DIELECTRICS

Objectives
 At the end of lesson we shall understand about,
 Static dielectric constant.
 Types of Polarizations.
 Internal or local fields in solids and liquids.
 Lorentz field in cubic materials.
 Clausius Mossotti equation.
 Frequency dependence of dielectric constant.
 Ferroelectric materials and applications.
Introduction

A dielectric is a substance that is highly resistant to the flow of an electric current. In

other words a dielectric is electrically non conducting material that provides electrical

insulation between two media (conductors) which are at different potentials. Eg -

Glass, Wax paper, Ceramics, Porcelain. When a dielectric medium interacts with an

applied electric field, charges are redistributed within its atoms or molecules. This

redistribution alters the shape of an applied electrical field both inside the dielectric

medium and in the region nearby. When two electric charges move through a dielectric

medium, the interaction energies and forces between them are reduced.

Dielectric Constant

Faraday discovered that the capacitance of the condenser increases when the region

between the plates is filled with dielectric. If C 0 is the capacitance of the capacitor

without dielectric and C is the capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric then the

ratio C / C0 gives εr called relative permittivity or Dielectric constant, Also for a given

isotropic material the electric flux density is related to the applied field strength by the

equation D = ε E, Where E ε is Absolute permittivity. In SI system of units the relative

permittivity is given by the ratio of absolute permittivity to permittivity of free space. ε

= ε0 εr .ε0 is permittivity of free space. ε r is relative permittivity or dielectric constant.

For an isotropic material, under static field conditions, the relative permittivity is

called static dielectric constant. It depends on the structure of the atom of which the

material is composed.

Dipole: A dipole is an entity consisting equal number of positive and negative charges

separated by a small distance. A dipole moment is a vector directed from positive field.

-q q

Polarization: The displacement of charges in the atoms or molecules of a dielectric

under the action of applied field leading to the development of dipole moment is called

polarization.

Electrical polarization

The polarization of the dielectric is the process of formation of dipoles or alignment of

already existing dipoles by the application of an electric field on the dielectric material.

The ratio of induced dipole moment to the effective applied electric field is called

polarizability.

Polar and non-Polar dielectrics

In dielectrics there are no free electrons, the center of positive charges are centered or
concentrated at the center of atom and center of negative charges are concentrated in
the electron cloud. With the center of gravity positive charges coincide with center
gravity of negative charges, then it neutralizes each other effects; hence their dipole
moment is zero. Such dielectrics are called non-polar dielectrics.
In some other dielectrics like water, center of gravity of positive charges never
coincides with center of gravity of negative charges even in the presence of applied
field. In such dielectrics each molecule behaves as if it contains a pair of positive and
negative charges separated by a distance (10-30m). Hence they have permanent dipole
moment. They are known as polar dielectrics.

Consider a dielectric material placed between two plates of a parallel plate capacitor as

shown in figure 2.

Let DC potential be applied between the plates; the atomic dipoles in the material align

in the electric field. The mean position of electrons will align towards the positive plate

of capacitor and mean position of positively charged nucleus will align towards

negative plate of capacitor. Inside the material the dipoles formed, align such that

positively charged particles are attracted towards the negatively charged particles. In

fact, at the surface of dielectric layer, negative charge is formed near positively charged

plate of capacitor; a layer of positive charge is formed adjacent to the negatively

charged plate of capacitor, these charges on the surface of dielectric material is called

polarized charges. +
Conducting plate

- - - - - - - - -

+ + + + + + + + +
E0
- - - - - - - -

+ + + + + + + +

Conducting plate
-
Fig 2: Polarization
Different Types of Polarization Mechanisms

The polarization is alignment of permanent or induced atomic or molecular dipoles

under action of applied field; hence depending on dielectric material and manner of
applied electric field, there are four types of polarization mechanisms:

1. Electronic polarization.

2. Ionic polarization.

3. Orientation or molecular polarization.

4. Space change polarization.

Electronic Polarization

This is the most common type of polarization, which occurs in most of the dielectrics.

The electronic polarization is due to displacement of center of gravity of negatively

charged particles relative to center of gravity of positive charges. This is called

electronic because the dipole moment results due to shift of the electron cloud relative

to the nucleus as shown in Fig 3. This type of polarization is due to induced dipole

moments. The electrons has very high natural frequencies of order 10 15Hz, hence light

of frequency 1015Hz can cause electronic polarization. The electronic polarization is

temperature independent. The electronic polarization occurs in over short interval of

time 10-15sec.

Fig 3: Atom without Electric field Atom with Electric field

Since the induced dipole moment is directly proportional to applied field
strength E
μe  E or μe = eE or e=μe / E

e is called electronic polarizability. e = μe

E
Electronic Polarization Pe = N μe N= number of atoms per m3

Pe = N eE e = 4 П Єr R3

Macroscopic equation is P = Єr ( Єr — 1 ) E

N eE = Є r ( Єr — 1 ) E

Electronic polarizability. e = Єr ( Єr — 1 )
N

2. Ionic Polarization.
The ionic polarization occurs only in ionic materials like Nacl etc. In this type of

materials under equilibrium conditions, the cations and anions remain at their mean

equilibrium conditions. When the field is applied the cations and anions get displaced

from their mean positions in opposite directions and give rise to a net dipole moment

as shown in Fig 4.As the dipole moment occurs only under an applied electric field,

ionic polarization is due to induced dipoles; also ions are heavier than electrons. This

type of polarization is slow process and ionic polarization is limited to frequencies up

to 1013 hertz and hence light frequencies of 1015 cannot cause ionic polarization.
 Fig 4: Ionic polarization

3. Orientation Polarizations or Molecular Polarization

The orientation polarization occurs in polar dielectrics in which there are molecules

with permanent dipole moment. The orientation of these molecules are random due to

thermal agitation, because of randomness in orientation, the material has net zero

dipole moment in the absence of electric field. When electric field is applied each

dipole undergo rotation so as to orient along the direction of the field, which exert a

torque in them, thus material itself develops the dielectric polarization as shown in Fig

5. In the orientation polarization restoring forces do not exists, however dipole

alignment is balanced by thermal agitation and this type of polarization is strongly

temperature dependent.

- + - - +
- - +
+
+ + -
+ -
+ - - + - +
+ + -
- qu
+ ote
- + - +
+ - + - from
+ the

Fig 5: Randomly oriented permanent dipoles Aligned dipoles in electric fielddocu

men
t or
the
sum
mary
The orientation polarizability is given by α0 = µ2/3kT

The orientation polarization P o is given by Po = N µ2 E/3kT

4 Space Charge Polarizations

The space charge polarization occurs in multiphase dielectric substances in which

there is a change of resistivity between different phases when electric field is applied at

high temperature. The electric charges get accumulated at the interface due to sudden

change in conductivity. This accumulation of charges with opposite polarities at

opposite parts in low resistivity phase leads to development of dipole moment (Fig 6).

+ - + - + -

_ +
+ - + - + -

+ - + - + - Fig 6: Space charge polarization

The space charge polarization is not an important factor in most common dielectrics.

The total polarization α of a material is thus given by the sum of electronic, ionic and

orientation polarizations,

i.e. α = αe+ αi+ αo

Internal Field
When the electric field is applied to dielectric material either liquid or solids, each
atom in the material develops dipole moment and acts like electric dipole, since atoms
either in liquids or solids are surrounded on all sides by polarized atoms, the internal
field at given point inside the material is equal to the electric field created by the
neighboring atoms and the applied field.
“The internal field is defined as the electric field that acts at the site of any given
atoms of a solid or liquid. Dielectric field subjected to an external field and is resultant
of the applied field and the field due to all the effects of the surrounding atoms.”

Expression for Internal or local fields in solids and liquids.

Consider a dielectric material solid or liquid the under action of electric field of
intensity ‘E’. In dielectric imagine an infinite string of similar equidistant atomic
dipoles parallel to field,

Fig 7: Internal field

The components of the electric field at ‘P’ due to an atomic dipole in polar form
are given by

μ cosθ μ sin θ
Er  Eθ 
2π 0 r 3 2π 0 r 3
(1)

Dipole at A1:

The distance of X from A1 is d. i.e., r = d and  = 0

μ
Er  Eθ  0 (2)
2π 0 d 3
μ
Field at X due to A1: Er+ Eθ =
2π 0 d 3
Dipole at A2:
Since it is situated symmetrically on the other side of X its field at X will also
be μ
2π 0 d 3
Field at X due to A2: μ (3)
2π 0 d 3

Therefore field at X due to both dipoles A1 and A2

i.e

Field at X due to A1 & A2: μ

E1 
π 0 d 3

μ
Field at X due to B1 & B2, located at a distance of 2d: E2  (4)
π 0 (2d) 3

The Total Field E' at X due to all dipoles:

E'  E1  E2  E3  ....
μ μ μ
    ....
π 0 (d) 3
π 0 (2d) 3
π 0 (3d) 3
μ 1 1
 [1  3  3  ....]
π 0 d 3
2 3

μ 1

π 0 d 3
n
n 1
3

where n = 1, 2, 3,….∞

1
But we know that by summation of infinite series  3
=1.2
n 1 n

μ
 E' = 1.2 (5)
π 0 d 3
The total field at X which is the internal field Ei, is the sum of the applied field E and

the field due to all the dipoles, i.e. E' .

Ei = E + E' (6)

If αe is the electronic polarizability for the dipoles, then

µ = αe Ei (7)

1.2  e Ei
Ei = E +
0 d 3

By rearranging the terms in the above equation we have

E
Ei =
1  1.2 e

∏ ε0 d 3 (8)

This is the expression for internal field in case of one–dimensional array of atoms in

dielectric solids or liquids.

Lorentz Field for a cubic lattice:

In 3D the general equation for internal field is expressed as

E i = E + (γ/ε0) P, where P is the polarization and γ is a proportionality constant called

internal field constant.

In the 3D if it is a cubic lattice then, γ =1/3 and the internal field is named as Lorentz

Field given by

E Lorentz = E + P/3ε0

The above equation is known as Lorentz relation. One of the important results that

follow from this relation is Clausius-Mossotti relation.

CLAUSIUS-MOSSOTTI RELATION
Consider an element solid dielectric of a dielectric constant εr .If N is the
number of atoms/unit volume of the material,  is the atomic dipole moment,
then we have ,
Dipole moment,
   i (1)
Polarization of the medium is

P    i (2)

Therefore
P
i 
N (3)
For a medium with dielectric isotropy
P=0 (r-1) E (4)
Therefore

P
i 
 0 ( r  1) (5)

In 3D

P
Ε i  E 
0 (6)

Using (3), (5) and (6)

P

P

P (7)
N  0 ( r  1) 0
 1 1 1 1
   
N  0  ( r  1) 3 

0  r  2 
 
N  3( r  1) 

  r  1  N
  
  r  2  3 0 (8)

This is Clausius-Mosotti equation.

Summary:

1. Dielectrics are insulators and posses high electrical resistivity. Dielectric constant

is characteristic of materials and it measures polarization ability of dielectric

subjected to electric field

2. Dielectrics are broadly divided into polar and non-polar dielectrics.

3. The polarization phenomenon accounts for the ability of materials to increase

storage capability of capacitors.

4. The total polarization of materials is sum of electronic, ionic and orientation

polarizations.

5. The Clausius-Mossotti equation holds good for crystals of high degree of

symmetry and non polar dielectric materials.

Application of Dielectric Materials:

1. Insulating Materials:

a. The electrically insulating material should have high resistivity to reduce the
leakage current and high dielectric strength to enable to withstand higher
voltage without being broke down.
b. The insulating dielectric material are required to have low dielectric
constant, low dielectric loss and high resistance.

c. They should possess adequate chemical stability, high moisture resistance

and suitable mechanical properties.

d. polymers and ceramics are widely used as solid insulators

e. In Aluminum or Copper conductors, plastic or rubber insulators are used.

2. Dielectric medium in Capacitors:

a. Dielectric should high dielectric constant, high specific resistance, high

dielectric strength and low dielectric loss.

b. Several layers of thin paper are used as a capacitor dielectric.

c. Mica is used in discrete capacitors with very small capacitance values.

d. The Polypropylene films and tissue paper impregnating with dielectrol-II are
used in power capacitor applications.

e. An electrolytic solution of ammonium borate or Sodium phosphate are used

in wet type capacitors.

3.Application of dielectric in Transformers:

a. The dielectric material in a transformer is used as an insulator and as a

cooling agent.

b. Dielectric liquids are used as electrical insulators in high voltage

applications, e.g. transformers.

c. In electrical transformers, mineral oils are used as a liquid dielectric and they
assist in the cooling process. Castor oil is used in high-voltage.

Solved examples:

1. Find the polarization produced in a dielectric medium of relative permittivity 15 in

the presence of an electric field of 500V/m.

Solution:

Given: εr = 15, we know that, ε0 = 8.854 * 10-12 F/m

 Ε =500 V/m

P=?

P = ε0 (εr -1) E

=8.854 * 10-12 (15-1) 500

= 6.195 * 10-8 C/m2

2. A parallel plate capacitor of area 650 mm2 and a plate separation of 4mm has a
charge of 2 * 10-10 C on it. What should be the resultant voltage across the capacitor
when a material of dielectric constant 3.5 is introduced between the plates?

Solution:

Given

Area of the capacitor s = 650 mm2 = 650 * 10-6 m2

Distance of separation between the plates, d = 4 mm = 4 *10 -3 m

Charge on the capacitor, Q = 2*10 -10 C

Dielectric constant εr = 3.5

We know that,

C = ε0 εr s /d

Also, C = Q/V

Equating the above relations,

Q/V = = ε0 εr /d

or V= Q d/ ε0 εr s

= 2*10 -10 *4*10-3/8.85 *10-12*3.5 *650*10-6

 = 39.73V

3. A elemental solid dielectric material has polarizability 7*10-40 Fm2. Assuming

that internal field to be Lorentz, calculate the dielectric constant for the
material if the material has 3*1028 atoms/m3.

Solution:

αe = 7* 10-40 Fm2

No of atoms/m3 =3*1028

The internal field is Lorentz field

Since the internal field is Lorentz field, we can apply Clausius –Mossotti
equation,
  r  1  N
  
  r  2  3 0
 r 1   3 * 10 28 * 7 * 10 40 
    12 

r  2  3 * 8.854 * 10 
= 0.7906

(  r -1) = (  r +2) *0.7906

 r -1 = 0.7906  r + 1.5812

 r (1-0.7906) = 2.5812

 r =2.5812/0.2094

 r = 12.33