Math 2b Study Guide
Uploaded by
elliea10045Math 2b Study Guide
Uploaded by
elliea10045* * NOTE: I highly encourage you to make your own study guide.
If YOU write your own, it’ll help
solidify concepts since you're writing it down yourself. (but if your lazy you can use this)
asic Limit Properties (useful for considering convergence/divergence of sequences
B
and/or improper integrals)
Riemann Sums(ish)
Limit Definition of a definite integral:
𝑏 𝑛
*
∫ 𝑓( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑖)∆𝑥
𝑎 𝑛→ ∞ 𝑖=0
*important formulas when setting up the limit/solving it
𝑏−𝑎
∆𝑥 = 𝑛
*
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + ∆𝑥
𝑛
lim ∑ 1 = 𝑛
𝑛→ ∞ 𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑛( 𝑛+1)
lim ∑ 𝑖 = 2
𝑛→ ∞ 𝑖=1
𝑛
2 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
lim ∑ 𝑖 = 6
𝑛→ ∞ 𝑖=1
Antiderivatives to remember
FTC 1 and 2
Physics relations
∫ 𝑎( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡) (taking the integral of accelerationwill give you velocity)
∫ 𝑣( 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠(𝑡) (taking the integral of velocitywill give you displacement (NOT TOTAL
DISTANCE)
***note: if it asks you to calculate total distance, take the absolute of the velocity function and
solve
∫|𝑣( 𝑡) |𝑑𝑡
If it asks you for net distance or displacement, solve integral without absolute value
∫ 𝑣( 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
Volumes w/Revolution and Cross Sections
𝑏
2
Disk Method: π ∫ 𝑟( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑏
2 2
Washer Method: π ∫ 𝑅( 𝑥) − 𝑟( 𝑥)
𝑎
F
● ind out the bigger radius and smaller radius
● Use washer method when there is a “hole” when rotating about an axis (usually when
two curves are given)
ross Sections:
C
1) Determine the area formula for the given cross-section shape (ex: if it were squares, the area
2
2 π𝑟
function would be𝑠 ; if it were semicircles,it would be 2
)
2) Determine what the variables would be for the area function
3) Integrate the function with respect to bounds
Ex: The flat base of a solid sits in the xy plane in the region bounded by the graphs of y = 0 and
−𝑥
=𝑒 between x = 0 and x = 4. The cross sectionsperpendicular to the x-axis are squares.
y
Find the volume
2
1) Squares →𝑠
−𝑥
2) Find out what𝑠 is: 𝑠 = 𝑒
4 4
2 −𝑥 2
3) Integrate ∫ 𝑠 𝑑𝑥 → ∫(𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝑏
1
Average Value: 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Integration by Parts:∫
𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢
𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
● D o integration by parts when two functions are being multiplied, and no clear
u-substitution is present.
● Pick out “u” using LIATE: Logs, Inverse Trig, Algebra, Trig, Exponential
● Use either the formula or the table method (whichever is easier)
Rules for trigonometric integrals
IMPORTANT TRIG IDENTITIES AND FORMULAS:
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 1
2 2
Half Angle:
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 2 1−
𝑐𝑜𝑠(2θ
)
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 2
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ 2 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠(2θ)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 2
Double Angle:𝑠𝑖𝑛(2θ
) = 2𝑠 𝑖𝑛θ𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
θ 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 ) =±
Power Reducing Formulas: 2
θ 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑛
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =
−1 𝑛−
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥) +
𝑛−1 𝑛−2
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 ) =± 2
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 1 𝑛−
1 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) + 𝑛
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Rule 1:
𝑚 𝑛
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
● If m is odd: 1) Separate out a single factor of sin(x) 2) Rewrite remaining factors of
2 2
sin(x) using𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 x and use u-substitution
● If n is odd: Do the same process, but with cos(x) now
2 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥) 2 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)
● If m and n is even: rewrite using both identities:𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 2
,𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 2
Rule 2:
𝑚 𝑛
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
● If m is even: 1) Separate out a𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥) term. 2) Rewrite sec(x) factors using
2 2
𝑠 𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
● If n is odd: 1) Separate out𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥) 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥). 2
) Rewrite tan(x) factors using
2 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠 𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 1
Trig Substitution:
Expression Trig Identity Trig Substitution
2 2
𝑎
2
𝑎 − (𝑏𝑥)
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 1
− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑥 = 𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
2 2
𝑎
2
𝑎 + (𝑏𝑥)
2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ + 1 𝑥 = 𝑏
𝑡 𝑎𝑛θ
2 2
𝑎
2
(𝑏𝑥) + 𝑎
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ − 1 𝑥 = 𝑏
𝑠 𝑒𝑐θ
Process:
1) Find out what your trig substitution for x would be.
2) Replace all x-factors with trib substitution. Also don’t forget to replace dx with dθ
3) Simplify as much as possible (get rid of the root)
4) Solve the integral
5) Get back into x-form (use the triangle method and any trig identities; ex SOHCAHTOA)
Integration by Partial Fractions
Case I: Denominator is a product of linear factors
2
+2𝑥
𝑥 −1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(2𝑥
𝑥 −1) (𝑥+
2)
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥− 1
+ 𝑥+
2
2
Result: 𝑥 + 2𝑥
− 1 = 𝐴(2𝑥
− 1) (𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥) (𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶(𝑥) (2𝑥
− 1)
Case II: The Denominator has some repeated linearfactors
4𝑥
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2 = (𝑥−1) + 2 + 𝑥+
1
(𝑥−1) (𝑥+
1) (𝑥−
1)
2
Result: 4𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶( 𝑥 − 1)
*remember to only multiply by factors it needs to match degree of repeated factor
Case III: Denominator has an irreducible quadraticfactor
𝑥
2 4 = 𝑥−𝐴2 + 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
2 +
𝐷𝑥+𝐸
4
(𝑥−2) (𝑥 +1)(𝑥 +4) 𝑥 +1 𝑥 +4
2 4 4 2
Result: 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 4) + (𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)
Improper Integrals
Type 1 Improper Integral: Type 2 Improper Integral:
Infinite bounds Discontinuity at or within bounds
∞ 2
1 1
∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
1 −1 𝑥
Turns to: Turns to:
𝑡 𝑡 2
1 1 1
lim ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 lim ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑡→ 0 −1 𝑥 𝑥
− +
𝑡→ ∞ 1 𝑠→ 0 𝑠
Process:
● Replace every infinite bound or discontinuous point with a holder variable (𝑡,𝑠, whatever
variable you choose)
○ Remember, if there is a discontinuous point within the interval, split it into two and
take the limit with respect to both the right and left side
○ If the bound has a discontinuous point, take it from the right side if it’s the lower
bound, otherwise, take it from the left side if it’s the higher bound.
○ Put it into limit notation.
○ Solve the integral, then plug in the values
○ Solve the limit
Sequences
Sequence notation: {𝑎𝑛}
N-th term expression for an arithmetic sequence: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1) 𝑑
𝑛−
1
N-th term expression for a geometric sequence: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟
● W
hen finding what the n-th term expression for a sequence is, determine whether it is an
arithmetic or geometric sequence. Then find either the common difference or common
ratio.
● When considering the convergence or divergence of a sequence, just take the limit of it
○ If limit is a finite number, the sequence converges
○ If limit is infinity or DNE, the sequence diverges
Series Tests
Geometric Series and Sum
∞ 𝑎1
𝑛−1
∑ 𝑎1𝑟 converges if|𝑟| < 1, Sum= 1−𝑟
𝑛=0
Telescoping series
∞
∑ 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 −1 = 𝑎
0 − 𝑎𝑁
−1 (aka, itresults in only the first and last term)
𝑛=0
Divergence Test
∞
Say we have ∑ 𝑎𝑛;
𝑛=0
- The series diverges if lim 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑛→ ∞
- If the limit = 0, test is inconclusive
Integral Test
∞
Say we have ∑ 𝑎𝑛, and𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=0
- If f(x) is positive, continuous, and decreasing for all values of x:
- Take the improper integral and the series will follow the same behavior as the
improper integral
- Main way to prove that f(x) is decreasing is to find the derivative and prove it’s
negative for all values of x
P-series Test
∞
1
General form of a p-series: ∑ 𝑝
𝑛=0 𝑛
- eries converges when p > 1
S
- Series diverges when p≤ 1
Direct Comparison Test
Say𝑎𝑛 < 𝑏𝑛
∞ ∞
- If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛d
ivergesas well
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ ∞
- If ∑ 𝑏𝑛 converges, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛c onverges as well
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
- asically, if the bigger series converges, then the other one will converge.
B
- If the smaller series diverges, then the other one will diverge
Limit Comparison Test
∞ ∞
Say we have ∑ 𝑎𝑛, ∑ 𝑏𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑎𝑛
If lim 𝑏𝑏
= 𝐿, where𝐿 is finite andpositive, then both series will have the same behavior
𝑛→ ∞
Alternating Series Test and Conditional vs Absolute Convergence
- *Tip: When you have an alternating series, start with finding out whether the absolute
∞
value of that series will converge or diverge ( ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ) | |
𝑛=1
- If it converges, it’s absolutely convergent
- If it diverges, then you go on to use the Alternating series test
- Alt Series Test:
- If lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0 AND 𝑎𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑎𝑛, it converges
𝑛→ ∞
- If it passes the alt series test, but diverges when you take the absolute
value, its conditionally convergent
- If it fails both scenarios, use a different test
Ratio Test
∞
Say we have ∑ 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=0
| 𝑎 |
- Take lim | 𝑎𝑛+ 1 | = 𝐿
𝑛→ ∞ | 𝑛 |
- If L < 1, series converges
- If L > 1, series diverges
- If L = 1, test is inconclusive
Root Test
∞
Say we have ∑ 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=0
- | |
Take lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿
𝑛→ ∞
- If L < 1, series converges
- If L > 1, series diverges
- If L = 1, test is inconclusive
ower Series
P
General Form of a power series:
∞
𝑛
∑ 𝑎𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑐)
𝑛=0
Radius and Interval of Convergence
● Only three situations
𝑎𝑛+
○ If lim 1
𝑎𝑛
= 0, 𝑅 = ∞, ( − ∞, ∞)
𝑛→ ∞
𝑎𝑛+
○ If lim 1
𝑎𝑛
= ∞,𝑅 = 0, {𝑐}
𝑛→ ∞
𝑎𝑛+
○ If lim 1
𝑎𝑛
= “x-expression”, Radiusand IOC may differ
𝑛→ ∞
● Process for finding the radius and interval of convergence are as follows:
○ Set up the ratio test and set it < 1
○ Solve the limit
○ Try and isolate the x-expression if applicable (don’t add or subtract though for the
radius of convergence)
○ Solve for the bounds for the interval of convergence
○ Check the bounds by plugging in those values into the series and check if it
converges or diverges at those points
Representing functions as power series
∞
𝑛 '
● If ∑ 𝑐𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑎) has𝑅 > 0
, then𝑓(𝑥) and∫ 𝑓( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 both have convergence of𝑅
𝑛=0
● When trying to represent a function as a power series, you typically want it in this format:
1
1−𝑥
; w
here “x” can be anything
∞
1 𝑛
R
● emember:
−𝑥
1
= ∑ 𝑥
𝑛=
0
W
● hen you use derivatives, the index increases by 1
● When you use integration, plug in a x-value that it easy to solve for the constant of
integration
Taylor Series/MacLaurin Series
Taylor Series: function centered at𝑥 = 𝑎. Convergentfor|𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
∞ (𝑛) ' ''
𝑓 (𝑎) 𝑛 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑎) 2
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑓( 𝑎) + 1!
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 2!
(𝑥 − 𝑎) +...
𝑛=0
MacLaurin Series: function centered at𝑥 = 0. Convergentfor|𝑥| < 𝑅
∞ (𝑛) ' ''
𝑓 (0) 𝑛 𝑓(0) 𝑓 (0) 2
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑥) = 𝑓( 0) + 1!
𝑥 + 2!
𝑥 +...
𝑛=0
Common MacLaurin Series (MEMORIZE THESE):
Common Functions MacLaurin series adius of
R
Convergence
1 ∞ 𝑅 = 1
𝑛
1−𝑥 ∑ 𝑥
𝑛=0
𝑥 ∞ 𝑛 𝑅 = ∞
𝑒
𝑥
∑ 𝑛!
𝑛=0
𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑥) ∞ 𝑛−
1 𝑛 𝑅 = 1
(−1) 𝑥
∑ 𝑛
𝑛=1
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) ∞ 2𝑛
+ 1 𝑅 = ∞
𝑛 𝑥
∑ (− 1) (2𝑛
+1) !
𝑛=0
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) ∞ 2𝑛
𝑅 = ∞
𝑛 𝑥
∑ (− 1) (2𝑛
)!
𝑛=0
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥) ∞ 2𝑛+
1 𝑅 = 1
𝑛 𝑥
∑ (− ) (2𝑛 +1)
1
𝑛=0
You might also like
- Math 100/101: Calculus I/II: John C. Bowman University of Alberta Edmonton, CanadaNo ratings yetMath 100/101: Calculus I/II: John C. Bowman University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada234 pages
- MATH1231-1241-Calculus-Notes-2020T1 (2020 - 10 - 19 10 - 35 - 29 UTC)No ratings yetMATH1231-1241-Calculus-Notes-2020T1 (2020 - 10 - 19 10 - 35 - 29 UTC)213 pages
- Final Rear Forward Axle Housing SnorkelNo ratings yetFinal Rear Forward Axle Housing Snorkel38 pages
- 2020 JC1 H2 Math Promo Solutions (Markers Comments For Learning)No ratings yet2020 JC1 H2 Math Promo Solutions (Markers Comments For Learning)19 pages
- Differential & Integral Calculus Notes in Brief Author Matthew ScroggsNo ratings yetDifferential & Integral Calculus Notes in Brief Author Matthew Scroggs22 pages
- Trigonometric Identities: Victor Liu October 3, 2008No ratings yetTrigonometric Identities: Victor Liu October 3, 20089 pages
- Thời gian làm bài: 60 phút không kể thời gian phát đềNo ratings yetThời gian làm bài: 60 phút không kể thời gian phát đề7 pages
- Smart Agricultural Technology: Laura Foster, Katie Szilagyi, Angeline Wairegi, Chidi Oguamanam, Jeremy de BeerNo ratings yetSmart Agricultural Technology: Laura Foster, Katie Szilagyi, Angeline Wairegi, Chidi Oguamanam, Jeremy de Beer10 pages
- IB Applications and Interpretation Formula SheetNo ratings yetIB Applications and Interpretation Formula Sheet1 page
- A New Core Loss Model For Rectangular AC VoltagesNo ratings yetA New Core Loss Model For Rectangular AC Voltages7 pages
- Analysis and Approaches 1 Page Formula Sheet V1.3No ratings yetAnalysis and Approaches 1 Page Formula Sheet V1.31 page
- Mathematical Formulae For Electrical and Computer Engineers: Edited byNo ratings yetMathematical Formulae For Electrical and Computer Engineers: Edited by23 pages
- Analysis and Approaches 1 Page Formula Sheet V1.3No ratings yetAnalysis and Approaches 1 Page Formula Sheet V1.31 page
- Errata Electromagnetic Foundations of Electrical EngineeringNo ratings yetErrata Electromagnetic Foundations of Electrical Engineering5 pages
- Oxus Stationary Sieve Replacements BrochureNo ratings yetOxus Stationary Sieve Replacements Brochure2 pages
- Router: Web Safe Router With 4-Port 10/100 Mbps SwitchNo ratings yetRouter: Web Safe Router With 4-Port 10/100 Mbps Switch2 pages
- A. P. Calculus Ab Prep Sheet: Graphing CalculatorsNo ratings yetA. P. Calculus Ab Prep Sheet: Graphing Calculators15 pages
