Semester Paper Paper Title No.

of CA UE Total
Code Credit
III ELC-232 II Digital communication 2 15 35 50
and Networking

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 Computer Network

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in

order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files,
or allow electronic communications.

AGB 3
Q. What is MAN? APrl22
Q. Describe in brief LAN and WAN April 22

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AGB 5
 Topology
Q. Define network topology. OCT 20

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is

laid out physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology.

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Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link to every other device. The term dedicated means that the
link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.

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A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies.
First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can
occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it
does not effect the entire system.
Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every
message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient
sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation
easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This
facility enables the network manager to discover the precise location
of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

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The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of
cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
First, because every device must be connected to every other
device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and
cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a

limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the main
computers of a hybrid network that can include several other
topologies.

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Q. Star topology is widely used in LAN April 22
Q. In which topology networking devices connected together at
center point April22
Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-
to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The
devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device

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 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star,
each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and
reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions,
moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that
device and the hub. Other advantages include robustness. If one link
fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor
also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long
as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links
One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the
whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a
mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often
more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as
ring or bus). The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs)
High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub
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Short note on Bus topology. April 22
Bus Topology :The preceding examples all describe point-to-point
connections. A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One
long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network

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Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A
drop line is a connection running between the device and the main
cable. A tap is a connector that connected into the main cable. As a
signal travels along the bus, some of its energy is transformed into
heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther
and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a
bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone

cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to
the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less
cabling than mesh or star topologies.

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Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of
early local area networks. Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but
they are less popular now

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 Short note on Ring topology April 22
Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-
to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of it. A
signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended
for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along

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A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is
linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or
logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices). In
addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device
does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an
alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its
location.
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple
ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the
entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a
switch capable of closing off the break.

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Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area
network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made
this topology less popular.

Hybrid Topology: A network can be hybrid. For example, we can

have a main star topology with each branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology

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Q. Several computers linked to a server to share programs and
storage space.
•A. Library
•B. Network
•C. Grouping
•D. Integrated system
•B. Network

Q.A term related sending data to a satellite is?

•A. Downlink
•B. Modulate
•C. Demodulate
•D. Uplink
•D. Uplink

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Q. Which of the following device is used to connect two systems,
especially if the systems use different protocols?
•A. Repeater
•B. Gateway
•C. Bridge
•D. Hub
•B. Gateway

Q.A distributed network configuration in which all data/information

pass through a central computer is
•A. Bus network
•B. Star network
•C. Ring network
•D. Point-to-point network
•B. Star network

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Q. The slowest transmission speeds are those of
•A. Coaxial cable
•B. Twisted-pair wire
•C. Fiber-optic cable
•D. Microwaves
•B. Twisted-pair wire

Q.A MODEM is connected to

•A. telephone line
•B. printer
•C. monitor
•D. keyboard
•A. telephone line

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Q. What device separates a single network into two segments but
lets the two segments appear as one to higher protocols?
•A. Switch
•B. Router
•C. Bridge
•D. Gateway
•C. Bridge

Q. What is a benefit of networking your computer with other

computers?
•A. Increase in the computer's speed
•B. Sharing of cables to cut down on expenses and clutter
•C. Sharing of resources to cut down on the amount of equipment
needed
•D. Increase in the speed of the network

•C. Sharing of resources to cut down on the

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amount of equipment needed
Q. Bluetooth is an example of
•A. Personal area network
•B. Local area network
•C. Virtual private network
•D. Wide area network
•A. Personal area network

Q A ____ typically connects personal computers within a very limited

geographical area, usually within a single building.
•A. LAN
•B. WAN
•C. MAN
•D. TAN
•A. LAN

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Q. Officer LANs that are spread geographically apart on a large scale
can be connected using a corporate
•A. LAN
•B. WAN
•C. MAN
•D. CAN
•B. WAN

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Short note on Networking device switch April2022
What is networking devices? Explain router end hub
Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with each other. Network devices like hubs, repeaters, bridges,
switches, routers, gateways, and brouters help manage and direct data flow in a
network. They ensure efficient communication between connected devices by controlling
data transfer, boosting signals, and linking different networks. Each device serves a specific
role, from simple data forwarding to complex routing between networks. In this article, we
are going to discuss different types of network devices in detail.
A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Types of Hub
Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and
relay the signal along with the network.
Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
the active hub.
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The
router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and
have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing
the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
Gateway
Router provides the full duplex mode of transmission. Hub provides the half duplex mode
of transmission. Router transfers data in the form of packet. Hub transmits data in the
form of electric signals or bits.

Functions of Network Devices

• Network devices help to send and receive data between different devices.
• Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and securely.
• Network devices Improve network speed and manage data flow better.
• It protect the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
• Expand the network range and solve signal problems.
 Repeaters
What is the function of Repeater? OCT 20

A repeater is a device that operates only in the physical layer.

A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too weak or

corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern.

The repeater then sends the refreshed signal.

A repeater can extend the physical length of a LAN

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A repeater can overcome the 10Base5 Ethernet length restriction.
In this standard, the length of the cable is limited to 500 m.

To extend this length, we divide the cable into segments and install
repeaters between segments.

Note that the whole network is still considered one LAN, but the
portions of the network separated by repeaters are called segments.

The repeater acts as a two-port node, but operates only in the

physical layer.

When it receives a frame from any of the ports, it regenerates and

forwards it to the other port.

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A network switch is networking hardware that connects devices on a
computer network by using packet switching to receive and forward
data to the destination

The basic function that any switch is supposed to perform is to

receive information from any source connected to it and dispatch
that information to the appropriate destination only. This thing
differentiates switches from hubs. Hub gets the information and
forwards that to every other device in the network.

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Cables and connectors

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AGB 32
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between
computer networks.
Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data
sent through the internet, such as a web page or email, is in the
form of data packets.
Router and Bridge are both network connecting
devices. Router works at network layer and is responsible to find the
shortest path for a packet whereas Bridge connects various
devices in a network. Router connects devices across multiple
networks.

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A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a
single aggregate network from multiple
communication networks or network segments.

Bridges are networking devices that connect networks. Sometimes

it is necessary to divide networks into subnets to reduce the
amount of traffic on each larger subnet or for security reasons.
Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and manages
the traffic flow between them.

Bridges are also used to interconnect two LANs that are operating
two different networking protocols. For example, LAN A could be an
Ethernet LAN and LAN B could be a token ring. This type of bridge is
called a translation bridge.

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A bridge router or brouter is a network device that works as a bridge
and as a router. The brouter routes packets for known protocols and
simply forwards all other packets as a bridge would. Brouters
operate at both the network layer for routable protocols and at the
data link layer for non-routable protocols.

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A gateway is a node (router) in a computer network, a key stopping
point for data on its way to or from other networks. Thanks
to gateways, we are able to communicate and send data back and
forth. The Internet wouldn't be any use to us without gateways (as
well as a lot of other hardware and software).
Gateways are distinct from routers or switches in that they
communicate using more than one protocol to connect a bunch of
networks and can operate at any of the seven layers of the OSI

The term gateway can also loosely refer to a computer or computer

program configured to perform the tasks of a gateway, such as
a default gateway or router.

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 Standard Ethernet

(l Mbps), Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (l Gbps), and

Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (l0 Gbps)

In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of

the access method. It also frames data received from the upper
layer and passes them to the physical layer

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 Gigabit Ethernet
The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the
Gigabit Ethernet protocol (1000 Mbps). The IEEE committee calls the
Standard 802.3z. The goals of the Gigabit Ethernet design can be
summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. To support autonegotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet.

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 Computer network model: OSI and TCP/IP
Explain OSI model in brief. OCT 20

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The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different
computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers
and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities.
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits.
Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located
in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest
path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and
receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.

Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible
for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message
Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also
provides authentication and security.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data
to be transferred over the network.
Q. Compare OSI and TCP/IP model Oct 20