Unit 2

What is a Research Problem?

A research problem is a clear, concise statement that outlines a knowledge gap or challenge within a
field of study, serving as the basis for an investigation. It acts as the central focus of a research
project, guiding every stage—from data collection to the final interpretation of results. Solving a
research problem contributes to filling a gap in the literature or resolving real-world issues, leading to
new insights or practical applications. In essence, a research problem sets the direction and scope
for the entire research process.
Characteristics of a Research Problem:
1. Novelty:
A research problem should bring new perspectives to existing knowledge. It should aim to fill a
gap or address unresolved issues. Novelty ensures that the research adds value to the
academic or practical discourse by contributing original ideas or findings.
2. Significance:
A research problem must have a meaningful impact on the field, whether it advances
theoretical understanding, improves practice, or informs policy decisions. The significance of a
research problem lies in its relevance to a pressing issue, gap in knowledge, or practical
dilemma.
3. Feasibility:
A feasible research problem can be realistically explored given the researcher’s resources,
expertise, and timeframe. It should be well-defined and measurable, allowing the researcher to
develop testable hypotheses and conduct empirical investigations. Feasibility also considers
the constraints of the problem, such as complexity or resource limitations.
4. Clarity and Specificity:
A well-formed research problem is clearly articulated and focused. It should be easy to
understand, without any ambiguity, and should address a distinct aspect of the broader field.
Specificity helps ensure that the research problem remains manageable and that the
investigation yields focused results.
5. Rooted in Evidence:
A strong research problem is based on trustworthy data and evidence. It must be grounded in
the existing literature or preliminary research, rejecting unverified or speculative information.
Evidence-based research problems ensure that the investigation builds on credible sources,
contributing to the broader intellectual discourse.
6. Ethical Considerations:
Ethical integrity is essential in defining a research problem. The problem should not pose
physical or psychological harm to participants, nor should it negatively affect the natural or
social environment. Ethical research problems respect the rights, privacy, and well-being of all
individuals involved.
The Research Problem

A research problem is any question, assumption, or assertion that requires investigation or challenge through
systematic research. It forms the core of any research study. However, not every question can be turned into
a research problem, as some may be too difficult or impractical to study. Powers, Meenaghan, and Twoomey
(1985) emphasize that formulating research questions in a meaningful way is not always easy. It requires
substantial knowledge of both the subject matter and research methodology.

Importance of Formulating a Research Problem

Formulating a clear research problem is the most crucial step in the research process. It is akin to identifying
a destination before a journey. Without a clear research problem, it’s impossible to design a well-structured
research plan. As Kerlinger (1986) points out, understanding the problem is a key aspect of solving it. The
research problem serves as the foundation for the entire study, influencing every subsequent step, from
design and methodology to data collection and analysis.

Sources of Research Problems

Research problems can arise from several areas, commonly summarized as the "four Ps":

1. People: Studying a group of individuals, a community, or an organization.

2. Problems: Investigating issues, challenges, or needs faced by people or organizations.
3. Programs: Evaluating the effectiveness, structure, or outcomes of a particular intervention or
program.
4. Phenomena: Studying causes, effects, or relationships of various phenomena.

These sources provide the foundation for identifying relevant research problems across academic or
professional fields. The specific area of interest might vary, but most research revolves around some
combination of these categories.

Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem

When selecting a research problem, certain factors help ensure the research is manageable and maintains the
researcher’s motivation:

1. Interest: The chosen topic should be of great personal interest to sustain the motivation required to
complete the study.
2. Magnitude: The research problem should be specific and manageable within the given time and
resources.
3. Measurement of Concepts: In quantitative studies, it’s important to have clear indicators and
methods for measuring the concepts involved. This ensures that the research problem can be
addressed with empirical methods.
4. Level of Expertise: The researcher should have the necessary skills and knowledge for the study,
with an allowance for learning during the process.
5. Relevance: The research problem should be professionally relevant, adding to the existing body of
knowledge or filling a current gap.
6. Availability of Data: If the study relies on secondary data sources, the researcher must ensure the
data is accessible in the required format.
7. Ethical Issues: Ethical considerations must be taken into account, especially when the research
involves sensitive topics or could negatively impact the study population.
Steps in Formulating a Research Problem

Formulating a research problem is the foundation of the research journey, determining the quality,
relevance, and feasibility of the project. It involves a series of critical steps to ensure the problem is clear,
manageable, and researchable. Below are the detailed steps to help guide you through the process:

Step 1: Identify a Broad Field or Subject Area of Interest

The first step is to select a broad field that interests you professionally. This area should align with your
long-term career goals. For example:

• Social work students might focus on youth welfare, refugees, or domestic violence.
• Marketing students might explore consumer behavior.
• Public health students might research topics related to HIV/AIDS.

Choosing a field of personal and professional interest ensures motivation throughout the research process.

Step 2: Dissect the Broad Area into Subareas

Next, break the broad area into smaller, manageable subareas. Each broad field has multiple aspects or
issues that can be examined. For instance, within the area of domestic violence, possible subareas include:

• Profile of families affected by domestic violence

• Causes of domestic violence
• Impact of domestic violence on children
• Effectiveness of services for victims

Consult with peers, mentors, or review the relevant literature to help you identify key subareas for
exploration.

Step 3: Select a Subarea of Most Interest to You

After identifying various subareas, narrow your focus by selecting one that interests you most. Begin by
eliminating subareas that do not strongly resonate with your passion or expertise. This process will lead you
to a topic that is both manageable within the constraints of time, resources, and expertise, and one that you
are genuinely interested in researching.

Step 4: Raise Research Questions

Once you've chosen a subarea, ask yourself: What do I want to find out? List all possible questions related
to the subarea. If the list is too extensive, go through another process of elimination, focusing on the most
important and researchable questions.

Step 5: Formulate Objectives

Transform your research questions into research objectives. While research questions are inquiries,
objectives state what you aim to achieve. Use action-oriented terms such as "to find out," "to determine," "to
examine," and "to investigate" to define your objectives. For example:

• Research question: What are the causes of domestic violence?

• Objective: To identify the key causes of domestic violence in a given community.
Step 6: Assess the Feasibility of Your Objectives

Now evaluate whether your objectives are realistic given the time, resources (both financial and human), and
technical expertise you have. Ensure the research problem is within your capabilities, or revise the
objectives to make them more achievable.

Step 7: Double-Check and Reassess

Finally, reassess whether you have sufficient interest and resources to pursue the research problem. Ask
yourself:

• Am I enthusiastic about this study?

• Do I have the necessary resources and expertise to undertake it?

If your answer to either question is "no," revisit and revise your objectives accordingly.

Formulation of Research Objectives

Research objectives outline the goals of your study and guide all subsequent research activities. They are
crucial because they define the focus, scope, and direction of your investigation. Objectives should be
precise, measurable, and unambiguous.

1. Main Objectives:
o Definition: The overall purpose or central goal of the study. It summarizes what the
researcher intends to accomplish.
o Wording: Use clear and action-oriented language to describe what the research aims to
achieve. Typically, verbs like "to examine," "to determine," "to explore," "to assess," or "to
analyze" are used.
▪ Example: “To determine the impact of online education on students’ academic
performance.”
o Characteristics:
▪ Clear: The objective must clearly communicate the purpose of the study.
▪ Specific: It should specify the key issue being addressed.
▪ Complete: It must reflect the entire scope of the study.
▪ Measurable: It should be possible to evaluate the outcome of the objective.
2. Subobjectives:
o Definition: Specific elements of the main objective that break the larger goal into smaller,
more manageable aspects of the research.
o Wording: Each subobjective should focus on one aspect of the research and be written with
precision.
▪ Example:
▪ "To explore the relationship between the number of online class hours and
academic performance."
▪ "To assess student engagement during online lessons."
o Action-Oriented Verbs:
▪ "To find out,"
▪ "To examine,"
▪ "To measure,"
▪ "To investigate."
o Relationship with Research Design:
▪ Subobjectives often influence the type of research method (descriptive, correlational,
or experimental). The way these objectives are framed can determine the approach to
data collection and analysis.
 3. Types of Research and Their Objectives:
o Descriptive Studies: The objectives describe a situation, phenomenon, or population.
▪ Example: “To describe the types of mental health services available to students in
public universities.”
▪ Characteristics: Focuses on description rather than relationships between variables.
o Correlational Studies: The objectives explore relationships between two or more variables.
▪ Example: “To determine the relationship between social media usage and depression
among adolescents.”
▪ Characteristics: Mentions the variables being correlated but does not assume
causality.
o Hypothesis-Testing Studies: The objectives aim to test the direction of relationships or to
confirm/refute a hypothesis.
▪ Example: “To test whether an increase in physical activity reduces stress levels in
corporate employees.”
▪ Characteristics: Clearly indicates the expected relationship or outcome (e.g.,
positive/negative correlation).
4. Best Practices for Writing Objectives:
o Avoid Ambiguity: Be specific and avoid vague terms.
o Single Focus per Objective: Ensure each subobjective addresses only one element of the
study.
o Use Precise Verbs: Indicate clearly what will be measured or explored.
o Review Institutional Guidelines: If writing a research proposal, confirm whether objectives
or research questions (or both) are required by your institution.

Study Population

The study population refers to the group of people, events, or phenomena from which information will be
collected to answer your research questions. A well-defined study population ensures the research data is
relevant and focused.

1. Defining the Study Population:

o Clarity in Definition: A precise definition of the population is essential. This includes
specifying demographic characteristics such as:
▪ Age: Define the age range of the participants.
▪ Example: “Young people aged 15-25.”
▪ Gender: Decide whether your study is inclusive of all genders or specific to one.
▪ Example: “Women aged 30-50.”
▪ Location: Define the geographical region or community from which participants will
be drawn.
▪ Example: “Residents of urban areas in [name of city].”
▪ Other Criteria: Depending on the research topic, you may need to specify
characteristics such as profession, ethnicity, or duration of residency.
▪ Example: “Immigrants who have resided in the country for at least 5 years.”
2. Examples of Study Population Considerations:
o If studying youth welfare, consider the age range that defines "youth" (e.g., 15-24 years).
o If researching immigrant integration, clarify what defines an "immigrant" (e.g., someone
who moved to the country within the last 10 years) and specify the countries of origin.
o If examining consumer behavior, determine the specific group (e.g., millennials aged 25-35)
and geographic scope (e.g., consumers in metropolitan areas).
3. Narrowing the Population:
o The population must be narrowed down to a group that is relevant to the research objectives.
For instance, "children" could mean ages 0-5, 6-12, or 13-18, depending on the study's focus.
 o This step ensures that the study is manageable and targeted, avoiding overly broad
populations that may dilute the focus of the research.
4. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approach:
o Quantitative Research: The population is clearly defined, specific, and measurable. A
narrow and detailed definition is essential to ensure precision in data collection.
▪ Example: “Children aged 5-10 years in rural schools.”
o Qualitative Research: The population can remain broader and more flexible to
accommodate the exploratory nature of the research.
▪ Example: “Immigrants in urban areas” (leaving flexibility to explore different
dimensions of this group during the study).

Establishing Operational Definitions

Operational definitions clarify key terms or variables used in the study to avoid ambiguity and confusion.
These definitions translate abstract concepts into measurable, observable components.

1. Why Operational Definitions are Necessary:

o Operational definitions ensure consistency and clarity in data collection and analysis.
o They make abstract concepts measurable and define how specific terms will be understood
within the context of the research.
2. Examples of Operational Definitions:
o Poverty Line: Define what constitutes the poverty line (e.g., "households with an income
below $20,000 per year").
o Young Person: Clearly state the age range (e.g., "individuals between the ages of 15 and
25").
o Immigrant: Specify the criteria for being considered an immigrant (e.g., "a person who
moved to the country in the last 5 years").
o Effectiveness: Define what "effectiveness" means for your study (e.g., "improved job
placement rate within 6 months of completing a training program").
3. Importance of Contextual Definitions:
o Definitions may differ based on the context of the study. What constitutes "effectiveness" in
one study may differ in another.
o You must clearly outline how you will measure each key variable or concept in your
research.
4. Operationalizing Both Concepts and Population:
o Concepts: Translate complex or abstract ideas into measurable elements.
▪ Example: In a study on education, operationalize "academic success" by defining it
as "a GPA of 3.5 or higher."
o Population: Clearly define who qualifies as part of the study population.
▪ Example: In a study on children, define "children" as individuals between the ages of
5 and 12.

Qualitative Research Considerations

1. Flexibility in Problem Formulation: In qualitative research, the research problem and study
population remain flexible and can evolve throughout the research process.
o The problem may be reformulated multiple times to allow for the discovery of new themes
and insights during data collection.
2. Inductive Reasoning: Qualitative research primarily uses inductive reasoning, allowing for the
emergence of patterns and themes rather than focusing solely on predefined variables.
 3. Framework of Enquiry: Researchers may create a loose framework or "reminders" of themes to
ensure key issues are addressed during interviews or data collection, but they maintain flexibility to
adjust the focus as needed.

1. Definition of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement or assumption about a phenomenon, relationship, or situation that a researcher

sets out to test. It is a speculation that can be verified or disproven by collecting and analyzing data.

• Hypotheses are not always required in research but can help provide clarity, specificity, and focus
to the study.
• It can arise from previous studies, personal observations, or a set of hunches.
• Hypotheses help narrow down the scope of research by suggesting specific aspects of a research
problem to investigate.

2. Key Definitions of a Hypothesis

• Kerlinger (1986): "A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more
variables."
• Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1976): "A hypothesis is a proposition, condition,
or principle assumed without belief to test its accord with facts."
• Black and Champion (1976): "A hypothesis is a tentative statement about something, the validity of
which is usually unknown."
• Bailey (1978): "A hypothesis is a proposition that is stated in a testable form, predicting a
relationship between two or more variables."
• Grinnell (1988): "A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid
and reliable data."

3. Characteristics of a Hypothesis

For a hypothesis to be effective, it should have the following attributes:

1. Tentative Proposition: It is an assumption or guess about the unknown.

2. Unknown Validity: Its truth or falsity is unknown until tested.
3. Relationship Between Variables: Most hypotheses establish a relationship between two or more
variables that can be tested.
4. Testability: It must be capable of being tested using data collection and analysis methods.
5. Clarity: A hypothesis must be simple, specific, and unambiguous.
6. Related to Existing Knowledge: The hypothesis should stem from existing knowledge and
contribute to it.
7. Operationalizability: It must be expressed in measurable terms, so it can be tested and verified.

4. Functions of a Hypothesis

Hypotheses play an important role in the research process by:

1. Providing Focus: They tell the researcher what specific aspects of a problem to investigate.
2. Determining Data Collection: A hypothesis guides what data to collect and what to ignore.
3. Enhancing Objectivity: By specifying what is being tested, hypotheses bring objectivity to the
research.
4. Contributing to Theory: They help draw conclusions about the truth or falsity of a relationship,
which can contribute to the formulation or refinement of theories.
5. The Process of Testing a Hypothesis

Testing a hypothesis involves a structured three-phase process:

1. Formulating the Hypothesis: Based on assumptions or knowledge, the researcher constructs a

hypothesis.
2. Collecting Data: Appropriate data is gathered to test the hypothesis.
3. Analyzing Data: The data is analyzed to determine whether the hypothesis is true, partially true, or
false.

The process concludes with a statement on the correctness of the hypothesis: either it is proven true or
disproven. For valid conclusions, it is crucial that the study design, sampling methods, data collection, and
analysis are appropriate and free from bias.

6. Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

A hypothesis should:

1. Be Simple and Specific: Avoid complexity and ambiguity. It should focus on a single relationship.
2. Be Verifiable: Data collection and analysis techniques should exist for verifying the hypothesis.
3. Relate to Existing Knowledge: It should emerge from and contribute to the existing body of
knowledge.
4. Be Operationalizable: It must be expressed in terms that can be measured and tested.

7. Types of Hypotheses

There are several types of hypotheses, based on their formulation and purpose:

1. Research Hypothesis: The main hypothesis the researcher sets out to test.
2. Alternate Hypothesis: Specifies the relationship to be accepted if the research hypothesis is
disproven. Often referred to as the null hypothesis.

Types of Hypotheses:

o Null Hypothesis (H₀): States that there is no relationship or difference between variables.
E.g., "There is no difference in smoking rates between males and females."
o Hypothesis of Difference: Specifies that there will be a difference between groups or
variables but does not quantify the difference. E.g., "There is a difference in smoking rates
between males and females."
o Hypothesis of Point-Prevalence: Predicts a specific quantity or percentage. E.g., "60% of
females and 30% of males are smokers."
o Hypothesis of Association: Stipulates a relationship between variables and specifies the
extent of that relationship. E.g., "There are twice as many female smokers as male smokers."

8. Importance of Formulating Clear Hypotheses

A well-formulated hypothesis is crucial because:

• It defines the direction and scope of the research.

• It ensures that the study remains focused on testing specific variables.
• A clear and precise hypothesis makes data collection and analysis easier and more objective.
• Hypotheses that are ambiguous or too broad may be difficult to verify, leading to inconclusive
results. Therefore, constructing a hypothesis with care is critical to the success of a study.
9. Example of a Research Process with Hypotheses

• Phase I: Formulate the hypothesis (e.g., "Smoking rates are higher among males than females in this
population").
• Phase II: Collect data (e.g., survey individuals in the population on their smoking habits).
• Phase III: Analyze the data (e.g., compare smoking rates between males and females to determine if
the hypothesis is true or false).

10. Key Considerations in Hypothesis Formulation

• A hypothesis must be testable and should specify clear variables.

• The hypothesis should have practical relevance and should be grounded in existing research or
knowledge.
• It must be stated in a way that is clear and unambiguous, to facilitate accurate testing and analysis.

Errors in Testing a Hypothesis

When testing a hypothesis, errors can arise for various reasons, leading to incorrect conclusions about the
hypothesis. These errors can be due to the following factors:

1. Faulty Study Design: If the research design is flawed, it can lead to inaccurate testing of the
hypothesis.
2. Faulty Sampling Procedure: If the sample selected for the study is not representative, the results
may not reflect the true population.
3. Inaccurate Data Collection: If data collection methods are flawed or inaccurate, the analysis will be
unreliable.
4. Wrong Analysis: Incorrect analysis can lead to false conclusions about the hypothesis.
5. Inappropriate Statistical Procedures: If the wrong statistical techniques are applied, it can distort
the results.
6. Incorrect Conclusions: Even with correct data and analysis, incorrect interpretation can lead to
misleading conclusions.

These errors can result in misleading conclusions about the validity of a hypothesis, potentially undermining
the research.

Types of Errors in Hypothesis Testing

There are two main types of errors in hypothesis testing:

1. Type I Error: This occurs when a null hypothesis is rejected when it is actually true. It leads to a
false-positive result, meaning the researcher incorrectly concludes that there is an effect or
relationship when there is none.
o Example: Concluding that a new drug is effective when, in reality, it is not.
o This is often denoted by the significance level (alpha, or α), typically set at 0.05, meaning
there's a 5% risk of making a Type I error.
2. Type II Error: This occurs when a null hypothesis is accepted when it is actually false. It leads to a
false-negative result, meaning the researcher fails to detect an effect or relationship that actually
exists.
o Example: Concluding that a new drug is ineffective when, in reality, it works.
o The probability of a Type II error is denoted by beta (β). The power of a test (1-β) is the
probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis.
Visual Representation of Type I and Type II Errors

• Type I error: Rejection of a true null hypothesis.

• Type II error: Acceptance of a false null hypothesis.
• Correct decisions: The null hypothesis is either correctly rejected or correctly accepted based on
whether it is true or false.

Hypotheses in Qualitative Research

Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research generally does not emphasize hypotheses. This is because
qualitative studies focus on describing, understanding, and exploring phenomena using subjective and
categorical measurement procedures rather than testing relationships between variables in a structured
way.

• Hypotheses in qualitative research:

o Formulating and testing hypotheses are not commonly practised in qualitative research
because these studies often lack the specificity needed to test a hypothesis meaningfully.
o Qualitative research is typically open-ended and exploratory, aiming to gather in-depth
understanding of a phenomenon without a preconceived hypothesis.

This does not mean hypotheses cannot be formulated in qualitative research, but they are less common and
less rigid than in quantitative research. When hypotheses are used, they are often more flexible and evolve
with the research process.

Differences in the Use of Hypotheses Between Disciplines

• In some fields, such as epidemiology or studies examining causality, hypotheses are essential for
narrowing down probable causes and testing specific cause-and-effect relationships.
• In social sciences, the use of hypotheses varies greatly depending on the researcher’s approach and
the nature of the study, as well as whether the research is quantitative or qualitative.