Computer Networks (B19IT5010)

Prof. Syed Thouheed Ahmed

School of Computing & Information Technology
SYLLABUS

1. Introduction to data communication & Networking

Route Origin | Internet | Changing Demand | Applications | WEB
2. Protocols & Networking Devices
MAC | Random Access Protocols | Controlled Access | Channelization Protocols |
Networking Devices – Switches | Routers | Hub | Servers
3. Standards & Layers
IEEE Standards of operation | TCP & UDP | OSI Model
4. Detailed Layer Communication
Transport Layer | Network Layer & Application Layer

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Unit – 2
Line Coding, Error Detection &
Correction, MAC Protocol,
Networking Devices

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CODING: LINE CODING AND BLOCK CODING

Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. By

this technique we converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender
side digital data are encoded into a digital signal and at the receiver side the
digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal
TYPES OF LINE CODING

line coding schemes are divided into five categories:

1. Unipolar (eg. NRZ scheme).
2. Polar (eg. NRZ-L, NRZ-I, RZ, and Biphase – Manchester and differential
Manchester).
3. Bipolar (eg. AMI and Pseudoternary).
4. Multilevel
5. Multitransition

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UNIPOLAR SCHEME

–
In this scheme, all the signal levels are either
above or below the axis.
1. Non return to zero (NRZ) – It is
unipolar line coding scheme in which
positive voltage defines bit 1 and the
zero voltage defines bit 0. Signal does
not return to zero at the middle of the
bit thus it is called NRZ. For example:
Data = 10110.

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 POLAR SCHEMES

1. NRZ-L and NRZ-I –

These are somewhat similar to unipolar NRZ scheme
but here we use two levels of amplitude (voltages).
For NRZ-L(NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit, typically binary 1
maps to logic-level high, and binary 0 maps to logic-
level low, and for NRZ-I(NRZ-Invert), two-level
signal has a transition at a boundary if the next bit
that we are going to transmit is a logical 1, and does
not have a transition if the next bit that we are going
to transmit is a logical 0.

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2. Return to zero (RZ)
One solution to NRZ problem is
the RZ scheme, which uses three
values positive, negative and zero. In
this scheme signal goes to 0 in the
middle of each bit.

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3. Biphase (Manchester and Differential
Manchester )
Manchester encoding is somewhat combination
of the RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and
NRZ-L schemes. The duration of the bit is
divided into two halves. The voltage remains at
one level during the first half and moves to the
other level in the second half. The transition at
the middle of the bit provides synchronization.
Differential Manchester is somewhat
combination of the RZ and NRZ-I schemes.
There is always a transition at the middle of the
bit but the bit values are determined at the
beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a
transition, if the next bit is 1, there is no
transition.

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MANCHESTER

• 0 = pos-to-neg transition, 1 = neg-to-pos transition

• There is always transition at the middle of the bit, and maybe one transition at
the end of each bit
• Fine for alternating sequences of bits (10101), but wastes bandwidth for long
runs of 1-s or 0-s

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DIFFERENTIAL MANCHESTER

• Inversion in the middle of bit interval is used for

synchronization – presence or absence of additional
transition at the beginning of next bit interval identifies
the bit
• 0 = transition, 1 = no transition

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BLOCK CODING

1. Block coding changes a block of m bits into a

block of n bits, where n is larger than m.
Block coding is referred to as an mB/nB
encoding technique.
2. Block coding normally involves three steps:
division, substitution, and combination.
3. For example, in 4B/5B encoding we substitute
a 4-bit code for a 5-bit group. Finally, the n-
bit groups are combined together to form a
stream. The new stream has more bits than
the original bits. The following figure shows
the procedure.

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BLOCK CODE – PROCESS (OVERVIEW)

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1. In 4B/5B, the 5-bit output replaces the 4-bit input has no more than one
leading zero (left bit) and no more than two trailing zeros (right bits). So when
different groups are combined to make a new sequence, there are never more
than three consecutive ‘0’s.

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For example consider the following table of data words and
Code words
Assume the sender encodes the data word 01 as 011 and
sends it to the receiver. Consider the following cases:
1. The receiver receives O11. It is a valid code word. The
receiver extracts the data word 01 from it.
2. The code word is corrupted during transmission, and
111 is received (the leftmost bit is corrupted). This is
not a valid code word and is discarded.
3. The code word is corrupted during transmission, and
000 is received (the right two bits are corrupted). This is
a valid code word. The receiver incorrectly extracts the
data word 00. Two corrupted bits have made the error
undetectable.

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MULTIPLEXING & IT’S TYPES

Multiplexing is a technique which combines multiple signals into one signal, suitable for
transmission over a communication channel such as coaxial cable or optical fiber.
Multiplexing is also sometimes referred to as muxing

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MULTIPLEXING & IT’S TYPES

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FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

1. It transmits multiple signals

simultaneously.
2. In frequency division
multiplexing, the
demodulation process is
easy.
3. It does not need
Synchronization between
transmitter and receiver.

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WAVE-LENGTH & TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

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 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION
In error detection, we are looking only
to see if any error has occurred or not.
But in error correction, we need to
know the exact number of bits that
are corrupted and their location in
the message. The number of the errors
and the size of the message are
important factors

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TYPES

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PARITY CHECK

Blocks of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or parity bit
generator form, where a parity of :
1. 1 is added to the block if it contains odd number of 1’s, and
2. 0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s

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CHECKSUM

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CRC

1. Consist of ‘m message bits and r reduce bits as

Transferring bits (B) = m + r
2. Needs a Polynomial to transfer the CRC
Eg. M = 1010101010
R = x^4+x^3+1 11001 (breaking of Polynomials)
3. Add the parity bits of maximum power of polynomial
4. Perform the XOR operation (sum)

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