Recommended bibliography

• Henriot, Georges; Engrenages. ISBN: 2-10-003903-2

Gears • Fernandes, C. M. C. G., Marques, P. M. T., Martins, R. C., Seabra, J.

H. O. (2015). Gearbox power loss. Part II: Friction losses in gears.
Complements of Machine Elements Tribology International, 88(0)

• MAAG Gear Company, Ltd.; MAAG gear book

Carlos Fernandes
2024
• Branco, C. M., Ferreira, J. M., Costa, J. D., Ribeiro, A. S.; Projecto
Mestrado em Engenharia Mecânica
de Órgãos de Máquinas, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian

Gear Standards Gear Standards

• NF E 23-001: Vocabulaire des Engrenages: Definitions • DIN 780: Series of modules for gears
Géométriques • DIN 867: Basic rack of Cylindrical Gears with Involute Teeth for
• NF E 23-002: Vocabulaire des Engrenages: Definitions General and Heavy Engineering
Géométriques Engrenages à vis • DIN 868: General Definitions and Specification Factors for
• NF E 23-011: Engrenages: Crémaillére de Référence et Modules Gears, Gear Pairs and Gear Trains
des Rous Cylindriques à Developpante de Mécnique Générale et • DIN 3960: Concepts and parameters associated with cylindrical
de Grosse Méchanique gears and cylindrical gear pairs with involute teeth
• NF E 23-012: Engrenages Cylindriques: Indications à Fournir au • DIN 3972: Reference Profiles of Gear-cutting Tools for Involute
Fabricant d’Engrenages Tooth Systems according to DIN 867
• NF E 23-013: Engrenages: Déport de Dentures des Roues • DIN 3975: Terms and Definitions for Cylindrical Worm Gears with
Cylindriques pour Engrenages Réducteurs Saft Angle 90°

2 3
Gear Standards Hyperlink

• DIN 3978: Helix Angles for Cylindrical Gear Teeth

Lecture 1
• DIN 3979: Tooth Damage on Gear Trains: Designation,
Characteristics, Causes
• DIN 3998: Denominations on gears and gear pairs Lecture 2
• NP EN ISO 2203: Desenhos técnicos - Representação
convencional de engrenagens
Lecture 3
• ISO 6336: Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears

Lecture 4

References

4 5

Summary

1. Overview on gearing 9

2. Forces on gearing 9

Lecture 1 3. Root bending 13

4. Lewis formula 14

5. ISO critical section 20

6
Overview on gearing Cylindrical gears: basic concepts

O perimeter of pitch circle is

2 · π · r, so:
2·π·r =z·p

The reference (pitch) radius (r) is

function of the module and the
(a) Spur gear (b) Worm gear (c) Cross helical
tooth number (z):
Figure 2: Dentado Normal
z·p z·m
r reference radius r= =
2π 2
ra tip radius (or addendum)
rd root radius (or deddendum) Other radius:
rb base radius rd = r − hf = r − 1.25 · m
(d) Planetary (e) Bevel gear (f) Hypoid gear m module (standard value) ra = r + ha = r + m
Figure 1: Several gear types from DIN 3998. α pressure angle rb = r · cos α
p pitch
7 8
b face width

Forces on gearing Introduction

Tangential: lines are bunched closest

together.
Mt P
Ft = =
r v This occurs at two locations: (1)
the fillet at the base of the tooth
Normal: and (2) the point of contact with
Ft the mating gear, where force F is
Fn = acting.
cos αt
Figure 4: Photoelastic pattern of There are two main components
Radial: stresses in a spur gear tooth [2]. limiting gear load carrying
capacity:
Fr = Ft · tan αt
Figure 3: Forces in a right helical The experimental stress analysis
gear [1]. 1. tooth bending and fatigue
presented in Figure 4 shows that
Axial:
highest stresses exist where the 2. contact pressure.
Fa = Ft · tan β
9 10
Root bending Root bending

F approximated as s × b and The maximum stress on the

height h:
F
tooth root (traction on the right,
s s compression on the left) is:
h = ra − rd = 2.25 · m
Mf · ymax
The tangential force is σ=
I
ra calculated by: ra
r With:
r
rd rb F = Ft =
Mt
rd rb
r s
Figure 5: Simplified model for the ymax =
Figure 5: Simplified model for the 2
tooth root bending. The bending moment on the tooth root bending.
tooth root with radius rd is: b · s3
Considering the face width b, the I=
12
tooth section can be Mf = Ft · h

11 12

Root bending Lewis formula

For a gear without profile shift, x = 0, the tooth thickness on the

pitch radius is s = π·m
2

s
Ft · h · 2 6 · Ft · h 6 · Ft · 2.25 · m 54 · Ft 5.471 · Ft
σ= b·s3
= 2
=
2 = 2 = ≤ σadm
12
b·s b· 2 π·m π ·b·m b·m

Expressing the face width b as a function of the module b = k · m,

we can write the previous equation to select the module m:

s
5.471 · Ft 5.471 · Ft Figure 6: Lewis model to define critical section for root bending [2].
≤ σadm ⇔ m ≥
k · m2 k · σadm • The full load is applied to the tip of a single tooth;
• The radial component Fr is negligible;
This module is very coarse and is not used in practice.
• The load is distributed uniformly across the full face width;
• Forces which are due to tooth sliding friction are negligible;
13 14
• Stress concentration in the tooth fillet is negligible.
Lewis formula Lewis formula

Similar triangles: The tangential force written as

function of the transmitted
t/2 h t2 torque: Ft = Mr t
= ⇔ =4·x
x t/2 h
The face width as a function of
gear module: b = k · m:
Ft
σ=
π·b·m·y
Mt
z·m
4·x σ= 2
≤ σadm
y= π·k·m·m·y
Figure 7: Lewis model to define 6·π·m Figure 7: Lewis model to define
critical section for root bending [2]. critical section for root bending [2].
For a pressure angle of α = 20◦ The module is then estimated as:
[3, 4]:
t
Ft · h · 2 6 · Ft · h
σ=
s
= y = 0.154 − 0.912/z 2 · Mt
b·t3
12
b · t2 Ft m≥ 3

15 σ= π · k · z · y · σadm 16
π·b·m·y

Lewis formula Lewis formula

The face width as a function of 1

Ft YL =
σ= gear module: b = k · m: π·y
π·b·m·y

A typical way to write the Lewis The values of y are typically

Mt
formula is: z·m listed in Tables.
2
σ= ≤ σadm
π·k·m·m·y An approximate equation was
Ft Ft proposed by Wallace [4]. For
σ= = Y
π·b·m·y bm The module is then estimated as: pressure angle α = 20◦ :
1
Where YL = πy
y = 0.154 − 0.912/z
The tangential force written as s
3
2 · Mt
function of the transmitted m≥
π · k · z · y · σadm For α = 14.5◦
torque: Ft = Mr t
Figure 8: Lewis form factor according
to [5]. y = 0.124 − 0.684/z
17 18
Lewis formula ISO critical section

5.5
Wallace =20
Wallace =14.5
A conservative way is to use the
5.0 biggest Lewis form factor:
4.5

4.0 s
YL

3.5 3 10 · Mt
m≥
3.0 z · k · σadm
2.5
Figure 10: Tooth root critical section
sFn according to ISO [7].
2.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
A similar equation can be found
z (Ft ·hFa )·(sFn /2)
in German design guideline VDI σb = b·sFn 3
12
Figure 9: Lewis form factor. 2736 Part 2 for plastic gears [6]:
(FN ·cos α′a ·hFa )·(sFn /2)
= b·sFn 3
1 12
From YL = πy :
s
3 6 · Mt 6·FN ·cos α′a ·hFa
m≥ = b·sFn 2
z · k · σadm
 
6· hFa
· cos αa′
s
3
2 · Mt σb =
Ft
·
m
=
Ft
· YF
m≥ b·m sFn 2


b·m
π · k · z · y · σadm 19
m · cos α 20

ISO form factor Normal load along the path of contact

Figure 11: Form factor YFa for

hfP = 1.25 · m, haP = m, ρfP = 0.25 · m
[8].

The form factor can be

determined using graphical data
from ISO 6336-3:1996. The
number of tooth and the profile
shift should be known. The
graphical data should be Figure 12: Load sharing along path of contact [9].
suitable for the reference profile
used.
The normal force changes along the path of contact. Up to now, the
equations to calculate the maximum stress considered just one
tooth is carrying all the load.
21 22
Normal load along the path of contact Limiting root bending stress

The dimensionless load sharing The limit root stress is given by:
1.2

1.0 ratio is the ratio between the local

0.8 normal load and the maximum σb,107
σblim =
Y S · SF
ϒ (ξ )

0.6
normal load along the path of
0.4
contact:
0.2
A W I V B
According to Henriot [10] the average value is YS = 1.8. σb,107 is the
0.0
Fn,local
bending strength for a reference life of 107 cycles.
−0.75 −0.50 −0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
ξ /pb Υ (ξ) =
Fn,max
(a) Rigid solution
1.2 External spur and helical gears: • Average load:
1.0 The maximum load in not applied on F +F
Fm = max 2 min = 0
Fmin
0.8
the tip radius, a typical correction is • Reapeted load: R = Fmax
=0
• Amplitude load is twice the
ϒ (ξ )

to consider that the load is carried

0.6
• Amplitude load and average
0.4
previous case:
0.2
by and average number of tooth in load: Fa = Fm = Fmax
2 F +F
Fa = max 2 min = F
0.0
A’A
−0.5
W I
0.0
V
0.5
B B’
contact equal to ϵα :
ξ /pb
Ft But for epicyclic gear trains (or
σb = · YF · Yϵ Henriot states that for epicyclic or
(b) Elastic solution b·m planetary) and idler gears:
idler gears, the bending strength
Figure 13: Dimensionless load 1 • Reversed load: R =
Fmin
= −1 (σb,107 ) should be reduced by 25 %.
sharing along path of contact. with Yϵ = ϵα
. Fmax
23 24

Stress concentration at tooth root fillet Stress concentration at tooth root fillet

Figure 14: Load fluctuation [2].

Figure 15: Stress fluctuation [2].
25 26
Stress concentration at tooth root fillet Tooth bending fatigue testing

Figure 17: Tooth bending fatigue testing.

Figure 16: Various fluctuating stresses, all corresponding to equal fatigue
life [2].

(a) R = −1 and (c) R = 0

27 28

Load correction factors

There are several factors that should be taken into account to refine
the model presented. Henriot [10] lists:

• load type KA (for example if the system works under shock

loading)
• dynamic effect KV
• load application duration KbL (increase in the allowable stress if Lecture 2
the duration of load application is short)
• factor depending on the ratio face width / pitch diameter db . For
a high ratio is difficult to have theoretical conditions of gearing
due to machining inaccuracies, distortions, misalignment [3]

KA · KV · KM · KbL
Ftlim = σblim · b · m ·
Yϵ · YF · Yβ

29
Summary Hertz contact

1. Hertz contact 31 two bodies:

• Each body can be treated as an

elastic half-space loaded over
2. Gear kinematics 33 the small contacting area;
• The dimensions of the contact
area must be small compared
3. Contact pressure along the path of contact 38 with the dimensions of each
body and with the relative radii
Figure 18: Hertz solution for the of curvature of the surfaces;
contact pressure between two
4. Contact pressure over the pitch circle 40 • The surfaces are friction-less,
cylinders [11].
so only normal load is applied
between them;
Hertz admitted the following • The strains are small, so that
hypotheses for the contact of Hooke’s law is valid.

30 31

Contact pressure between two cylinders Gear kinematics

Where E1 and E2 are the Young O1

1
modulus of cylinder 1 and 2,
s
Fn · E∗
σH = respectively.
= vb
π·b·ρ 2
T1 v b1
And ν1 and ν2 are the Poisson B
Where b is width of the shortest ratio of cylinder 1 and 2, vM2
cylinder. respectively.
A vM1 3.0

v r2
T2 2.5
Fn is the normal force. Relative radius:

v r1
2.0

1
|vg| / ms
Equivalent Young’s modulus: 1 1 1 1.5
= +
ρ ρ1 ρ2 1.0

2 0.5
1 1 − ν12 1 − ν22 O2
 
= + Where ρ1 and ρ2 are the radius of 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E∗ E1 E2 AM / mm
cylinder 1 and 2, respectively.

32 33
Gear kinematics – rolling speeds Conceptual cylinders

O1 The rolling speeds (tangential to O1 As discussed before, the rolling

1 the contact) at contacting point 1 speeds are:
M are:
vr1 = ω1 · rM1 sin α1
1 T1
T1 vr1 = vM1 · sin α1 = (ω1 · rM1 ) sin α1
vM1 M
vr2 = ω2 · rM2 sin α2
M vM2 vr2 = vM2 · sin α2 = (ω2 · rM2 ) sin α2 1

v r1v r2
2 The tooth profiles 1 and 2 can be
v r1v r2

T2 2 T2 approximated by two circles

The difference of rolling speeds
of profile 1 relative to profile 2 is contacting in point M with center
the sliding speed. in T1 and T2 :

Since there exists friction • radius T1 M with center T1

between the contacting surfaces, 2
2
O2 • radius T2 M with center T2
O2 the sliding promotes power loss
(↓ efficiency). Figure 20: Conceptual cylinders vr1 = ω1 · T1M vr2 = ω2 · T2M
Figure 19: Rolling speeds
34 35

Conceptual cylinders Contact pressure between mating teeth

O1 The dimensions of the O1

conceptual cylinders at each
s
1 1 Fn · E∗
contacting position are used to σH =
π·b·ρ
calculate the Hertz contact
1
T1 pressure. T1 Where b is the gear face width.
M 1 M
The radius of the cylinders is: Normal force:
v r1v r2

2
T2 T2 2 Fn =
Ft
cos αt
ρ 1 = T1 M
ρ2 = T2 M Equivalent Young’s modulus:

Since T1 T2 is constant, the sum 1 1 − ν12 1 − ν22

 
= +
2 of the cylinders radii is always: E∗ E1 E2
2
O2 O2 Relative radius:

ρ 1 + ρ 2 = T1 T2 1 1 1
Figure 20: Conceptual cylinders Figure 21: Conceptual cylinders at = +
ρ ρ1 ρ2
36 any contacting position M. 37
Contact pressure along the path of contact Contact pressure along the path of contact

1.2
1.2
As already discussed, the normal
1.0
1.0 load varies along the path of
0.8
0.8 contact for a spur gear as
0.6

p0
represented by the
ϒ (ξ )

0.6

dimensionless load sharing 0.4

0.4
ration in the Figure 22, so the 0.2
0.2
contact pressure will be affected 0.0
0.0
A W I V B A I B
−0.75 −0.50 −0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 by this. The normal force at each
ξ /pb Figure 23: Normalized contact pressure along the path of contact for a spur
position along the path of gear with profile shift.
Figure 22: Dimensionless load contact follows:
sharing function disregarding elastic The contact pressure σH = p0 changes along the path of contact because:
effects.
• the relative radius ρ changes as ρ1 and ρ2 changes (T1 T2 = ρ1 + ρ2 );
Ft
Fn (ξ) = Υ (ξ) · Fbt = Υ (ξ) • the normal load changes as shown in Figure 22.
cos αt
A point for calculation of contact pressure is then the pitch point, since it
38 gives a very good approximation to the maximum value of the contact 39
pressure.

Contact pressure over the pitch circle Contact pressure over the pitch circle

O1 s O1 Equivalent radius over pitch circle:

1 Fn · E ∗ 1 1

1 1

σHI = = +
0 π · b · ρI 0 ρI r1′ · sin α′ r2′ · sin α′
1

1
Normal force over pitch circle: Relative radius over the pitch circle
I T1 I T1
2

2
Ft r1′ · r2′ · sin α′
Fn = ρI =
r1′ + r2′
T2 cos α′t T2
Assuming a steel gear:
s
0 0 Fn · E∗
σHI =
π · b · ρI

E1 = E2 = 210 GPa and ν1 = ν2 = 0.3 s

Fn · (r1′ + r2′ )
2 2 σHI = 192 ·
b · r1′ · r2′ · sin α′
O2 The equivalent Young’s modulus: O2
σHI in MPa and r1′ , r2′ and b in mm.
Figure 24: Conceptual cylinders over ∗
E = 115.385 × 10 Pa 9 Figure 24: Conceptual cylinders over
pitch circle. pitch circle.
40 41
Contact pressure over the pitch circle Contact pressure over the pitch circle

But recall that:

s
O1 Fn · (r1′ + r2′ )
1
σHI = 192 ·
b · r1′ · r2′ · sin α′
0
Fn Ft Ft′ Ft u + 1 Ft′ u + 1
Making Fnu = Fn
and a′ = r1′ + r2′ : Fnu = and K= · ·

1
= = =
b b b cos α b cos α′ b · d1 u b · d′1 u
I T1
2

s So, the contact stress at pitch point can be written as:

T2 a′
σHI = 192 · Fnu ′ ′
r1 · r2 · sin α′
0 s
2 u+1 2 √
r
Ft′
r2′ σHI = 192 · · · = 192 · · K
Finally u = z2
z1 or u = r1′ : b cos α′ d′1 sin α′ u cos α′ sin α′
2
O2
2 u+1
r r
1 u+1 Ft
r
σHI = 192 · Fnu · · σHI = 192 · · ·
Figure 24: Conceptual cylinders over ′
r1 · sin α ′ u cos α′ sin α′ b · d1 u
pitch circle.
42 43

Summary

1. Standardization on gear load carrying capacity 45

2. ISO 6336-1: Introduction and Scope 46

Lecture 3 3. ISO 6336-2: Calculation of surface durability (pitting) 49

4. ISO 6336-3: Calculation of tooth bending strength 53

5. ISO 6336: Calculation Procedure 57

44
Standardization on gear load carrying capacity ISO 6336:1 Introduction

The following entities has presented standards about gear load Table 1: ISO 6336:2019 [13]
carrying capacity: AFNOR (France), AGMA (USA), BSI (UK), DIN Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears International Standard Technical Specification Technical Report

(Germany), ISO (International)... Part 1: Basic principles, introduction and general in- X
fluence factors

Part 2: Calculation of surface durability (pitting) X

The main standards are: Part 3: Calculation of tooth bending strength X

• Alemanha Part 4: Calculation of tooth flank fracture load capac-

ity
X

• DIN 3990:1987 – “Calculation of load capacity of cylindrical gears” Part 5: Strength and quality of materials X

• USA Part 6: Calculation of service life under variable load X

Part 20: Calculation of scuffing load capacity (also X

• AGMA 2101-D04 – “Fundamental Rating Factors and Calculation applicable to bevel and hypoid gears) — Flash tem-
perature method (replaces: ISO/TR 13989-1)
Methods for Involute Spur and Helical Gear Teeth”
Part 21: Calculation of scuffing load capacity (also ap- X
• International plicable to bevel and hypoid gears) — Integral tem-
perature method (replaces: ISO/TR 13989-2)
• ISO 6336:1996; ISO 6336:2006; ISO 6336:2019 – “Calculation of load Part 22: Calculation of micropitting load capacity (re- X
capacity of spur and helical gears” [12] places: ISO/TR 15144-1)

Part 30: Calculation examples for the application of X

ISO 6336 parts 1,2,3,5

Part 31: Calculation examples of micropitting load X

45 capacity (replaces: ISO/TR 15144-2) 46

ISO 6336-1: Scope ISO 6336-1: Basic Principles

ISO 6336 should be used for the following situations [12, 13]: Calculation methods according to ISO 6336:1996:

• pressure angle between 15 and 25 ◦ ; A - factors derived using comprehensive mathematical analysis (FEM for
example) and experimental testing (seldom used due to costs);
• helix angle up to 30 ◦ ;
• spur gears or helical gears with contact ratio 1 < ϵα < 2.5; B - factors are derived with sufficient accuracy for most applications using
a rigorous geometric model;
ISO 6336 should not be used for the following situations [12, 13]:
C - factors derived using simplified approximations. On each occasion an
• spur or helical gears with contact ratio ϵα < 1; assessment should be made as to whether or not these assumptions
apply to the existing conditions.
• interference between tooth tips and root fillets;
• teeth are pointed; There are method D and E that give procedures to determine some factors.

• backlash is zero. ISO 6336:2006 and ISO 6336:2019 use only method A and B.

This standard should not be used for non-metallic gears. For plastic The factors are usually defined with the subscript corresponding to the
method used, for example KV−B means dynamic factor according to method
gears, use instead VDI 2545 (1981) e VDI 2736 (2016).
B

47 48
ISO 6336-2: Calculation of surface durability (pitting) ISO 6336-2: Calculation of surface durability (pitting)

Nominal contact stress at pitch point

u+1
r
Ft
σH0 = ZH · ZE · Zϵ · Zβ · ·
d1 · b u

Zone factor Contact ratio factor

s s s
2 cos βb cos α′t 4 − ϵα ϵβ 1
ZH = Zϵ = (1 − ϵβ ) + or Zϵ =
cos2 αt sin α′t 3 ϵα ϵα

Elasticity factor Helix angle factor

1
(a) Zone factor ZH = Y vs. (b) Contact ratio factor Zϵ = Y vs. transverse
v
u 1 Zβ = √
ZE = u cos β
1−ν12 1−ν22 the helix angle β contact ratio ϵα = X
u  
t
π E1 + E2

Figure 25: Graphical data for α = 20◦ , according to ISO 6336:2006 [14].
49 50

ISO 6336-2: Calculation of surface durability (pitting) ISO 6336-2: Calculation of surface durability (pitting)

Contact stress
σHlim · ZNT σHG
σHP = · ZL · ZV · ZR · ZW · ZX =
σH = ZB · σH0 ·
p
KA · KV · KHβ · KHα SHmin SHmin

σHP permissible contact stress

The contact stress should be lower than the permissible contact σHlim allowable stress number from reference test gears (ISO 6336:5)
stress: σHG contact stress limit
ZNT life factor
ZL lubricant factor
σH ≤ σHP ZV velocity factor
ZR roughness factor
ZW work hardening factor
ZB pinion single pair tooth contact factor
ZX size factor
KA application factor SHmin = 1 minimum safety factor
KV dynamic factor SH safety factor
KHβ face load factor for contact stress
σHG
KHα transverse load factor for contact stress SH = ≥ SHmin
σH

51 52
ISO 6336-3: Calculation of tooth bending strength ISO 6336-3: Calculation of tooth bending strength

Nominal tooth root stress

Ft
σF0 = · YFa · YSa · Yϵ · Yβ
b · mn

To find graphical data useful to

determine root bending
strength, the method C
presented in ISO 6336-3:1996 (a) Method B (b) Method C

should be used. Figure 27: Comparison between methods B and C [8].

YFa form factor
YSa stress correction factor
Method B considers that the load is applied at the first single tooth
Yϵ contact ratio factor Figure 26: Form factor YFa according
Yβ helix angle factor to Method C for hfP = 1.25 · m, contact point.
haP = m, ρfP = 0.25 · m [8].
53 Method C assumes that the load is applied in tooth tip. 54

ISO 6336-3: Calculation of tooth bending strength ISO 6336-3: Calculation of tooth bending strength

Tooth root stress

σFlim · YST · YNT σFG
σFP = · YδrelT · YRrelT · YX =
SFmin SFmin
σF = σF0 · KA · KV · KFβ · KFα ≤ σFP
σFP permissible bending stress
σFlim nominal stress number from reference test gears (ISO 6336:5)
σFG tooth-root stress limit
The tooth root stress should be lower than the permissible bending YST stress correction factor
stress. YNT life factor for tooth-root stress
YδrelT relative notch sensitivity factor
YRrelT relative surface factor
KA application factor YX size factor
SFmin = 1.4 minimum safety factor
KV dynamic factor
SF safety factor
KFα transverse load factor for tooth root stress
KFβ face load factor for tooth root stress
σFG
SF = ≥ SFmin
σF

55 56
ISO 6336: Calculation Procedure

1. Determine the nominal stresses σH0 e σF0 – theoretical static

calculation;

2. Determine the influence factors in the following order:

• application factor KA ;
• dynamic factor KV considering Ft · KA ;
• face load factors KHβ or KFβ considering Ft · KA · KV ; Lecture 4
• transverse load factors KHα or KFα considering Ft · KA · KV · KHβ or
Ft · KA · KV · KFβ ;

3. Determine the corrected stress σH e σF : multiply the nominal

stress by the influence factors;

4. Compare a the corrected stress σH e σF with the limit stress σHG

e σFG to quantify the safety factors.

57

Summary Efficiency of gearboxes

power loss gears bearings seals auxiliary

1. Efficiency of gearboxes 59

PV = PVZ0 + PVZP + PVL + PVD + PVX

2. Load dependent gear losses 60 no-load losses

load dependent losses

Höhn et al. [15]

3. Gear loss factor 66 PVZ0 PVZP PVL PVD

4. Coefficient of friction 71

5. Exercise: efficiency of a spur gear 73

Speed Nominal power Nominal power Speed

Case geometry Gear geometry Bearing geometry Seal diameter

Lubricant viscosity and density Lubricant formulation Lubricant formulation Lubricant viscosity

58 59
Load dependent gear losses Load dependent gear losses

ξ
PVZP = Pin · HVL · µmZ
B

This equation was introduced by Ohlendorf in 1958 [16], and: FN

V
I
W
vg

Pin is the input power; A

npinion

HVL is the gear loss factor which depends only on the gear geometry; Figure 28: Sliding speed (vg ) and normal force (FN ) on the tooth contact.

µmZ is the average coefficient of friction. At each point along the path of contact, the load-dependent gear
power loss is given by the following equation:
Let’s see how this equation is determined, based on the case of a
spur gear. PVZP (ξ) = Fn (ξ) · vg (ξ) · µ (ξ)

µ is the local coefficient of friction.

60 61

Normal force Sliding speed

1.2
O1
1.0 1

= vb
0.8 2
T1 v b1
ϒ (ξ )

0.6
B
vM2
0.4
A vM1 3.0

v r2
0.2
T2 2.5
A W I V B

v r1
0.0 2.0

1
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75

|vg| / ms
−0.75 −0.50 −0.25
ξ /pb 1.5

1.0
Figure 29: Dimensionless load sharing function disregarding elastic effects.
2 0.5

O2 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
AM / mm
Ft
FN (ξ) = Υ (ξ) · Fbt = Υ (ξ)
cos αt
62 63
Coefficient of friction Local power loss

The coefficient of friction is not constant along the path of contact.

PVZP (ξ) = FN (ξ) · vg (ξ) · µ (ξ)
0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05
1.0
µ (ξ )
0.04 0.8
0.03
0.6

PVZP
0.02

0.01 A W I V B 0.4
0.00
−0.75 −0.50 −0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
0.2
ξ /pb
0.00.2 0.0
Figure 30: Coefficient of friction along the path of contact.
Path o
0.4 0.6
0.8 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
f conta 1.0 0.0 0.2 b
But given the complexity of determining an accurate coefficient of
ct
friction along the path of contact, it is commonly used an average Figure 31: Normalized power loss on one tooth pair.
coefficient of friction. 64 65

Gear loss factor Gear loss factor

ξ
1 B
Z
E1 = · FN (ξ) · µ(ξ) · vg (ξ) dξ
B ω1 · rb1 A

V
FN
The average power loss can be calculated dividing the total energy
I
W
vg
dissipated over one revolution (z1 · E1 ) by the cycle time of one revolution
A (t1 = 2·π
ω1
):
npinion

1 B
Z
z1 · E1 z1
Figure 32: Sliding speed (vg ) and normal force (FN ) on the tooth contact. PVZP = = · · FN (ξ) · µ(ξ) · vg (ξ) dξ
t1 t1 ω1 · rb1 A

1 B
Z
z1 · ω1
PVZP = · · FN (ξ) · µ(ξ) · vg (ξ) dξ
PVZP (ξ) = FN (ξ) · µ(ξ) · vg (ξ) 2 · π ω1 · rb1 A
| {z }
z1 1
= π·m·cos = 1
2·π·rb1 α p b
Energy dissipated by one tooth along the path of contact:
1 B
Z
B
PVZP = · FN (ξ) · µ(ξ) · vg (ξ) dξ
1 pb
Z
A
E1 = · FN (ξ) · µ(ξ) · vg (ξ) dξ
ω1 · rb1 A 66 67
Gear loss factor Gear loss factor

Assuming a constant coefficient of friction (average) along the path

b B
1 fN (ξ, b) vg (ξ, b)
Z Z
of contact: PVZP = µmZ · Fbt · vtb · · dξ db
| {z } pb 0 A Fbt vtb
Pin | {z }
B
1 HVL
Z
PVZP = µmZ · FN (ξ) · vg (ξ) dξ
pb A

Multiplying by the input power Pin = Fbt · vtb outside the integral and PVZP = µmZ · Pin · HVL
dividing inside:

1 B
FN (ξ) vg (ξ) To predict the power loss, HVL should be calculated solving the
Z
PVZP = µmZ · Fbt · vtb · · dξ
| {z } pb A Fbt vtb integral (valid for spur and helical gears).
Pin

vtb = ω · rb is the tangential speed to the base circle / m/s However, there are several equations to predict the gear loss factor.

Fbt = Mt
rb is the tangential force to the base radius / N

68 69

Ohlendorf gear loss factor Coefficient of friction

The equation proposed by Ohlendorf is accurate mainly for spur

0.2
gears:

F
µmZ = 0.048 · P bt · η −0.05 · Ra 0.25 · XL
b · vri · Ri
π · (u + 1)
1 − ϵα + ϵ1 2 + ϵ2 2


HVL = Mt
z1 · u · cos βb Fbt = rb
is the tangential force to the base radius / N

b is the gear face width mm

z2
u= z1
vri = vr1 + vr2 sum velocity at pitch point / m/s
P
√2 2 +
√2 2 −a′ ·sin α′
AB ra1 −rb1 ra2 −rb2
ϵα = = 
1 1
−1
pbt π·m·cos α Ri = r1′ ·sin α′
+ r2′ ·sin α′
relative radius at pitch point / mm
√2 2 −r ′ ·sin α′
ra1 −rb1
ϵ1 = AI
= 1
η dynamic viscosity of the lubricant at the operating temperature / mPa s
pbt π·m·cos α
√2 2 −r ′ ·sin α′ Ra average roughness / µm
IB ra2 −rb2 2
ϵ2 = pbt = π·m·cos α
XL lubricant parameter

70 71
Lubricant parameter Exercise: efficiency of a spur gear

 0.2 Consider a spur gear with z1 = 25, z2 = 40, m = 2 mm, α = 20◦ and
F b = 20 mm with a surface finishing that assures Ra = 0.6 µm. The
µmZ = 0.048 · P bt · η −0.05 · Ra 0.25 · XL
b · vri · Ri torque transmitted is T1 = 130 N m at n = 1500 rpm. The gear is to
be lubricated with a PAO ISO VG 150 operating at 65 ◦ C.

XL lubricant parameter [17] Determine:

1. Gear loss factor (Ohlendorf) for the gear without profile shift;
Mineral without additives: XL = 1
2. Determine the profile shift to equalize the specific sliding;
Mineral with additives: XL = 0.85
3. Gear loss factor (Ohlendorf) with the profile shift;

Synthetic with additives (PAO): XL = 0.65 4. Coefficient of friction (Schlenk);

5. Gear power loss and efficiency.

72 73

References i

[1] Budynas, Richard G.: Shigley’s mechanical engineering design.

McGraw-Hill, 2014, ISBN 9789339221638.
[2] Juvinall, Robert C. and Kurt M. Marshek: FUNDAMENTALS OF
MACHINE COMPONENT DESIGN.
Wiley, 2017.
References [3] Castro, Paulo M. S. Tavares de and Sérgio M. O. Tavares:
Capacidade de carga das rodas dentadas, 2013.
[4] Wallace, E.L.: Machine Design: A Manual of Practical Instruction
in Designing Machinery for Specific Purposes, Including
Specifications for Belts, Screws, Pins, Gears, Etc., and Many
Working Hints as to Operation and Care of Machines.
American technical society, 1918.

74
References ii References iii

[5] Black, P.H., P.H. Black, and O.E. Adams: Machine Design. [11] Vullo, Vincenzo: Gears, volume 10 of Springer Series in Solid
McGraw-Hill, 1955, ISBN 9780070850378. and Structural Mechanics.
[6] Verein Deutscher Ingenieure: VDI2736 - Part 2. Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2020,
Number June. 2014. ISBN 978-3-030-38631-3.

[7] Haberhauer, Horst: Maschinenelemente. [12] ISO 6336-1:2006: Calculation of load capacity of spur and
Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2018, helical gears.
ISBN 978-3-662-53047-4. 2006:13, 2006.

[8] ISO 6336-3:1996: Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical [13] ISO 6336-1:2019: Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical
gears. Part 3: Calculation of tooth bending strength. gears - Part 1: Basic principles, introduction and general
1996. influence factors.
2019.
[9] Henriot, Georges: Engrenages parallèles - Étude géométrique.
[10] Henriot, G.: Traité théorique et pratique des engrenages.
Dunod, 1961, ISBN 2.04.005836.2.

75 76

References iv

[14] ISO 6336-2:2006: Calculation of load capacity of spur and

helical gears. Part 2: Calculation of surface durability (pitting).
2006.
[15] Höhn, B. R. R, Klaus Michaelis, and T Völlmer: Thermal Rating of
Gear Drives Balance Between Power Loss and Heat Dissipation.
AGMA Technical Paper, 96:12, 1996.
[16] Ohlendorf, H: Verlustleistung und Erwärmung von Stirnrädern.
PhD thesis, Dissertation TU München, 1958.
[17] Fernandes, Carlos M.C.G., Pedro M.T. T Marques, Ramiro C.
Martins, and Jorge H.O. Seabra: Gearbox power loss. Part II:
Friction losses in gears.
Tribology International, 88:309–316, aug 2015, ISSN 0301679X.

77