Chemistry Project.pdf

CHEMISTRY
PROJECT
CHEMISTRY
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
INVESTIGATION OF PREPARATION OF SOAP
NAME
Std 12th Div
SCHOOL ROLL NO
BOARD ROLL NO
SCHOOL
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INDEX
1. Acknowledgement
2. Certificate
3. Aim
4. Introduction
5. Preparation of soap
6. Theory
7. Material Required
8. Procedure
9. Observation
10. Result
11. Precaution
12. Bibliography
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I Sincerely thank our chemistry Teacher Mrs.

Rachana for her guidance, encouragement
and support throughout the duration
of the project.
Without her motivation and help, the

successful completion of this project would
not have been possible
Ramsha
XII A6

Certificate
This is to certify that Miss Ramsha of

class 12th has completed the chemistry project entitled
F̀oaming capacity of different washing sodà
herself and under my guidance during
the academic 2023-24
The Progress of the project has been
continuously reported and has been in
my knowledge consistently
Teacher Incharge Head of Institution

Introduction
Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water for

washing and cleaning, which historically comes either in
solid bars or in the form of a viscous liquid. Soap consists
of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained by
reacting common oils or fats with a strong alkaline in a process
known as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed by the base,
yielding alkali salts of fatty acids (crude soap) and glycerol.
The general formula of soap is CH3-(CH2) n – COONa
An example of a saponification reaction is shown below :

Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have
both a hydrophilic end, which dissolves in water, as well as
a hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non polar grease
molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water effectively
holds particles in colloidal suspension so it can be rinsed off
with clean water. The hydrophobic portion (made up of a
long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic
end dissolves in water. The resultant forms a round structure
called micelle. Therefore, it allows water to remove normally-
insoluble matter by emulsification.
Micelle
Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecule dispersed in a
liquid colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules having polar or charged group
and non-polar regions (amphiphilic molecules) form aggregate
called micelle. In a micelle, polar or ionic heads form an outer
shell in contact with water, while non-polar tails are sequestered
in the interior.
HISTORY
EARLY HISTORY
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soaplike materials
dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon. A formula for soap
consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay
tablet around 2200 BC. The Ebbers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the
ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils
with alkaline salts to create a soap-like substance. Egyptian documents
mention a soap-like substance was used in the preparation of wool for
weaving.
ANCIENT ROME
The word soap, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny the elder’s historia
naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes,
but the only use, is it is as pomade for hair.
A popular belief claims soap takes its name from a supposed Mount Sapo,
where animal sacrifices where supposed to have taken place.
ANCIENT CHINA
A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in anicent China from the
seeds of Gleditsia sinensis. Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig
pancreas and plant ash called “Zhu yi zi”. True soap, made of animal fat, did
not appear in China unitl the modern era. Soap-like detergents were not as
popular as ointments and creams.
Commercial production of soap
The most popular soap making process today is the cold
process method, where fats such as olive oil react with strong
alkaline solution, while some soapers use the historical hot
process. Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that,
usually, an excess of fat is sometimes used to consume the
alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed,
leaving a naturally moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added 'at
trace' (the point at which the saponification process is
sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken), after
most of the oils have saponified, so that they remain unreacted
in the finished soap.
Fat in soap
Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats.

Sodium Tallowate, a common ingredient in much soap, is
derived from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be made of
vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and the product is
typically softer. An array of saponifiable oils and fats are
used in the process such as olive, coconut, palm, cocoa
butter to provide different qualities. For example, olive oil
provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides lots of
lather; while coconut and palm oils provide hardness.
Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient.
Preparation of soap
In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be required
for saponification. Cold-process soap making takes place at a
sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat being used.
Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right
away because the alkali and fat saponify more quickly at the higher
temperatures used in hot-process soap making. Hot-process soap
making was used when the purity of alkali was unreliable. Cold-
process soap making requires exact measurements of alkali and fat
amounts and computing their ratio, using saponification charts to
ensure that the finished product is mild and skin-friendly.
➢ Hot process
In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled together at 80–100
°C until saponification occurs, which the soap maker can determine by
taste or by eye. After saponification has occurred, the soap is
sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding salt, and the excess
liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is then spooned into a mold.
➢ Cold process
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification value of the

fats being used on a saponification chart, which is then used to calculate
the appropriate amount of alkali. Excess unreacted alkali in the soap will
result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough alkali
and the soap are greasy. The alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils are
heated, or melted if they are solid at room temperature. Once both
substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F (37-43°C), and are
no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined. This alkali-fat
mixture is stirred until "trace". There are varying levels of trace. After
much stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a thin pudding.
"Trace" corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential and fragrance oils are
added at light trace.
Experiment 1
AIM : To prepare a sample of soap
MATERIALS REQUIRED
APPARATUS AND
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS:
✓ 250ml beaker
✓ sodium hydroxide(20% solution)
✓ 100ml beaker
✓ ethanol
✓ wire gauge
✓ saturated solution of sodium chloride
✓ laboratory burner
✓ CaCl (5% solution)
✓ glass stirring rod
✓ MgCl2 (5% solution )
✓ test tube and FeCl (5% solution)
✓ filter flask and burner funnel
✓ kerosene and filter paper
✓ cooking oil and graduated cylinder
✓ watch glass to extinguished ethanol flames

Procedure:
I. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker.
Add 20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium hydroxide solution. Stir the
mixture in the beaker. Place the beaker on wire gauze on a ring stand and heat
gently.
II. Heat until the odor disappears.
III. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool down.
IV. Move it safely to bench top.
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your soap preparation and stir the
mixture thoroughly.
VI. It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol, and any excess sodium
hydroxide present.
VII. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration apparatus and wash once with ice
water.
VIII. Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
PRECAUTION
• Wear your safety goggles, this is especially important in this

experiment, since NaOH can cause permanent eye damage.
• Wear gloves if they are available.
• Watch your reaction mixture at all times as it is heating

BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.wikipedia.org
www.google.com
www.icbse.com

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CHEMISTRY

INVESTIGATION OF PREPARATION OF SOAP

Downloaded by IMSTUDYIN ([email protected])

I Sincerely thank our chemistry Teacher Mrs.

Without her motivation and help, the

Downloaded by IMSTUDYIN ([email protected])

This is to certify that Miss Ramsha of

Teacher Incharge Head of Institution

Downloaded by IMSTUDYIN ([email protected])

Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water for

The general formula of soap is CH3-(CH2) n – COONa

An example of a saponification reaction is shown below :

Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats.

A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification value of the

AIM : To prepare a sample of soap

Downloaded by IMSTUDYIN ([email protected])

• Wear your safety goggles, this is especially important in this

• Wear gloves if they are available.

• Watch your reaction mixture at all times as it is heating

Downloaded by IMSTUDYIN ([email protected])

Downloaded by IMSTUDYIN ([email protected])

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