VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS)
Affiliated to JNTUH, Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC with A++ Grade, ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Kacharam, Shamshabad, Hyderabad – 501218, Telangana, India
A8001 – MATRICES ANDCALCULUS

III. Calculus
1. Mean Value Theorems
1.1. Rolle’s Theorem. Let a function f :[ a, b ]  R be such that
(i) f ( x ) is continuous in [ a , b ]
(ii) f ( x ) is differentiable in ( a, b) and

(iii) f ( a )  f (b ) then there exists at least one c  ( a , b ) such that f (c)  0

1.1.1. Geometrical Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem.
Geometrically three assumptions of the Rolle’s theorem mean the following:
(i) The curve y  f ( x ) is continuous in [ a , b ] (Having a continuous curve)

(ii) At every point x  c where a  c  b, at the point

(c, f (c )) on the curve y  f ( x ), there is a unique

tangent to the curve.
(iii) The two end points of the curve y  f ( x ) corresponding to x  a, x  b have the same ordinate i.e.,
they are at the same height with reference to the x  axis.
(iv) Under these assumptions, there is at least one point on the curve where the tangent is parallel to the
x  axis according to Rolle’s theorem.
Example 1.1. Verify Rolle’s Theorem for f ( x)  ( x  a )m ( x  b)n in [ a , b ] ,where m, n are positive
integers.
Solution. Given f ( x)  ( x  a )m ( x  b)n

i) f ( x ) being a polynomial of degree ( m  n), it is continuous in [ a , b ]

And f ( x)  m( x  a )m 1 ( x  b)n  ( x  a ) m n( x  b) n 1

 ( x  a )m 1 ( x  b) n 1[m( x  b)  n( x  a )]

i.e., f ( x)  ( x  a ) m 1 ( x  b) n 1[(m  n) x  (mb  na )], x  (a, b) (1)

ii) f ( x ) is derivable in ( a, b)

iii) f ( a )  0  f (b)

Thus, all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied in [ a , b ]

Therefore, there exist c  (a, b) such that f (c)  0

Equation (1)  (c  a ) m 1 (c  b)n 1[(m  n)c  (mb  na )]  0

mb  na
 ( m  n)c  (mb  na )  0  ( m  n)c  ( mb  na ) c  (a, b)
mn

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Exercise 1.1.
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the following functions

sin x  x 2  ab 
1. in (0,  ) 2. log   in [ a, b] ,where 0  a  b
ex  x ( a  b) 
2. ( x  2)3 ( x  3) 4 in ( 2,3) 4. e x (sin x  cos x ) in ( 4,5 4)

5. x ( x  3)e 1 2 x in ( 3, 0)
6. Discuss the applicability of Rolle’s theorem for the following functions.
x2  4 x
(i) f ( x )  tan x in [0,  ] (ii) f ( x)  in [0, 4] (iii) f ( x )  x 3 in [0, 3]
x2
(iv) f ( x )  x in [ 1,1]

1.2. Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem (LMVT).

Let a function f :[ a, b ]  R be such that
(i) f ( x ) is continuous in [ a , b ]
(ii) f ( x ) is differentiable in ( a, b) then there exists at least one c  ( a , b ) such that
f (b )  f ( a )
f (c ) 
ba
1.2.1. Geometrical Interpretation of Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem
Geometrically, LMVT states that there is at least one point on the curve where the tangent to the curve
is parallel to the chord joining the end points A  a , f  a   and B  b, f  b   on the curve since the

slope at C  c, f  c    i.e., f (c )  is equal to the slope of the chord AB .

f (b )  f ( a )
i.e., f c  .
ba

Example 1.2.1. Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for f ( x )  x ( x  1)( x  2) in [0,1 2]

Solution. Given f ( x )  x ( x  1)( x  2)  x 3  3 x 2  2 x

f ( x)  3x 2  6 x  2  x   0,1 2 

(i) Since f ( x ) being a polynomial, it is continuous in [0,1 2] and

(ii) f ( x ) differentiable on  0,1 2 

f (1 2)  f (0)
By LMV theorem, there exists c   0,1 2  such that f (c ) 
1 20

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 3 80
 3c 2  6c  2   3c 2  6c  2  3 4
12
6  21
 12c 2  24c  5  0 c
6
6  21
Clearly, c    0,1 2 
6
Exercise 1.2.
Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the following functions and find the appropriate value of
c in each case.
1. f ( x )  ( x  1)( x  2)( x  3) in (0, 4) 2. f ( x )  sin x in [0,  ]

3. f ( x)  log e x in [1, e] 4. f ( x )  e x in [0,1]

5. If f ( x )  sin 1 x, 0  a  b  1, use Mean value theorem to prove that

ba ba
 sin 1 b  sin 1 a  .
1 a 2
1  b2
ba ba
6. Prove that (if 0  a  b  1),  tan 1 b  tan 1 a  . Hence show that
1 b 2
1  a2
 3 4  1
  tan 1   .
4 25 3 4 6
ba b ba
7. Prove that  log    for 0  a  b. Hence show that
b a a
1.3. Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem (CMVT).
Let a function f :[ a, b ]  R be such that
(i) f ( x ) and g ( x ) are continuous in [ a , b ]
(ii) f ( x ) and g ( x ) are differentiable in ( a, b) and
f (c ) f (b)  f ( a )
(iii) g ( x )  0  x  (a , b ) then there exists c  ( a , b ) such that 
g (c ) g (b)  g ( a )
Example 1.3.1. If f  x   x , g ( x)  1 x , prove that ' c ' of Cauchy’s mean value theorem is
the Geometric mean between a and b
Solution. Given f  x   x , g ( x)  1 x
Since [ a, b]  R  , f ( x ) and g ( x ) are continuous in [ a , b ]
1 1
We have f   x   and g   x  
2 x 2x x
 f ( x) and g ( x ) are differentiable in ( a, b) .Also g ( x )  0  x  (a, b)
f (c ) f (b)  f ( a )
 By CMV theorem, there exists c  ( a, b) such that 
g (c ) g (b)  g ( a )
1
i.e.,
2 c  b  a  c   a  b  
1 1

1 a b  
2c c b a
ab

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  c  ab  ( a, b) ( Q a< ab  b)
Hence ' c ' is the geometric mean between a and b

Exercise 1.3.

Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for the following functions

1. f ( x )  e x and g ( x )  e  x in [ a, b] 2. . f ( x )  sin x and g ( x )  cos x in [ a, b]
1 1
3. f ( x )  2
and g ( x )  in [ a, b] where 0  a  b.
x x
1
4. f ( x)  log e x and g ( x )  in the interval [1, e]
x

1.4. Taylor’s Theorem:

Let a function f :[ a, b ]  R be such that
(i) f ( x ) is continuous in [ a , b ]
(ii) f ( x ) is differentiable in ( a, b) then
( x  a)2 ( x  a )3
f ( x )  f (a )  ( x  a ) f '(a )  f ''(a )  f '''(a )  .....
2! 3!
1.4.1. Maclaurin’s Theorem:
Put a=0, then
x2 x3
f ( x )  f (0)  xf '(0)  f ''(0)  f '''(0)  .....
2! 3!
Example 1.4.1. Expand log e x in powers of (x-1) and hence evaluate log e (1.1) correct to 4 decimal
places.
Solution. The Taylor series expansion of f(x) in (x-1) powers is
( x  1) 2 ( x  1)3
f ( x )  f (1)  ( x  1) f '(1)  f ''(1)  f '''(1)  ..... (1)
2! 3!
Let f ( x)  log e x f (1)  log e 1  0
f '( x)  1x f '(1)  1
f ''( x)   x12 f ''(1)  1
f '''( x)  x23 f '''(1)  2
Substituting these in (1)
( x  1) 2 ( x  1)3 ( x  1) 2 ( x  1)3
log e x  0  ( x  1)1  (1)  2  ..... = ( x  1)    .....
2! 3! 2 3
Now put x=1.1,
(0.1  1) 2 (0.1  1)3
log e 1.1  (0.1  1)    .....  0.0953
2 3
Example 1.4.2. Obtain Maclaurin’s series expansion of log sec x .
Solution. Let f ( x)  log sec x f (0)  log sec 0  log1  0
1 sec x tan x  tan x
f '( x)  sec f '(0)  0
x
f ''( x)  sec2 x f ''(0)  1
f '''( x)  2sec2 x tan x f '''(0)  0

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 f iv ( x)  2sec2 x sec2 x  2 tan x sec2 x tan x f iv (0)  2

Substituting in Maclaurins series

x2 x3
f ( x)  f (0)  xf '(0)  f ''(0)  f '''(0)  .....
2! 3!
x2 x3 x4 x2 x4
log sec x  0  x(0)  (1)  (0)  (2).....    ...
2! 3! 4! 2 12
Exercise 1.4.

1. Expand sin x in powers of x  2 .

2. Using Maclaurins series, expand the following functions:
i.sinh x ii.tan 1 x
log(1 x ) 2 3 x4  ...
iii.log(1  x) and hence deduce log(1 x )  x  x2  x6  12
3 4
x
3. Show that e x cos x  1  x  23!  2 4!x  ...
2

2 3 4
4. Show that log(1  sin x)  x  x2  x6  12
x  ...

loge (1  e x )  log 2  x2  x8  192

x  ... . Hence show that
2 4
5. Show that

ex
 12  x4  48
x3  ...
1 e x

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 VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to JNTUH

Beta and Gamma Functions

Evaluation of Improper Integrals:
Many integrals which cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions can be evaluated in terms of
Beta and Gamma functions.
Gamma Function:


e
x
If n  0 , then the definite integrals x n1dx is called gamma function and it is denoted by (n) and
0

read as gamma n . i.e., 
( n)  e  x x n 1dx
0
Standard results:
1. (1)  1



Proof: By definition (n)  e x x n 1dx
0


   
x 
(1)   e x dx  e1   e  e0  1 Q lim e x  0 
0
0  x  

2. ( n  1)  n  (n) [Reduction Formula of  (n)]




Proof: By definition (n)  e x x n 1dx
0
 
(n  1)   e x
x n 11
dx   e{{
x n
x dx
0 0 v u

  
  xn
  e1 
x
   nx n 1  e1  dx 
x

0
0 

 [0  0]  n  e  x x n1dx  n (n)
0

Note: ( n)   n  1 (n  1)

3. (n)  n ! when ' n ' is positive integer

Proof: We have ( n  1)  nn
 n  n  1   n  1
 n  n  1 n  2    n  2 
 n  n  1 n  2  n  3 ......n.1 1
 n!
( n  1)  n !

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4. (n)  n  n  1 n  2  n  3 ......(n  k )  n  k  when ' n ' is positive fraction.
Proof: We have ( n  1)  nn
 n  n  1   n  1
 n  n  1 n  2    n  2 
 n  n  1 n  2  n  3 ......(n  k )  n  k 
Where  n  k  is the least positive real number
  n  k  1
5.  (n)  , when ' n ' is negative fraction.
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 .....  n  k 
Proof: We have ( n  1)  n (n)
 (n)  n1   n  1 , n  0 ..... 1
Similarly,  (n)  n1 . n11   n  2  , n  0, 1

2  
1  n  3 , n  0, 1, 2
 n1 . n11 . n
  n  k  1
 , n  0, 1, 2....  k
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 .....  n  k 
Where  n  k  1 is the least positive real number
Note: ( n) is not defined for n  0, 1, 2, 3,......
6. ( 12 )  

Proof: By definition (n)   e t t n 1dt
0
 
  12    e t t 2 dt   e  t t 2 dt ....... 1
1 1 1 1

0 0

 Put t  x and dt  2 xdx

2

 
limits: if t  0 then x  0 and if t   then x   
 
  12   2  e  x dx ........  2  Similarly   12   2 e  y dy ..........  3

2 2
From (1), we get
0 0

  2   2 
From (2) and (3), We get   12    12    2  e x dx   2  e x dx 
 0  0 


     4   e ( x dxdy........  4 
2 2
 y2 )
1
2
0 0

By changing into polar coordinates x  r cos  , y  r sin  and dxdy  rdrd

For the region of integration  varies from   0 to  and r  0 to 

2
  
2  2  2

     4    2 r  e
2
   1d  
r2 r2
From (4) , We get 1
2 e rdrd  2 drd  2
  0 r 0  0 r 0  0

  12   

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Example 1: Find i)   9  ii)  7
2   iii)  5
2  iv)  13
4  
Solution: i) We have (n  1)  n !
  9     8  1  8!
ii) We have ( n)   n  1   n  1
  72    72  1   72  1  52   52   52  52     52    52 32   32   52 32 12   12 
1 1

8 
 15
iii) We have (n)  n1   n  1

 
 25  15  25  1
2
   52   23   52 1   23  1  52 . 32   21 
3
2

 2 . 3 . 1
5 2 1   21  1  52 . 23 . 12   12   15
8 
2

iv) We have ( n)   n  1   n  1
 13  
13 13 9
 
9 9 9 9 9 5 5

4  4 1  4 1  4  4  4 4 1  4 1  4 4  4  4 4 4  4
9 51 1
         
48   4 
 45 1

x e
6 3 x
Example 2: Evaluate dx
0


x e
6 3 x
Solution: Given that dx
0
y dy
[Put 3 x  y  x  3  dx  3 limits: if x  0 then y  0 and if x   then y   ]
   

 
6

 e  y  dy 
7 1
 x e dx    e  y  7
y dy 6
6 3 x
3 e y 3  1
7
y 1
7
y 
dy  1
7
0 0  
3 0 3 0
 3

 1 6!  80
7
3 243


x
m 1  ax
Example 3: Evaluate e sin bx dx
0


x
m 1  ax
Solution: Given that e sin bx dx
0
ibx
We have e  cos bx  i sin bx
  

 x e sin bx dx   e x I.P of e dx  I.P.of  e

m 1  ax  ax m 1 ibx  ( a  ib ) x m 1
x dx  
0 0 0

[Put  a  ib  x  y  x 
y dy
 dx  limits: if x  0 then y  0 and if x   then y   ]
 ib 
a   ib 
a
  

 
m 1  m 
 e  y
m 1
x sin bx dx  I.P of  e
m 1  ax y y dy y
e == I.P of 1 dy 
0 0
a ib  a ib   a ib 
m

0
 a ib 
m

[Put a  r cos  , b  r sin  then a 2  b 2  r 2  r  a 2  b 2 , ba  tan     tan 1 ba ]  

 m   m   m   m eim
=I.P of m =I.P of m =I.P of m =I.P of m
 r   cos i sin 
m
 r   cos m i sin m   r  e im r 
=
 m 
r 
m I.P of eim =
 m 
r 
m sin m where r  a 2  b 2 ,   tan 1 ba  
Dept. of Freshman Engineering Page 3 of 9
 1

 log  
m 1
1
Example 4: Evaluate y dy
0
1

 log  
m 1
1
Solution: y dy
0

 
[Put log 1y  x  y  e  x and dy  e  x dx limits: if y  0 then x   and y  1then x  0 ]
1 0 

 log   dy    e   x
m 1
dx   x m 1e  x dx    m 
1 x m 1
y
0  0

Exercise:
1. Find i)  10  ii)  9
4   iii)  7
3    
iv)  11
2
  
 x2 4  x4 2 x 2
2. Evaluate the following i) 
0
xe dx ii) x e
0
dx iii) e
0
x 7 dx

 
c  bx 2
iv)  cxx dx
0
v) a
0
dx


4
3. Show that  4xx dx  log4
0
5!

5


4 x 2 
4. Show that 3
0
dx  14 log3

 
 x2   x2
5. Show that  e dx  2 .Hence evaluate
0
e

dx

   p 
p 1
 y log
q 1
6. Show that 1
y dy  q p , p, q  0
0
1 1
n  1n n! 3
 x  log x  dx   x  log x  dx
m
7. Prove that n1 , n  Z  , m  1 and hence Evaluate
0  m1 0
4
    34 
1
8. Show that  3 x log x1 dx  3 3
4
0

Answers:
1. (i )9! (ii )
5
 1
16 4
  (iv)
10395 1
32
 2  
1
2. (i )  3
2 4
  (ii )
1
 1
16 4
  (iii )
3
16

  c  1 
(iv) c 1
(v )
(log c) 2 b log a

Dept. of Freshman Engineering Page 4 of 9

Beta Function:
1

 x 1  x 
m 1 n 1
If m, n  0 , then the definite integrals dx is called beta function and it is denoted by
0
1
  m, n  and read as beta m, n. i.e.,   m, n   x m 1 1  x 
n 1
 0
dx

Standard results:

1. Symmetry of Beta function   m, n     n, m 

1
  m, n    x m 1 1  x 
n 1
Proof: By definition dx
0

 Put x  1  y and dx   dy 
limits: if x  0 then y  0 and if x  1then y  0 
 
0

 1  y  1  (1  y )
m 1 n 1
= ( dy )
1
0
  1  y  1  1  y 
m 1 n 1
( dy )
1
1
  y n 1 1  y 
m 1
dy
0

   n, m 

   m, n     n, m 


2
2. Beta function in terms of trigonometric functions   m, n   2  sin
2 m 1
 cos
2 m 1
 d
0
1
  m, n    x m 1 1  x 
n 1
Proof: By definition dx
0

 Put x  sin 2  and dx  2 sin  cos  d 

  
limits: if x  0 then   0 and if x  1then   2 

2
 (sin
m 1
 2
) (1  sin 2  ) n1 2sin  cos  d
0

2
  m, n   2  sin 2 m 1  cos 2 m 1 d
0

2
p 1 q 1
Note: put 2m  1  p and 2n  1  q  m  2 , n 2 in   m, n   2  sin
2 m 1
 cos
2 m 1
 d
0

2
We get   p 1 q 1
2 , 2   2  sin
0
p
 cos  d
q

Dept. of Freshman Engineering Page 5 of 9

Others forms of Beta Function
 
xm1 xn1
Form -I:   m, n   (1 x )mn dx  (1 x )mn dx
 
0 0
1
  m, n    y m 1 1  y 
n 1
Proof: By definition dy
0

 Put y  11x and dy  1 2 dx 

(1 x )
 
limits: if y  0 then x   and if y  1then x  0 
0

  1  11x 
m 1 n 1
  m, n    11x 1 dx
(1 x )2

 
n1
   11x   1 x 
m 1 n 1
x 1
(1 x )2
dx   (1xx )mn dx
0 0

xm1
By Symmetry of Beta function   m, n     n, m   (1 x )mn dx 
0
1
x m 1  x n 1
Form -II:   m , n    (1 x ) m  n
dx
0

y n1
.Proof: By Form -I, we have   m, n   (1 y )mn dy 
0
1 
y n1 y n1
  m, n    (1 y )mn dy   (1 y )mn dy --------(1)
0 1

y n1
Consider  (1 y )mn dy
1

 Put y  1x and dy  12 dx 

 x 
limits: if y  1 then x  1 and if y   then x  0 
n1 n1

0
 x1  1 dx 
0
 x1  1 dx
mn mn
1 1x  x2  1 1x  x2
1  1 

1
m1
  x mn dx --------(2)
0
1 x 
1 1
yn1 xm1 dx
Substitute (2) in (1), We get   m, n    (1 y )mn
dy  0 1 xmn
0
1
x m 1  x n 1
 m , n    (1 x ) m  n
dx
0

  m    n
Relationship between Beta and Gamma Functions   m , n  
  m  n

Proof: By definition of gamma function (n)  e t t n 1dt 
0

 Put t  x and dt  2 xdx

2

 
limits: if t  0 then x  0 and if t   then x   

Dept. of Freshman Engineering Page 6 of 9

  

x 
n 1
 ( n)   e  x2
2 xdx  2  e  x x 2 n 1dx
2
2

0 0

 
we get   n   2 e x x 2 n 1dx ........ 1
 Similarly   m   2 e y y 2 m 1dy ........  2 

2 2

0 0

  2   2 
From (1) and (2), We get   n    m    2  e x x 2 n 1dx   2  e y y 2 m 1dy 
 0  0 


  n    m   4  e ( x
2
 y2 )
x 2 n 1 y 2 m 1dxdy -------(3)
0 0

By changing into polar coordinates x  r cos  , y  r sin  and dxdy  rdrd

For the region of integration  varies from   0 to  and r  0 to 

2

2 
  n   m  4   e  r cos    r sin  
r2 2 n 1 2 m 1
From (3), We get rdrd 
 0 r 0

2 
4  e
r2
r 2( m  n )1 cos2 n1  sin 2 m 1  drd 
0 r 0

 2 2   r  
  2  e r r 2( m n ) 1dr   2  cos 2 n1  sin 2 m1  d  
   0   r 0 

  n    m   (m  n)  (m, n) [Comparing with (1) and Beta functions in

trigonometric terms]
  m   n
  (m, n) 
 ( m  n)
1

 x (1  x) dx
5 3
Example 1: Evaluate
0
1
Solution: By definition, we have   m, n   x m 1 1  x 
n 1

0
dx

  6   4
1
5!3! 1
 x (1  x) dx   (6, 4)   
5 3

0  (6  4) 9! 509

2
Example 2: Evaluate 
0
tan  d
 
2 2
1 1
Solution: 
0
tan  d   sin 2  cos
0
2
 d


 2 
 We know that 

 p 1 q 1
2 , 2   2  sin p  cos q  d where p= 1 2 , q  1 2 

 0


Dept. of Freshman Engineering Page 7 of 9

 

    3 4    14 
2 1 1
2 1
 
1 1
 2  sin 2  cos 2  d  12 
1
2
2 , 2  12  34 , 14  12
0
(1)

 12   3 4    1 4   12   1 4   1  1 4   12
  2
sin 4

xn1 dx  
Example 3: Given that 
0
1 x

sin n .Show that (n)(1  n)  sin n (0  n  1)

n1
Solution: Given that  1x x dx  sinn
0
--------(1)

By Form-I of  -Function, we have


x n 1
 m, n    (1 x ) m  n
dx
0

   m   n 
 We know that  (m, n)  
  ( m  n) 
  m    n   x n 1
  (1 x ) m  n dx
 ( m  n) 0
Put m  n  1  m  1  n
 1  n    n   x n 1
  (1 x ) dx
(1) 0

x n 1
 1  n    n    (1 x )
dx ---------(2)
0
From (1) and (2), we get
 1  n    n   sinn
Exercise:
1 a 2 3

 1 dx ii)
x a  x dx iii)  x 8  x dx  1 dx
4 2 2 3 3
1. Evaluate i) iv)
0
1 x4 0 0 0
9 x 2
  
dy
v)  x 6 dx  x1xx30 dx  1 y4
10 18
vi) vii)
1 x
0 0 0
  
2 2 2 5
 cot  d ii)  cos8  d iii)  sin  d
3
2. Evaluate i)  cos 2

0 0 0

xm1
3. Show that 
0
(abx)mn
dx  an1bm  (m, n)
b

 ( x  a)
m 1
4. Show that (b  x)n 1dx  (b  a ) m n 1  (m, n)
a
1 1

 x (1  x ) dx in terms of gamma function and hence evaluate  x (1  x )

m n p 5 3 10
5. Express dx
0 0

Dept. of Freshman Engineering Page 8 of 9

 1 1
x 2 dx 1 dx  
6. Show that 
0
1 x 4 0
1 
x4 4 2
1 1
x 2 dx 1 dx  
7. Show that 
0
1 x 4
0

1 x 4 4
 
2 2
d sin  d   
8. Show that 
0
sin  
0
 
2 2
9. Prove that  cos  d  .  1 d  
0 0
cos
2 1

 8  x  dx using    functions
3 3
10. Evaluate
0

Answers:

  ( 14 )
1. i) ii) 32
a6 iii) 16 iv)  v)  vi) 0 vii) 
4 ( 3 ) 9 3 2 33 2 2
4
2
 1 
 ( ) 
2. i) 2  3
ii) 35 8
iii) 77 1
5. i) 396 10. 2 
256 3 ( 2 )
3

Dept. of Freshman Engineering Page 9 of 9