) 15; Vol. IX–4
(1988) 109–10.
P. Sta. Xyla 5 B. G. Mandilaras, P. Sta. Xyla: The Byzantine Papyri of the
Greek Papyrological Society 1 (Athens 1993) 29–37.
P. Vars. 16 G. Manteuffel, L. Zawadowski and C. Rosenberg, Papyri
Varsovienses (Warsaw 1935) 31–2.
P. Vindob. Tandem 15 P. J. Sijpestein and K. A. Worp, Fünfunddreissig Wiener
Papyri (P. Vindob. Tandem) (Zutphen 1976) 93–103.
P. Wash. Univ 26 V. B. Schuman, Washington University Papyri I: Non-
Literary Texts (ASP 17; 1980) 39–40.
P. Wisc. 57 P. J. Sijpsteijn, The Wisconsin Papyri II (Zutphen 1977)
71–2.
P. XV Congr. 15, 30 O. M. Pearl, “Document on the Episkepsis at Karanis,”
in Papyrus Inédits (P. XV Congr.): Actes du XVe Congrès
 List of Abbreviations XXIII

International du Papyrologie 2 (Bruxelles 1979) 75–88

(line 30).
P. Zenon 2184 T. C. Skeat, Greek Papyri in the British Museum VII: The
Zenon Archive (London 1974) 268–9.
Pannacchietti, Atti Torino 101 F. A. Pannacchietti, “Nuove iscrizioni di Hierapolis
(1966–7) 2 Frigia,” Atti della Accademia delle Scienze di Torino 101
(1966–7) 2: 287–328.
Parássoglou, Studia G. M. Parássoglou, “A Daybook of Grain Receipts,”
Papyrologica 14 (1975) Studia Papyrologica 14 (1975) 85–102.
PC Papyrologica Coloniensia
PC 4 (1969) U. and D. Hagedorn, L. and H. Youtie, Das Archiv des
Petaus (P. Petaus) (PC 4; Opladen 1969).
PC 7 (1980) B. Kramer, M. Erler, D. Hagedorn and R. Hübner, Kölner
Papyri (P. Kölner) Band 3 (PC 7; Opladen 1980).
PC 12 (1986) C. Sirat, P. Caudelier, M. Dukan and M. A. Friedman,
La Ketouba de Cologne: Un Contract de Mariage juif à
Antinoopolis (PC 12; Opladen 1986).
PC 22 / 1 (1994) R. Kotansky, Greek Magical Amulets: The Inscribed Gold,
Silver, Copper and Bronze Lamellae. Part I: Published
Texts of Known Provenance (PC 22 / 1; Köln 1994).
PC 29 (2001) J. M. S. Cowey and K. Maresch, Urkunden des Politeuma
der Juden von Herakleopolis (144 / 3–133 / 2 v. Chr.)
(P. Polit Iud) (PC 29; Wiesbaden 2001).
PEFQS Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement
PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly
Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite W. M. Flinders-Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite Cities (London
Cities 1906).
PG J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus: Series Graeca
(161 vols.; Paris 1886).
PGM K. Preisendanz, Papyri Graecae Magicae: Die Grie-
chischen Zauberpapyri (3 vols.; Stuttgart 1931).
PL J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus: Series Latina
(221 vols.; Paris 1844–90).
Preisigke, Namenbuch F. Preisigke, Namenbuch: Enthaltend alle griechischen,
lateinischen, ägyptischen, hebräischen, arabischen und
sonstigen semitischen und nichtsemitischen Menschen-
namen, soweit sie in griechischen Urkunden (Papyri,
Ostraka, Inschriften, Mumienschildern usw.) Ägyptens sich
vorfinden (Heidelberg 1922).
Preisigke, SB F. Preisigke, Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus
Ägypten
Price, SCI 22 (2003) J. J. Price, “Five Inscriptions from Jaffa,” SCI 22 (2003)
215–31.
PT Palestinian Talmud (=Yerushalmi)
PW Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswis-
senschaft: Neue Bearbeitung begonnen von Georg
Wissowa.

Rabello, Te’uda 12 (1997) M. Rabello, “The Situation of the Jews in Roman Spain,”
Te‛uda 12 (1997) 160–90.
XXIV List of Abbreviations

Rajak, “Archisynagogoi” T. Rajak, “Archisynagogoi: Office, Title and Social Status

in the Greco-Jewish Synagogue,” in The Jewish Dialogue
with Greece and Rome (Leiden 2001) 393–429.
Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics W. M. Ramsay, The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia:
Being an Essay on the Local History of Phrygia from the
Earliest Times to the Turkish Conquest (2 vols.; Oxford
1897).
Ramsay, BCH 7 (1883) W. M. Ramsay, “Unedited Inscriptions of Asia Minor”,
BCH 7 (1883) 297–328.
Ramsay, REG 2 (1889) W. M. Ramsay, “Inscriptions d’Asie Mineure,” REG 2
(1889) 17–37.
RB Revue Biblique
Reifenberg, Ancient A. Reifenberg, Ancient Hebrew Arts (New York 1950).
Hebrew Arts
Reifenberg, PEQ 71 (1939) A. Reifenberg, “Ancient Jewish Stamps,” PEQ 71 (1939)
193–4.
REG Revue des Études Grecques
REJ Revue des Études Juifs
Reynolds, CJZC J. M. Reynolds, Appendix, in G. Lüderitz, Corpus
jüdischer Zeugnisse aus der Cyrenaika (Wiesbaden 1983)
183–215.
Reynolds & Tannenbaum J. M. Reynolds and R. Tannenbaum, Jews and God-Fear-
ers at Aphrodisias: Greek Inscriptions with Commentary
(Cambridge Philological Society Supplementary Series 12;
Cambridge 1987).
Rheinland C. Brand and D. Hopp, “Ein römischer Tellerboden mit
Inschrift aus Essen-Burgaltendorf,” in H. Koschik (ed.),
Archäologie im Rheinland 1999 (Köln 2000) 108–9.
Riginos, Archaiologikon G. Riginos, “ ,”
Deltion 54 (1999–2005) (Archaiologikon Deltion) 54 (1999–2005)
486–94.
RNGCL O. Salomies and H. Solin, Repertorium Nominum Gentil-
ium et Cognominum Latinorum (Hildesheim, Zürich, New
York 1994).
Robert, Hellenica 11–2 (1960) L. Robert, “Épitaphes juives d’Éphèet de Nicomédie,”
“Épitaphes d’Eumeneia de Phrygie,” Hellenica 11–2
(1960) 381–439.
Robert, REG 85 (1972) L. Robert, “Bulletin Épigraphique,” REG 85 (1972)
364–526.
Robert, REJ 101 (1937) L. Roberts, “Un Corpus des Inscriptions Juives,” REJ 101
(1937) 73–86.
Robinson, AJA 17 (1913) D. M. Robinson, “Inscriptions from Cyrenaica,” AJA
(ser 2) 17 (1913) 157–200.

S-G/F Semitic-Greek Female

S-G/M Semitic-Greek Male
S-H/F Semitic-Hebrew Female
S-H/M Semitic-Hebrew Male
Sacco, Archeologia Classica 31 G. Sacco, “Nuove iscrizione greche di Porto,” Archeologia
(1979) Classica 31 (1979) 241–54.
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 CHAPTER XI
THE ENLARGEMENT OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Narrowness of Consciousness in Tribal Society—Importance

of Face-to-Face Assembly—Individuality—Subconscious
Character of Wider Relations—Enlargement of
Consciousness—Irregularity in Growth—Breadth of
Modern Consciousness—Democracy.
In a life like that of the Teutonic tribes before they took on Roman
civilization, the social medium was small, limited for most purposes
to the family, clan or village group. Within this narrow circle there
was a vivid interchange of thought and feeling, a sphere of moral
unity, of sympathy, loyalty, honor and congenial intercourse. Here
precious traditions were cherished, and here also was the field for an
active public opinion, for suggestion and discussion, for leading and
following, for conformity and dissent. “In this kindly soil of the family,”
says Professor Gummere in his Germanic Origins, “flourished such
growth of sentiment as that rough life brought forth. Peace, good-will,
the sense of honor, loyalty to friend and kinsman, brotherly affection,
all were plants that found in the Germanic home that congenial
warmth they needed for their earliest stages of growth.... Originally
the family or clan made a definite sphere or system of life; outside of
it the homeless man felt indeed that chaos had come again.”[45]
When we say that public opinion is modern, we mean, of course,
the wider and more elaborate forms of it. On a smaller scale it has
always existed where people have had a chance to discuss and act
upon matters of common interest. Among our American Indians, for
example, “Opinion was a most potent factor in all tribes, and this
would be largely directed by those having popularity and power.
Officers, in fact all persons, became extremely well known in the
small community of an Amerind tribe. Every peculiarity of
temperament was understood, and the individual was respected or
despised according to his predominating characteristics. Those who
were bold and fierce and full of strategy were made war-chiefs, while
those who possessed judgment and decision were made civil chiefs
or governors.”[46] The Germanic tribes were accustomed to
assemble in those village moots to which the historian recurs with
such reverence, where “the men from whom Englishmen were to
spring learned the worth of public opinion, of public discussion, the
worth of the agreement, the ‘common-sense’ to which discussion
leads, as of the laws which derive their force from being expressions
of that general conviction.”[47]
Discussion and public opinion of this simple sort, as every one
knows, takes place also among children wherever they mingle freely.
Indeed, it springs so directly from human nature, and is so difficult to
suppress even by the most inquisitorial methods, that we may
assume it to exist locally in all forms of society and at all periods of
history. It grows by looks and gestures where speech is forbidden, so
that even in a prison there is public opinion among the inmates. But
in tribal life these local groups contained all the vivid and conscious
society there was, the lack of means of record and of quick
transmission making a wider unity impracticable.
In the absence of indirect communication people had to come into
face-to-face contact in order to feel social excitement and rise to the
higher phases of consciousness. Hence games, feasts and public
assemblies of every sort meant more to the general life than they do
in our day. They were the occasions of exaltation, the theatre for the
display of eloquence—either in discussing questions of the moment
or recounting deeds of the past—and for the practice of those
rhythmic exercises that combined dancing, acting, poetry and music
in one comprehensive and communal art. Such assemblies are
possibly more ancient than human nature itself—since human nature
implies a preceding evolution of group life—and in some primitive
form of them speech itself is supposed by some to have been born.
Just as children invent words in the eagerness of play, and slang
arises among gangs of boys on the street, so the earliest men were
perhaps incited to the invention of language by a certain ecstasy and
self-forgetting audacity, like that of the poet, sprung from the
excitement of festal meetings.[48]
 Something of the spirit of these primitive assemblies is perhaps
reproduced in the social exaltation of those festal evenings around
the camp-fire which many of us can recall, with individual and group
songs, chants, “stunts” and the like; when there were not wanting
original, almost impromptu, compositions—celebrating notable
deeds or satirizing conspicuous individuals—which the common
excitement generated in the minds of one or more ingenious
persons.
It is sometimes said that the individual counted for nothing in tribal
life, that the family or the clan was the unit of society, in which all
personalities were merged. From the standpoint of organization
there is much truth in this; that is the group of kindred was for many
purposes (political, economic, religious, etc.) a corporate unit, acting
as a whole and responsible as a whole to the rest of society; so that
punishment of wrong-doing, for example, would be exacted from the
group rather than from the particular offender. But taken
psychologically, to mean that there was a lack of self-assertion, the
idea is without foundation. On the contrary, the barbaric mind exalts
an aggressive and even extravagant individuality. Achilles is a fair
sample of its heroes, mighty in valor and prowess, but vain, arrogant
and resentful—what we should be apt to call an individualist.[49] The
men of the Niebelungenlied, of Beowulf, of Norse and Irish tales and
of our Indian legends are very much like him.
Consider, also, the personal initiative displayed in the formation of
a war-party among the Omahas, as described by Dorsey, and note
how little it differs from the way in which commercial and other
enterprises are started at the present day.
“It is generally a young man who decides to undertake an
expedition against the enemy. Having formed his plan he speaks
thus to his friend: ‘My friend, as I wish to go on the war path, let us
go. Let us boil the food as for a feast.’ The friend having consented,
the two are the leaders ... if they can induce others to follow them.
So they find two young men whom they send as messengers to
invite those whom they name.... When all have assembled the
planner of the expedition addresses the company. ‘Ho! my friends,
my friend and I have invited you to a feast, because we wish to go
on the war path.’ Then each one who is willing to go replies thus:
‘Yes, my friend, I am willing.’ But he who is unwilling replies, ‘My
friend, I do not wish to go, I am unwilling.’ Sometimes the host says,
‘Let us go by such a day. Prepare yourselves.’”[50]
The whole proceeding reminds one also of the way games are
initiated among boys, the one who “gets it up” having the right to
claim the best position. No doubt the structure of some tribal
societies permitted of less initiative than others; but such differences
exist at all stages of culture.
Self-feeling, self-assertion and the general relation of the individual
to the group are much the same at all epochs, and there was never a
time since man became human when, as we sometimes read,
“personality emerged.” Change has taken place chiefly in the extent
and character of the group to which the individual appeals, and in the
ways in which he tries to distinguish himself. The Germanic
tribesman, the mediæval knight, the Renaissance artist or scholar
and the modern captain of industry are alike ambitious: it is the
object that differs. There has, indeed, been a development of
personality in history, but it has been correlative with that of the
general life, and has brought no essential change in the relation
between the two.
In tribal life, then, since the conditions did not admit of wider
unification, public consciousness could be only local in scope.
Beyond its narrow range the cords which held life together were of a
subconscious character—heredity, of course, with its freight of
mental and social tendency; oral tradition, often vague and devious,
and a mass of custom that was revered without being understood.
These wider relations, not being surveyed and discussed, could not
be the objects of deliberate thought and will, but were accepted as
part of the necessary order of things, and usually ascribed to some
divine source. In this way language, laws, religion, forms of
government, social classes, traditional relations to other clans or
tribes—all of which we know to have been built up by the cumulative
workings of the human mind—were thought of as beyond the sphere
of man’s control.
 The wider unity existed, then as now; human development was
continuous in time and, after a blind fashion, coöperative among
contemporaries. The tools of life were progressively invented and
spread by imitation from tribe to tribe, the fittest always tending to
survive; but only the immediate details of such changes were
matters of consciousness: as processes they were beyond human
cognizance. A man might adapt an ancient custom to a fresh
emergency, but he would be unaware that he was shaping the
growth of institutions.
There was even a tribal or national opinion, of a slow,
subconscious sort; a growth and consensus of ideas upon matters of
general and enduring interest, such as religion, marriage and
government. And, under unusual pressure, some more conscious
unity of spirit might be aroused, as among the Germans or Gauls
confederated against Rome; but this was likely to be transient.
The central fact of history, from a psychological point of view, may
be said to be the gradual enlargement of social consciousness and
rational coöperation. The mind constantly, though perhaps not
regularly, extends the sphere within which it makes its higher powers
valid. Human nature, possessed of ideals moulded in the family and
the commune, is ever striving, somewhat blindly for the most part,
with those difficulties of communication and organization which
obstruct their realization on a larger scale. Whether progress is
general or not we need not now inquire; it is certain that great gains
have been made by the more vigorous or fortunate races, and that
these are regarded with emulation and hope by many of the others.
Throughout modern European history, at least, there has been an
evident extension of the local areas within which communication and
coöperation prevail, and, on the whole, an advance in the quality of
coöperation as judged by an ideal moral unity. It has tended to
become more free and human, more adequately expressive of
communal feeling.
Perhaps all apparent departures from this tendency may plausibly
be explained as cases of irregular growth. If we find that vast
systems of discipline, like the Roman Empire, have broken down, we
find also that these systems were of a low type, psychologically, that
the best features of them were after all preserved, and that the new
systems that arose, though perhaps less in extent, were on the
whole a higher and fuller expression of human nature.
In the later Empire, for example, it seems plain that social
mechanism (in its proper kind and measure one of the conditions of
freedom) had grown in such a way as to shackle the human mind. In
order to achieve and maintain an imperial reach of control, the state
had gradually been forced to take on a centralized bureaucratic
structure, which left the individual and the local group no sphere of
self-reliant development. Public spirit and political leadership were
suppressed, and the habit of organized self-expression died out,
leaving the people without group vitality and as helpless as children.
They were not, in general, cowards or voluptuaries—it seems that
the decline of courage and domestic morals has been exaggerated
—but they had no trained and effective public capacity. Society, as
Professor Dill says, had been elaborately and deliberately
stereotyped.
The decline of vitality and initiative pervaded all spheres of life.
There were no inventions and little industrial or agricultural progress
of any kind. Literature degenerated into rhetoric: “In the same
manner,” says Longinus, “as some children always remain pigmies,
whose infant limbs have been too closely confined, thus our tender
minds, fettered by the prejudices and habits of a just servitude, are
unable to expand themselves, or to attain that well-proportioned
greatness which we admire in the ancients, who, living under a
popular government, wrote with the same freedom as they acted.”[51]
The growing states of the earlier world were confronted, whether
they knew it or not, with an irreconcilable opposition between
freedom and expansion. They might retain in small areas those
simple and popular institutions which nearly all the great peoples
started with, and to which they owed their vigor; or they could
organize on a larger scale a more mechanical unity. In the first case
their careers were brief, because they lacked the military force to
ensure permanence in a hostile world. In the latter they incurred, by
the suppression of human nature, that degeneracy which sooner or
later overtook every great state of antiquity.
In some such way as this we may, perhaps, dispose of the
innumerable instances which history shows of the failure of free
organization—as in the decay of ancient and mediæval city
republics. Not only was their freedom of an imperfect nature at the
best, but they were too small to hold their own in a world that was
necessarily, for the most part, autocratic or customary. Freedom,
though in itself a principle of strength, was on too little a scale to
defend itself. “If a republic be small,” said Montesquieu, “it is
destroyed by a foreign force; if it be large it is ruined by internal
imperfection.”[52]
But how splendid, in literature, in art, and even in arms, were
many of these failures. How well did Athens, Florence and a hundred
other cities illustrate the intrinsic strength and fecundity of that free
principle to which modern conditions permit an indefinite expansion.
The present epoch, then, brings with it a larger and, potentially at
least, a higher and freer consciousness. In the individual aspect of
life this means that each one of us has, as a rule, a wider grasp of
situations, and is thus in a position to give a wider application to his
intelligence, sympathy and conscience. In proportion as he does this
he ceases to be a blind agent and becomes a rational member of the
whole.
Because of this more conscious relation to the larger wholes—
nations, institutions, tendencies—he takes a more vital and personal
part in them. His self-feeling attaches itself, as its nature is, to the
object of his free activity, and he tends to feel that “love of the maker
for his work,” that spiritual identification of the member with the
whole, which is the ideal of organization.
De Tocqueville found that in the United States there was no
proletariat. “That numerous and turbulent multitude does not exist,
who regarding the law as their natural enemy look upon it with fear
and distrust. It is impossible, on the contrary, not to perceive that all
classes ... are attached to it by a kind of parental affection.”[53] And,
notwithstanding a deep and well-grounded “social unrest,” this
remains essentially true at the present day, and should be true of all
real democracy. Where the state is directly and obviously founded
upon the thought of the people it is impossible to get up much
fundamental antagonism to it; the energies of discontent are
absorbed by moderate agitation.
The extension of reach and choice favors, in the long run, not only
political but every kind of opportunity and freedom. It opens to the
individual a more vital, self-determined and energetic part in all
phases of the whole.
At the same time, the limits of human faculty make it impossible
that any one of us should actually occupy all the field of thought thus
open to him. Although stimulated to greater activity than before, one
must constantly select and renounce; and most of his life will still be
on the plane of custom and mechanism. He is freer chiefly in that he
can survey the larger whole and choose in what relations he will
express himself.
Indeed, an ever-present danger of the new order is that one will
not select and renounce enough, that he will swallow more than he
can properly digest, and fail of the benefits of a thorough
subconscious assimilation. The more one studies current life, the
more he is inclined to look upon superficiality as its least tractable
defect.
The new conditions demand also a thorough, yet diversified and
adaptable, system of training for the individual who is to share in this
freer and more exigent society. While democracy as a spirit is
spontaneous, only the fullest development of personal faculty can
make this spirit effectual on a great scale. Our confidence in our
instincts need not be shaken, but our application of them must be
enlarged and enlightened. We must be taught to do some one thing
well, and yet never allowed to lose our sense of the relation of that
one thing to the general endeavor.
The general or public phase of larger consciousness is what we
call Democracy. I mean by this primarily the organized sway of public
opinion. It works out also in a tendency to humanize the collective
life, to make institutions express the higher impulses of human
nature, instead of brutal or mechanical conditions. That which most
inwardly distinguishes modern life from ancient or mediæval is the
conscious power of the common people trying to effectuate their
instincts. All systems rest, in a sense, upon public opinion; but the
peculiarity of our time is that this opinion is more and more rational
and self-determining. It is not, as in the past, a mere reflection of
conditions believed to be inevitable, but seeks principles, finds these
principles in human nature, and is determined to conform life to them
or know why not. In this all earnest people, in their diverse ways, are
taking part.
We find, of course, that but little can be carried out on the highest
moral plane; the mind cannot attend to many things with that
concentration which achieves adequate expression, and the principle
of compensation is ever at work. If one thing is well done, others are
overlooked, so that we are constantly being caught and ground in
our own neglected mechanism.
On the whole, however, the larger mind involves a democratic and
humanistic trend in every phase of life. A right democracy is simply
the application on a large scale of principles which are universally
felt to be right as applied to a small group—principles of free
coöperation motived by a common spirit which each serves
according to his capacity. Most of what is characteristic of the time is
evidently of this nature; as, for instance, our sentiment of fair play,
our growing kindliness, our cult of womanhood, our respect for hand
labor, and our endeavor to organize society economically or on
“business principles.” And it is perhaps equally evident that the ideas
which these replace—of caste, of domination, of military glory, of
“conspicuous leisure”[54] and the like—sprang from a secondary and
artificial system, based on conditions which forbade a large
realization of primary ideals.
May we not say, speaking largely, that there has always been a
democratic tendency, whose advance has been conditioned by the
possibility, under actual conditions, of organizing popular thought
and will on a wide scale? Free coöperation is natural and human; it
takes place spontaneously among children on the playground,
among settlers in new countries, and among the most primitive sorts
of men—everywhere, in short, where the secondary and artificial
discipline has not supplanted it. The latter, including every sort of
coercive or mechanical control is, of course, natural in the larger
sense, and functional in human development; but there must ever be
some resistance to it, which will tend to become effective when the
control ceases to be maintained by the pressure of expediency.
Accordingly we see that throughout modern history, and especially
during the past century, there has been a progressive humanism, a
striving to clear away lower forms of coöperation no longer essential,
and to substitute something congenial to natural impulse.
Discussion regarding the comparative merits of monarchy,
aristocracy and democracy has come to be looked upon as
scholastic. The world is clearly democratizing; it is only a question of
how fast the movement can take place, and what, under various
conditions, it really involves. Democracy, instead of being a single
and definite political type, proves to be merely a principle of breadth
in organization, naturally prevalent wherever men have learned how
to work it, under which life will be at least as various in its forms as it
was before.
It involves a change in the character of social discipline not
confined to politics, but as much at home in one sphere as another.
With facility of communication as its mechanical basis, it proceeds
inevitably to discuss and experiment with freer modes of action in
religion, industry, education, philanthropy and the family. The law of
the survival of the fittest will prevail in regard to social institutions, as
it has in the past, but the conditions of fitness have undergone a
change the implications of which we can but dimly foresee.

FOOTNOTES:
[45] Pages 169, 171.
[46] F. S. Dellenbaugh, The North Americans of Yesterday, 416.
[47] J. R. Green, History of the English People, i, 13.
 [48] J. Donovan, The Festal Origin of Human Speech. Mind,
October, 1891.
[49] “Jura neget sibi nata, nihil non arroget armis.”—Horace,
Ars Poet., 122.
[50] J. O. Dorsey, Omaha Sociology, 315, 316. A publication of
the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology.
[51] Quoted by Gibbon, Decline and Fall, Milman-Smith edition,
i, 194, 195.
[52] The Spirit of Laws, book ix, chap. 1.
[53] Democracy in America, vol. i, chap. 24.
[54] One of many illuminating phrases introduced by T. V.
Veblen in his work on The Theory of the Leisure Class.
 CHAPTER XII
THE THEORY OF PUBLIC OPINION

Public Opinion as Organization—Agreement not Essential—

Public Opinion versus Popular Impression—Public
Thought not an Average—A Group is Capable of
Expression through its most competent members—
General and Special Public Opinion—The Sphere of the
Former—Of the Latter—The Two are United in
Personality—How Public Opinion Rules—Effective Rule
Based on Moral Unity.
Public opinion is no mere aggregate of separate individual
judgments, but an organization, a coöperative product of
communication and reciprocal influence. It may be as different from
the sum of what the individuals could have thought out in separation
as a ship built by a hundred men is from a hundred boats each built
by one man.
A group “makes up its mind” in very much the same manner that
the individual makes up his. The latter must give time and attention
to the question, search his consciousness for pertinent ideas and
sentiments, and work them together into a whole, before he knows
what his real thought about it is. In the case of a nation the same
thing must take place, only on a larger scale. Each individual must
make up his mind as before, but in doing so he has to deal not only
with what was already in his thought or memory, but with fresh ideas
that flow in from others whose minds are also aroused. Every one
who has any fact, or thought, or feeling, which he thinks is unknown,
or insufficiently regarded, tries to impart it; and thus not only one
mind but all minds are searched for pertinent material, which is
poured into the general stream of thought for each one to use as he
can. In this manner the minds in a communicating group become a
single organic whole. Their unity is not one of identity, but of life and
action, a crystallization of diverse but related ideas.
 It is not at all necessary that there should be agreement; the
essential thing is a certain ripeness and stability of thought resulting
from attention and discussion. There may be quite as much
difference of opinion as there was before, but the differences now
existing are comparatively intelligent and lasting. People know what
they really think about the matter, and what other people think.
Measures, platforms, candidates, creeds and other symbols have
been produced which serve to express and assist coöperation and to
define opposition. There has come to be a relatively complete
organization of thought, to which each individual or group contributes
in its own peculiar way.
Take, for instance, the state of opinion in the United States
regarding slavery at the outbreak of the civil war. No general
agreement had been reached; but the popular mind had become
organized with reference to the matter, which had been turned over
and regarded from all points of view, by all parts of the community,
until a certain ripeness regarding it had been reached; revealing in
this case a radical conflict of thought between the North and the
South, and much local diversity in both sections.
One who would understand public opinion should distinguish
clearly between a true or mature opinion and a popular impression.
The former requires earnest attention and discussion for a
considerable time, and when reached is significant, even if mistaken.
It rarely exists regarding matters of temporary interest, and current
talk or print is a most uncertain index of it. A popular impression, on
the other hand, is facile, shallow, transient, with that fickleness and
fatuity that used to be ascribed to the popular mind in general. It is
analogous to the unconsidered views and utterances of an
individual, and the more one studies it the less seriously he will take
it. It may happen that ninety-nine men in a hundred hold opinions to-
day contrary to those they will hold a month hence—partly because
they have not yet searched their own minds, partly because the few
who have really significant and well-grounded ideas have not had
time to impress them upon the rest.
It is not unreasonable, then, to combine a very slight regard for
most of what passes as public opinion with much confidence in the
soundness of an aroused, mature, organic social judgment.
There is a widespread, but as I believe a fallacious, idea that the
public thought or action must in some way express the working of an
average or commonplace mind, must be some kind of a mean
between the higher and lower intelligences making up the group. It
would be more correct to say that it is representative, meaning by
this that the preponderant feeling of the group seeks definite and
effectual expression through individuals specially competent to give
it such expression. Take for instance the activities of one of our
colleges in intercollegiate athletics or debates. What belongs to the
group at large is a vague desire to participate and excel in such
competitions; but in realizing itself this desire seeks as its agents the
best athletes or debaters that are to be found. A little common-sense
and observation will show that the expression of a group is nearly
always superior, for the purpose in hand, to the average capacity of
its members.
I do not mean morally superior, but simply more effective, in a
direction determined by the prevalent feeling. If a mob is in question,
the brutal nature, for the time-being ascendant, may act through the
most brutal men in the group; and in like manner a money-making
enterprise is apt to put forward the shrewdest agents it can find,
without regard for any moral qualities except fidelity to itself.
But if the life of the group is deliberate and sympathetic, its
expression may be morally high, on a level not merely of the average
member, but of the most competent, of the best. The average theory
as applied to public consciousness is wholly out of place. The public
mind may be on a lower plane than that of the individual thinking in
separation, or it may be on a higher, but is almost sure to be on a
different plane; and no inkling of its probable character can be had
by taking a mean. One mind in the right, whether on statesmanship,
science, morals, or what not, may raise all other minds to its own
point of view—because of the general capacity for recognition and
deference—just as through our aptitude for sudden rage or fear one
mind in the wrong may debase all the rest.
 This is the way in which right social judgments are reached in
matters so beyond commonplace capacity as science, philosophy,
and much of literature and art. All good critics tell us that the
judgment of mankind, in the long run, is sure and sound. The world
makes no mistake as to Plato, though, as Emerson said, there are
never enough understanding readers alive to pay for an edition of his
works. This, to be sure, is a judgment of the few; and so, in a sense,
are all finer judgments. The point is that the many have the sense to
adopt them.
And let us note that those collective judgments in literature, art and
science which have exalted Plato and Dante and Leonardo and
Michelangelo and Beethoven and Newton and Darwin, are
democratic judgments, in the sense that every man has been free to
take a part in proportion to his capacity, precisely as the citizen of a
democracy is free to take a part in politics. Wealth and station have
occasionally tried to dictate in these matters, but have failed.
It is natural for an organism to use its appropriate organ, and it
would be as reasonable to say that the capacity of the body for
seeing is found by taking an average of the visual power of the hand,
nose, liver, etc., along with that of the eye, as that the capacity of a
group for a special purpose is that of its average member. If a group
does not function through its most competent instruments, it is
simply because of imperfect organization.
It is strange that people who apply the average theory to
democracy do not see that if it were sound it must apply to all the
social phenomena of history, which is a record of the works of the
collective mind. Since the main difference between democracy and
ancient or mediæval systems is merely that the former is less
restricted by time, space and caste, is essentially an appeal to free
human power as against what is merely mechanical or conventional;
by what magic is this appeal to deprive us of our ancient privilege of
acting through our efficient individuals?
One who ponders these things will see that the principles of
collective expression are the same now as ever, and that the special
difficulties of our time arise partly from confusion, due to the pace of
change, and partly from the greater demands which a free system
makes upon human capacity. The question is, whether, in practice,
democracy is capable of the effective expression to which no very
serious theoretical obstacle can be discerned. It is a matter of doing
a rather simple thing on a vaster and more complicated scale than in
the past.
Public opinion is no uniform thing, as we are apt to assume, but
has its multifarious differentiations. We may roughly distinguish a
general opinion, in which almost everybody in the community has a
part, and an infinite diversity of special or class opinions—of the
family, the club, the school-room, the party, the union, and so on.
And there is an equal diversity in the kind of thought with which the
public mind may be concerned: the content may be of almost any
sort. Thus there are group ideals, like the American ideal of
indissoluble unity among the states, the French ideal of national
glory, or the ideals of honor and good-breeding cherished in many
families; and there are group beliefs, regarding religion, trade,
agriculture, marriage, education and the like. Upon all matters in
which the mind has, in the past, taken a lively interest there are
latent inclinations and prepossessions, and when these are aroused
and organized by discussion they combine with other elements to
form public opinion. Mr. Higginson, recounting his experience in the
Massachusetts legislature, speaks of “certain vast and inscrutable
undercurrents of prejudice ... which could never be comprehended
by academic minds, or even city-bred minds,” but which were usually
irresistible. They related to the rights of towns, the public school
system, the law of settlement, roads, navigable streams, breadth of
wheels, close time of fishing, etc. “Every good debater in the House,
and every one of its recognized legal authorities, might be on one
side, and yet the smallest contest with one of these latent prejudices
would land them in a minority.”[55]
This diversity merely reflects the complexity of organization,
current opinion and discussion being a pervasive activity, essential to
growth, that takes place throughout the system at large and in each
particular member. General opinion existing alone, without special
types of thought as in the various departments of science and art,
would indicate a low type of structure, more like a mob than a
rational society. It is upon these special types, and the individuals
that speak for them, that we rely for the guidance of general opinion
(as, for instance, we rely upon economists to teach us what to think
about the currency), and the absence of mature speciality involves
weakness and flatness of general achievement. This fault is often
charged to democracy, but it should rather be said that democracy is
substituting a free type of speciality, based upon choice, for the old
type based upon caste, and that whatever deficiency exists in this
regard is due chiefly to the confused conditions that accompany
transition.
General public opinion has less scope than is commonly imagined.
It is true that with the new communication, the whole people, if they
are enough interested, may form public judgments even upon
transient questions. But it is not possible, nor indeed desirable, that
they should be enough interested in many questions to form such
judgments. A likeness of spirit and principle is essential to moral
unity, but as regards details differentiation is and should be the rule.
The work of the world is mostly of a special character, and it is quite
as important that a man should mind his own business—that is, his
own particular kind of general service—as that he should have public
spirit. Perhaps we may say that the main thing is to mind his private
business in a public spirit—always remembering that men who are in
a position to do so should make it their private business to attend to
public affairs. It is not indolence and routine, altogether, but also an
inevitable conflict of claims, that makes men slow to exert their
minds upon general questions, and underlies, the political maxim
that you cannot arouse public opinion upon more than one matter at
a time. It is better that the public, like the general-in-chief of an army,
should be relieved of details and free to concentrate its thought on
essential choices.
I have only a limited belief in the efficacy of the referendum and
similar devices for increased participation of the people at large in
the details of legislation. In so far as these facilitate the formation
and expression of public will upon matters to which the public is
prepared to give earnest and continuous attention, they are
serviceable; but if many questions are submitted, or those of a
technical character, the people become confused or indifferent, and
the real power falls into the hands of the few who manage the
machinery.
The questions which can profitably be decided by this direct and
general judgment of the public are chiefly those of organic change or
readjustment, such, for instance, as the contemporary question of
what part the government is to take in relation to the consolidation of
industries. These the people must decide, since no lesser power will
be submitted to, but routine activities, in society as in individuals, are
carried on without arousing a general consciousness. The people
are also, as I shall shortly point out, peculiarly fit to make choice
among conspicuous personalities.
Specialists of all sorts—masons, soldiers, chemists, lawyers,
bankers, even statesmen and public officials—are ruled for the most
part by the opinion of their special group, and have little immediate
dependence upon the general public, which will not concern itself
with them so long as their work is not palpably inefficient or in some
way distasteful.
Yet special phases of thought are not really independent, but are
to be looked upon as the work of the public mind acting with a less
general consciousness—partly automatic like the action of the legs
in walking. They are still responsible to the general state of opinion;
and it is usually a general need of the special product, as shoes,
banks, education, medical aid and so on, that gives the special
group its pecuniary support and social standing. Moreover, the
general interest in a particular group is likely to become awakened
and critical when the function is disturbed, as with the building trades
or the coal-mine operators in case of a strike; or when it becomes
peculiarly important, as with the army in time of war. Then is the day
of reckoning when the specialist has to render an account of the
talents entrusted to him.
The separateness of the special group is also limited by
personality, by the fact that the men who perform the specialty do not
in other matters think apart from the rest of the society, but, in so far
as it is a moral whole, share its general spirit and are the same men
who, all taken together, are the seat of public opinion. How far the
different departments of a man’s mind, corresponding to general and
special opinion, may be ruled by different principles, is a matter of
interest from the fact that every one of us is the theatre of a conflict
of moral standards arising in this way. It is evident by general
observation and confession that we usually accept without much
criticism the principles we become accustomed to in each sphere of
activity, whether consistent with one another or not. Yet this is not
rational, and there is and must ever be a striving of conscience to
redress such conflicts, which are really divisions in society itself, and
tend toward anarchy. It is an easy but weak defence of low principles
of conduct, in business, in politics, in war, in paying taxes, to say that
a special standard prevails in this sphere, and that our behavior is
justified by custom. We cannot wholly escape from the customary,
but conscience should require of ourselves and others an honest
effort to raise its standard, even at much sacrifice of lower aims.
Such efforts are the only source of betterment, and without them
society must deteriorate.
In other words, it is the chief and perhaps the only method of
moral and intellectual progress that the thought and sentiment
pertaining to the various activities should mingle in the mind, and
that whatever is higher or more rational in each should raise the
standard of the others. If one finds that as a business man he tends
to be greedy and narrow, he should call into that sphere his
sentiments as a patriot, a member of a family and a student, and he
may enrich these latter provinces by the system and shrewdness he
learns in business. The keeping of closed compartments is a
principle of stagnation and decay.
The rule of public opinion, then, means for the most part a latent
authority which the public will exercise when sufficiently dissatisfied
with the specialist who is in immediate charge of a particular
function. It cannot extend to the immediate participation of the group
as a whole in the details of public business.
This principle holds good in the conduct of government as well as
elsewhere, experience showing that the politics of an intricate state