General Chemistry(Chem.

1012)

Chapter-2. Composition of Matter

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 2.1. Elements
• Over 114 known, of which 82 are found in nature

• others are man-made (created by scientists)

• Abundance is the percentage found in nature on earth

• oxygen most abundant element (by mass) on earth and in the

human body

• the abundance and form of an element varies in different parts of

the environment

• Each element has a unique symbol

• The symbol of an element may be one letter or two

• if two letters, the second is lower case

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2.1.1. The Names and Symbols of Elements

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 2.1.2. The Periodic Table

Historical development of the periodic table

 During the 19th century, chemists began to categorize the elements

according to similarities in their physical and chemical properties.

 The end result of these studies was our modern periodic table.

 The arrangements of the elements in order of increasing atomic

number, with elements having similar properties placed in a
vertical column, is called the periodic table.
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Cont’d

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 Classification of elements in the periodic table

Periods: the horizontal rows of the periodic table.

Groups/families: the vertical columns of the periodic table.

The elements in any group of the periodic table have similar

physical and chemical properties

In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged according to

increasing in their atomic number.
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 Cont’d
• Main groups are referred to by names, which often derive from their
properties

I – Alkali metals; II – Alkaline Earth metals

VII – Halogens; VIII – Noble gases

• The elements in the middle block are called transition elements

• Elements in the A group are diverse; metals and non-metals, solids and
gases at room temperature
• The transition elements are all metals, and are solids at room temp,
except for Hg.

• Among the transition elements are two sets of 14 elements (Inner

transition metals or rear earth elements) - the lanthanides and the
actinides 7
 2.2. The Atoms
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 The modern version of atomic theory was laid out by John Dalton, who
postulated that

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of
all other elements.

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any

compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
present is either an integer or a simple fraction.

4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or

rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction. 8
 Cont’d
The law of multiple proportions states that when two elements react to form
more than one compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of
the other element in a ratio of small, whole numbers”.
Carbon monoxide
O = = 1
C 1
Law of multiple proportions
Carbon dioxide

O 2
= =
C 1
Activity: Two elements, R and Q, combine to form two binary compounds. In the
first compound, 14.0 g of R combines with 3.00 g of Q. In the second
compound, 7.00 g of R combines with 4.50 g of Q. Show that these data
are in accord with the law of multiple proportions. If the formula of the
second compound is RQ, what is the formula of the first compounds? 9
 Cont’d

Atoms of element X Atoms of element Y Compound of elements X and Y

16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y

matter can be neither created nor destroyed The ratio of atoms of element X
to the atoms of element Y is 2:1

Law of Conservation Mass Law of definite proportion

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 Atomic mass unit (amu) and the fundamental unit of charge (e)

• When describing the properties of atoms, we use appropriately small units of

measure, such as the atomic mass unit (amu) and the fundamental unit of
charge (e).

• The amu was originally defined based on hydrogen, the lightest element, then
later in terms of oxygen and nowadays in terms of 12C.

• The most abundant isotope of C, atoms of which are assigned masses of exactly
12 amu.

1 amu = 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom

1 amu = 1.6605 × 10-24 g

• The fundamental unit of charge equals the magnitude of the charge of an

electron (e) is found to be 1.6022 x 10 -19 C
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 Are Atoms Really Unbreakable?

J.J. Thomson investigated a beam called a cathode ray

 Postulated the existence of negatively charged particles, that we now call

electrons, using cathode-ray tubes.

 J.J. Thomson, measured charge -to - mass ratio of electron

 The atom must also contain positive particles that balance exactly the negative
charge carried by electrons.

J.J. Thomson, measured Charge/mass of e-

(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics)

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 Millikan’s Experiment
 Performed experiments involving charged oil drops.

 Determined the magnitude of the charge on a single electron.

 Calculated the mass of the electron (9.11 × 10-31 kg).

 From this and the charge to mass ratio, Millikan obtained the mass of electrons
e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19
charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g

Charge
Mass of e- =
Charge/mass e-
-1.602 x 10-19 C
Mass of e- =
-1.76 x 108 C/g

Mass of e- = 9.10 x 10-28 g

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 Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g)

 The atom contains a tiny dense center called the nucleus

• the volume is about 1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom
 The nucleus is essentially the entire mass of the atom
 The nucleus is positively charged
• the amount of positive charge of the nucleus balances the negative charge of the
electrons
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 The electrons move around in the empty space of the atom surrounding the nucleus
 Structure of the Nucleus

• The nucleus was found to be composed of two kinds of particles

• Some of these particles are called protons

• charge = +1

• mass is about the same as a hydrogen atom

• Since protons and electrons have the same amount of charge, for the
atom to be neutral there must be equal numbers of protons and
electrons.

• The other particle is called a neutron

• has no charge
• has a mass slightly more than a proton 15
 Chadwick’s Experiment

H atoms - 1 p; He atoms - 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

a + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)

n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g

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 Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons(n)
Isotopes : are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons
in their nuclei, thus different mass number.

Mass Number
A
Z
X Element Symbol

Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
In neutral atom: # of protons = # of electrons = atomic number
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 Atomic mass unit and average atomic mass
The atomic mass of a single atom is approximately equal to its mass number.
However, the average masses of atoms of most elements are not whole numbers
because most elements exist naturally as mixtures of two or more isotopes.

Average mass = ∑(fractional abundance × isotopic mass)i

Example: The element boron is composed of two isotopes: About 19.9% of all
boron atoms are 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu, and the remaining
80.1% are 11B with a mass of 11.0093amu. The average atomic mass for
boron is calculated as:

Solution: Average mass = ∑(fractional abundance × isotopic mass)i

= (0.199×10.0129) + (0.801× 11.0093)

= 1.99 amu + 8.82 amu
= 10.81 amu 18
 Cont’d

Activity: 1. Chlorine-35 (which weighs 34.97 amu) and chlorine-37 (36.97

amu). If the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu.

What is the abundance of each isotope?

2. The atomic masses of the two stable isotopes of copper, 63Cu

69.17%) and 65Cu (30.83%), are 62.929599 amu and 64.927793

amu, respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of copper.

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 2.3. Compounds
 Compounds are classified as ionic and molecular(covalent) on the basis of
the bonds present in them

 The bonds in compounds can be formed by either transferring or sharing of

electrons

 During the formation of some compounds, atoms gain or lose electrons, and
form electrically charged particles called ions

sodium atom (Na) has equal numbers of

protons and electrons (11) and is uncharged.

sodium cation (Na+) has lost an electron, so it

has one more proton (11) than electrons (10)
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 Cont’d
Group IA – alkali metals – loose 1 e- to form +1 (Na+)
Group II A– alkaline earth metals –loose 2 e- to form +2 (Ca+2)
Group III A– loose three e- to form +3 (Al+3)
Group IV A– loose four e- to form +4 (Sn+4)
Group V A– accept three e- to form –3 (N-3)
Group VI A– accept two e- to form –2 (O-2)
Group VIIA – accept one e- to form –1 (Cl-1)

Note: The charge of atoms transition metals and some other metals often exhibit
variable charges that are note predictable by their location in the table

 The transition elements are chemically quite different from the metals in the “A”
block, due to differences in electronic configuration
For example: - Cu can form ions with a +1 or +2 charge.

- Iron (Fe) can form ions with a +2 or +3 charge. 21

 2.3.1. Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of cations (positive ions) and anions (negative
ions)
The electrostatic forces of attraction, between these oppositely charged
particles form ionic bonds.
Example : NaF, KCl, CaCl2, Ca3(PO4)2
With some exceptions, all ionic compounds are derived from metallic and non
metallic ions.
Example: Aluminum chloride (AlCl3), is not ionic compound.

a) Structure of solid NaCl. (b) In reality, the cations are in contact with the anions.
In both (a) and (b), the smaller spheres represent Na ions and the larger 22
spheres, Cl ions. (c) Crystals of NaCl
 Cont’d

2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
 The formula is usually the same
as the empirical formula Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

 The sum of the charges on the CaBr2

cation(s) and anion(s) in each Ca2+ Br-
formula unit must equal zero

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
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 2.3.2 Molecular (Covalent) Compounds
 The bond in it is formed by sharing of electrons

 Molecular compounds contain discrete molecular units.

 They are usually composed of non metallic elements.

Predict whether the following
compounds are ionic or molecular

a) KI
b) H2O2
c) CHCl3
d) Li2CO3

 Electronegativity generally decreases going down a group and generally

increases going from left to right in a row.

 Use the electronegativity scale to predict whether the compounds are ionic
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or molecular
 2.3.3. Chemical Nomenclature

 It is the system that chemists use to identify and name compounds

Ionic compounds
 Nomenclature of ionic compound contains the name of the metal cation
followed by the non-metallic anion.

 Ionic compound can be binary or ternary based on the number of elements

it contains.

 The anion is named by taking the first part of the element name and
adding ‘-ide’.

BaCl2 barium chloride

K2 O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
KNO3 potassium nitrate
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 Compounds Containing Only Monatomic Ions

• The name of a binary compound containing monatomic ions consists of the

name of the cation followed by the name of the anion with its ending replaced by
the suffix -ide.

Examples

 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)

Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
 These compounds are named similarly to those containing only monatomic ions.
i.e. by naming first the cation and then the anion.

Example

 Potassium acetate (KCH3O )

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 Aluminum carbonate (Al2(CO3)3)
 2.5.1.3. Compounds containing a metal ion with a variable charge
 Transition metals can form more than one cations, thus their name can be
identified by roman numerals for each cation

 compounds that contain variable charge cations are named with writing the
cation followed by their ionic charge in parentheses and then followed by the
name of anion.

Examples : Iron typically exhibits a charge of either +2 or +3,

• FeCl2: Iron(II) chloride,

• FeCl3: Iron(III) chloride

Nomenclature used the suffixes –ic and –ous to designate metals with higher and
lower charges, respectively:

 FeCl3 : Ferric chloride

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 FeCl2 : Ferrous chloride
 Ionic Hydrates

Ionic compounds that contain water molecules as integral components of

their crystals are called hydrates.

The name for an ionic hydrate is derived by First writing the term that
indicate anhydrous (meaning “not hydrated”) ionic compound.

Secondly adding term that indicate number of water molecules associated.

The added word begins with a Greek prefix denoting the number of water
molecules and ends with “hydrate
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 Cont’d
Example: Copper(II)sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4∙5H2O)

Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3∙10H2O)

barium chloride dehydrate (BaCl2•2H2O)

lithium chloride monohydrate (LiCl•H2O)

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4

Blue White
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 Molecular Compounds

The simplest covalent molecules are the elements that exist naturally in pairs; we
refer to them as diatomic.
 These are: Hydrogen (H2 ), Oxygen (O2 ), Nitrogen (N2), Chlorine (Cl2 ),
Fluorine (F2) and Bromine (Br2 )

 Phosphorus and sulphur exist naturally in elemental form as combinations of

more than one atom P4, and S8 respectively. Then we use the Greek prefixes.

 Many molecular compounds are binary compounds, and thus, naming binary

molecular compounds is similar to naming binary ionic compounds.

 We place the name of the first element in the formula first, and the second

element is named by adding “-ide” to the root of the element name

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 Cont’d

For a pair of elements forming different compounds, Greek prefixes

are used to denote the number of atoms of each element present.

Examples: P2O5 diphosphorus pentoxide

 N2H4 dinitrogen tetrahydride

CO Carbon monoxide,

CO2 Carbon dioxide

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 Cont’d

Activity

1. Name the following compounds:

a. Fe(NO3)2 b. Na2HPO4

c. (NH4)2SO3 d. PbO

e. LiClO3.

2. Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:

a. mercury(I) nitrate b. Cesium oxide

c. strontium nitride
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Summarizes the Steps for Naming Ionic and Molecular Compounds

Compound

Ionic Molecular
Cation: metal or NH4+ • Binary compounds
Anion: monatomic or polyatomic of nonmetals
Naming
Cation has only Cation has more
• Use prefixes for
one charge than one charge
both elements present
• Other metal cation (Prefix “mono–”
• Alkali metal cations
• Alkaline earth metal cations Naming usually omitted for
• Ag+, Al3+, Cd2+, Zn2+ the first element)
• Name metal first
• Add “–ide” to the
• Specify charge of
Naming root of the second
metal cation with
• Name metal first element
Roman numeral
• If monatomic anion, in parentheses
add “–ide” to the • If monatomic anion,
root of the element add “–ide” to the
name root of the element name
• If polyatomic anion, • If polyatomic anion, 33
use name of anion use name of anion
 Nomenclature for Acids and Bases
• An acid can be viewed as a molecule with one or more H+ ions attached
to an anion.
• The rules for naming acids depend on whether the anion contains
oxygen. If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named with the
prefix hydro- and the suffix -ic.

Examples: HCl (hydrochloric acid) ; HBr (hydrobromic acid)

• When the anion contains oxygen, the acidic name is formed from the root
name of the anion with a suffix of -ic or -ous, depending on the name of
the anion.
1.If the anion name ends in -ate, the suffix -ic is added to the root name.
Example: H2SO4, H3PO4, HNO3 etc
2. If the anion has an -ite ending, the -ite is replaced by -ous.
Example: H2SO3 , HNO2

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 Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions

oxoacids Removal of
oxoanion
all H+ ions
Per- -ic acid Per- -ate
+[ o]

Reference “ –ic” acid –ate

-[ o]

“ –ous” acid –ite

-[ o]

Hypo- –ous acid Hypo- –ite

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 Cont’d

Names of Oxoacids and Oxoanions That Contain Chlorine

Acid Anion

HClO4 (perchloric acid ) ClO4– (perchlorate)

HClO3 (chloric acid ) ClO3– (chlorate)

HClO2 (chlorous acid ) ClO2– (chlorate)

HClO (hypochlorous acid ) ClO – (chlorate)

Activity: Give name of oxoacids and oxoanions that contain bromine and
iodine

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 Naming Bases

• A base can be described as a substance that yields hydroxide ions

(OH-) when dissolved in water.

• Bases consist of a metal cation with the hydroxide anion; hence,

their nomenclature will be similar to the, above examples.

• Examples: NaOH sodium hydroxide

Fe(OH)3 iron(III) hydroxide

NH4OH ammonium hydroxide

NH3 Ammonia (yield NH4+ and OH- ions.)

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