Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS 941

AIRPORT CARGO FACILITIES 953
AIR CARGO TERMINALS 957
AIRPORT SERVICE EQUIPMENT BUILDINGS 959
AIRCRAFT FIRE AND RESCUE STATION %2
HELIPORTS 963
STOL PORTS 974
SEAPLANE TERMINALS 976
BUS TERMINALS 944
TRUCK TERMINALS 990
 Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

By RICHARD M . ADLER, AIA, President, Brodsky, Hopf, & Adler, Architects & Engineers, P.C.

chanical difficulties, and other special consid- load factor must be evaluated separately . How-
INTRODUCIION
erations that will arise from time to time . ever, the designer must use caution end be
An airport is like a total city devoted to dynamic The extent of on-time arrival or departure aware of the fact that peak capacity may be
movement . It comprises many varied struc- by aircraft and the extent of deviation from the reached only at two or maybe four hours a day,
tures that facilitate passenger and cargo move- schedule must be carefully evaluated . The air- depending upon the airport, and for the remain-
ment, maintenance, and aircraft control, and lines themselves afford the best source of der of a 24-hour day, selected elements of the
other structures that provide for auxiliary sup- information related to this problem . Although airport operate at very low efficiency . Restraint
port functions . The very nature of an airport's the scheduling and on-time record is good, a must be exercised to carefully control the
complexity makes it necessary to isolate its 10 or 15 percent deviation can raise havoc at amount of structure that is designed so as to
segments for design purposes . It is therefore an airport ; therefore, consideration must be provide an economically correct solution .
the intent of this article to isolate primarily directed toward the capability of handling An airport functions as a transfer point be-
the passenger functions and to discuss how the peak condition plus an overload factor tween air vehicles and ground vehicles . There
they tend to operate at an airport and what their for deviation from the schedule . No two air- are numerous types of air vehicles designed
general relationships to a community are . ports function in the same manner . The over- for various functions . An examination of Figs .

Airport Operations
1-,LI; (1,D00) (XNSTRAINLD 3Y USHR)
First, all the movements and functions of the AIRCRAFT TYPE
passengers, the cargo, and the airline employ-
ees to and from an airport are regulated by a
printed schedule . That is, the action that each AC II
discipline will follow is begun on the basis of F
this schedule, and the passenger's actions
are based on the printed timetable of the airline
he has chosen to fly .
The cargo movements to or from the com-
munity are based upon the normal working
hours of the community . This working sched-
ule is generally in conflict with the flying HELICCt''
schedule of the airline . Therefore it requires
special correlation by the airline . MAR'PIN
The employees' working hours are predi-
cated upon the functions of each discipline as
it relates to the schedule . Therefore, all major
elements of movement to and from the airport
tend to take place upon a preestablished, pro-
grammed basis . However, the technology
of the aviation industry changes so rapidly
that a secondary but most important consid- C:7
eration arises . The technology can, overnight,
change the preestablished schedules, thereby
changing all relationships and movement to
and from the airport . This occurs in three ways , D (' .
1 . The aircraft manufacturer has demon-
r-I
strated his ability to produce new aircraft with
greater speeds, capable of carrying a gross
load comparable to that of existing aircraft .
I, I ! -
Therefore, with the faster aircraft, tune zones
that had one relationship now have another .
This then affects the predetermined schedule
and all the related disciplines .
2 . The ability to change and increase the ? I

payload of the aircraft for both passengers

and cargo creates a new condition . This
requires a revision of function and all disci-
DC8 SUPER ._ -"---- -
plines in order to accept greater numbers of
passengers and increased cargo movement DCP SUPER `3 _--_--
within a short period of time . It also creates
voids during other periods of the day .
3 . This condition results from both in-
creased payload and increased speed . This will
totally change the predetermined schedule .
Therefore, a constant program factor in the 1 ; v

development and design of all functions and

disciplines is the fact that flexibility for future
growth and expansion must be incorporated .
There is another factor to be considered
within the design program, and that is the on- Al .(A - .. . :,. ,I
time record of aircraft as related to the printed
schedule. The actual arrival and departure / ]_,nr1Ql
Aircraft range. MILE,'
times are subject to weather conditions, me- Fig. 1

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AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

1 to 10 will show some of the types, their sizes,

their capacities, and their development trend.
The ground vehicles at an airport can take
many forms. They are motor vehicles utilized
es passenger cars, trucks, etc. ; rapid transit
systems of many descriptions ; and special
loading vehicles which can be utilized for
supplementary transfer within the airport
proper . The transfer point (passenger terminal)
is generally a building structure or structures,
and it is to its activities that we will primarily
address ourselves. However, the understand-
ing of the operation of this type building would
be incomplete without the knowledge of a
series of systems that must be correlated to its
activity .
The activity is divided into public and non-
public functions as an operating reality. The
public function for both arrival and departure
of passengers is described in Figs . 11 to 13 .
The nonpublic function is described in Figs .
14 to 16 .

Relationship to Community Fig. 2 Passenger-aircraft capacity growth trend.

The operation of the airport is no different

than the operation of a small city and is
inherently set in motion by economic factors .
It is also influenced by the fact that for the
traveling passenger, air transportation makes
the period of inconvenience considerably short-
er than it would be with other conventional
systems . However, an airport cannot be an
island unto itself, and it has a great impact
on a community. The very size of the airport
affects the surrounding community. The care-
ful planning of buildings and site location
afford the potential for improving the environ-
ment and economics of a community .
There are many problems of noise, air pollu-
tion, and ecological balance that can be mini-
mized or eliminated by proper site planning and
building design . The community is affected
by the working population of the airport, by
the introduction of new industry, and by the
economic impact of same .
The economic health of the airport and the
architect's attempt to stay within the bounds
thereby established cannot be overemphasized .
The successful operation of the airport will
demand total cooperation with the surrounding
community. It thereby follows that every effort
to establish proper working relationships
among the many varied systems within the
airport will be predicated upon a successful Fig. 3 Gross-weight growth .
relationship with the surrounding community.

GLOSSARY

AMENITIES: That part of a terminal building

housing convenience, service, and diversion
facilities for the passengers, tenants, and
public .
AVERAGE PEAK HOUR : The peak hour of the
average peak day. The peak hour is the one-
hour period of any peak day during which the
highest percentage of the day's traffic is
experienced. The average peak day is the
average of the top 37 days (10 percent) of a
year in terms of traffic volume .
BAGGAGE DIVERTER : A mechanical device
for transferring baggage from a moving
conveyor belt to a baggage claim counter
in such manner that the baggage is evenly
distributed along the baggage counter.
BOARDING CONTROL POINT: The point at
which a passenger's credentials are inspect-
ed to assure that he is authorized to board
a particular flight . Normally, this point is
located in the vicinity of the gate from which
the flight will depart . Fig. 4 Overall-length growth versus year .

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BOARDING PASSENGER : Any originating or

connecting passenger authorized to board
a flight .
CONNECTING PASSENGER: A passenger
who arrives on one flight only for the pur-
pose of transferring to another flight to reach
his destination . These passengers are
broken down into two categories : intraline
and interline passengers .
CUSTOMS: This is an area under federal
jurisdiction through which passengers
arriving from foreign countries are required
by law to pass in order to make a declaration
related to baggage which is accompanying
them upon entry to the United States . This
area is used for receipt of a declaration and/
or examination of baggage. If duty is re-
quired ; the customs agent will receive same
in the customs area . Special attention must
be paid to the design of this area because of
changing techniques of operation .
DEPARTURE ROOM : An assembly area,
including the boarding control point, located
at a gate position(s) for passaengers pending
availability of aircraft for boarding .
Fig. 5 Wingspan growth versus year . DEPLANING: Any passenger, cargo, baggage,
visitor, ate., which is related to the unloading
from an arriving flight .
DOMESTIC PASSENGERS : All passengers
traveling in the United States or its territor-
ies are considered as domestic . Foreign
nationals within the confines and territory
require no special checking and operate as
domestics.
ENPLANING : Any passenger, cargo, baggage,
visitor, etc., which is related to the boarding
of a departing flight .
FIS : FIS is an abbreviation for Federal Inspec-
tion Services . It is utilized as an all-inclusive
term for the U.S . Public Health, Immigration,
and Naturalization Service, the Department
of Agriculture, and U.S . Customs.
GATE : A location to which aircraft are brought
for the purpose of discharging and loading
passengers and their baggage.
GATE CONCOURSE: An extension from the
main terminal building primarily intended
to provide protected access for passengers
between the main terminal building and the
gates . In addition to the passenger corridor,
the concourse may include airline functional
areas and minimum consumer services .
GROUND TRANSPORTATION : The indepen-
dently operated transportation vehicles
Fig. 6 Overall-length growth versus gross weight . scheduled for passengers' use between air-
ports and the areas served thereby is called
ground transportation .
IMMIGRATION: This area is devoted to the
examination of passports of United States
nationals and aliens seeking to enter the
United States . Consideration for design
and function of this area must be correlated
with federal authorities .
INTERLINE CONNECTING(ION): A term used
to describe passengers and baggage which
arrive on the flight of one airline and depart
on a flight of another.
INTOWN TERMINAL : A facility located apart
from the airport, usually in the downtown
area of the city, at which passengers may be
processed, baggage is checked to passen-
gers destinations, and from which ground
transportation is provided .
INTERLINE CONNECTING(ION): A term used
to describe passengers and baggage which
arrive on one flight and depart on another
flight of the same airline.
IN-TRANSIT PASSENGER : If an international-
ly bound aircraft stops at an airport for
refueling or discharge of passengers and a
remaining number of passengers are to be
detained in the aircraft for another destina-
Fig. 7 Wingspan growth versus gross weight .

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Fig. 8 Ramp area trend .

Fig. 9 Passenger doorsill-height trend.

tion, the convenience of providing a totally port by more persons than short-haul pas- nation, and possibly quarantine . Design re-
segregated lounge facility may be warranted sengers. quires correlation with federal authorities.
for the continuing passengers . This facility ORIGINATING PASSENGER: A passenger READY ROOM : An area adjacent to the nor-
is referred to as an in-transit area . No FIS who is starting his trip . rnal work areas in which personnel whose
inspection is required, but security of the OUTBOUND BAGGAGE ROOM : The area to duties are performed out-of-doors may
area is important. which checked baggage of originating assemble, be protected, and from which they
LONG-HAUL A term used to define flights or passengers is delivered for sorting by flights may receive their work assignments . These
traffic which travel over a relatively long dis- prior to its being dispatched to the aircraft rooms should be concealed from public view .
tance as opposed to those which travel over for loading . SELF-CLAIM BAGGAGE: A method under
a shorter distance. Normally, long-haul pas- PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE : The function of which passengers have direct access to
sengers arrive at their originating airport the Public Health Service is to determine terminating baggage in a controlled area .
earlier than short-haul passengers, carry whether an arriving passenger will present As passengers leave the area, an attendant
more baggage than short-haul passengers, a health hazard to the general population . retrieves baggage claim checks and matches
and are accompanied to or are met at the air- This may require inoculation, special exami- them to strap checks to assure that passen-

924
Fig. 10 Estimated jet exhaust characteristics; breakaway thrust .

gers have selected only baggage to which

they are entitled .
SHORT-HAUL : A term used to define flights
or traffic which travel over a relatively short
distance as opposed to those which travel
over a long distance . Normally, short-haul
passengers arrive at the airport of origin
later than long-haul passengers, carry less
baggage than long-haul passengers, and are
accompanied to or met at the airport by
fewer persons than long-haul passengers .
STANDBY PASSENGER : A passenger not
holding confirmed space but who is on hand
at departure time for space that might be-
come available.
TERMINATING PASSENGER: A
who has arrived at his destination .
THROUGH PASSENGER : A passenger who

TRANSFER BAGGAGE ROOM : The area to

passenger

arrives and departs on the same flight .

which checked baggage of connecting pas-

sengers is delivered for sorting by flights
prior to its being dispatched to the aircraft
for loading . This may be combined with the
outbound baggage room at some locations .
UNIT TERMINAL : One of several functionally
complete terminal areas (which may be in
the same or several buildings) each of which
houses the activities of one or more airlines .

PRELIMINARY DESIGN PROGRAM AND DEVEL-

OPMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Before planning in any form can proceed, the

architect must establish a data bank and an
ability to retrieve pieces of information in the
most rapid manner . This includes all infor-
mation from participating airlines and all
programs on studies that may have been com-
plated by the airport authority . General eco-
nomic considerations must be examined and
the geographical site location evaluated. The
acquisition of the data, the digestion of same,
and the request for supplementary information
must be made at this time .
The architect must also make inquiries to the
governing agency as to the requirements of the
Civil Aeronautics Administration and all other
government agencies . The architect must
further recognize the assistance, advice, and
guidance by organizations such as Air Trans-
port Association, Airline Pilots Association,
and International Air Transport Association .
The most important single element that the
architect must provide for in his design is
flexibility, so that all elements of the system
may grow as required . In design and planning,
the following must have growth capability
on an individual basis without jeopardizing
the total relationship of the master plan . Park-
ing lots must be capable of growth within any
specific area as demands require, and public
transportation systems must be capable of
individual growth . Curb frontage must grow
on an independent basis . Baggage claim areas,
check-in areas, gate lounge areas, aircraft
positions, the number of aircraft positions----
any or all of these elements and the airline
operational areas must offer the capability of
independent growth to meet the changing
demands of the future .
The prime reason for this independence and
flexibility relates to the problem of aircraft
technology and the fact that the preestablished
schedules may change and, as a result, conges-
tion may become a problem at almost any
point in the terminal system . These two factors
make it mandatory that each element have a
built in potential for expansion.
Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

Most of the airports and the terminal struc-

tures involved have been based upon a program
which is known as a traffic forecast . Most of
the terminal buildings have been predicated
on a "guesstimate" or a series of- criteria and
assumptions . These criteria and assumptions
are further based on the guesstimate of sched-
ule. It therefore follows that the architect
would be wrong to design a structure with
fixed parameters based on this information .
Flexibility must be inherent in each of the ele-
ments, yet both good design and economy
must be maintained . When all program informa-
tion has been collected and expansion flexibil-
ity has been planned for, the architect must
establish a first-stage program based upon the
scheduled opening date for the airport . He must
then relate this program to an ultimate date of
operation . The best method for this is through
the use of a computer model simulation .
The computer simulation can be established
by examining the maximum number of aircraft
movements that air saturation will allow and
correlating this with the maximum ground area
that may be available for the airport under
consideration. This data can now be related
back to the terminal building area for all func-
tional disciplines that pertain . The summation
of maximums and minimums will now serve as
a guide for the master plan of the terminal
building area . Since this analysis is extremely
complex, the architect should retain special-
ists in this area of endeavor .
Using the computer simulation as a working
tool, the architect can establish a preliminary
design concept or concepts and, in addition,
preliminary expansion stages for planning can
be established. The architect should not take
this preliminary work back to the computer at
this time . Instead, he must now test and ever-

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Fig . 11 Enplaning passenger flow .

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Fig . 12 Domestic deplaning passenger flow .

uate critical conditions that can occur due to lems relate to a time span of 1 1 A .M . and 2 P .M . Another inevitable problem directly related
changing technology, passenger growth, and for arriving passenger flights . What will hap- to the terminal building is that of providing
expansion, and the computer will allow him pen if, operating on the present city relation- parking space for automobiles . The architect
to check each discipline of all the functional ships, new aircraft traveling at considerably must acquire from the operator of the parking
aspects of the terminal area . This would greater speeds become operational at this air- area a system of tariffs, including those that
include all functions within tire terminal build- port? It is very possible that the computer will be applied to short-term, long-term, and
ing, curb-side accessibility, parking require- simulation will show there is no effect, or, valet parking . Without the tariff indication,
ments (both public and employees'), road quite the contrary, it may show that the average it is impossible to determine the accrual rate
access and capabilities, public transportation, peaking conditions may double up . of vehicular parking . The accrual rate is the
etc . Either computer simulation or analytical Taking into account the time frame, the archi- factor that determines the number of parking
methods will establish time periods of conges- tect will be further required to work with each spaces that will be required . Any change in the
tion traditionally referred to as ''average peak of the airlines to ascertain their method of tariff or relationships of tariffs will change
hours ." The architect will carefully examine operation . How do they handle passengers, the accrual rate and therefore will change the
the average peak hour so as to ascertain baggage, cargo, amenities, food service, ramp parking space requirements .
simple, direct, and logical routes for all passen- operations, maintenance, and their own per- As an additional factor, the architect must
gers, including their baggage and their vehicu- sonnel? He will then attempt to provide space consider employee parking and the congestion
lar transportation . He should then take these utilization compatible with the different users . that occurs during the shift changes . It there-
movements to the computer for analysis . He will also establish those space needs fore becomes necessary for the architect to
For example, assume that in the design of required by the FAA, the airport administration, ascertain the general character of employment
the terminal, average peak-hour traffic prob- etc . practices by the airlines involved as it relates

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Fig. 13 International deplaning passenger flow .

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Fig . 14 Enplaning baggage .

to the schedule of time . Care must be exercised heavily upon the ability of the public to secure GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
in developing access for employees to the information . It is therefore incumbent upon the
terminal building . architect to give consideration as early as pos- Figure 17 attempts to illustrate some of the
In developing the passenger terminal, the sible to the nature and types of information devices and systems which are available to the
architect must recognize in the early phases systems that will be made available to the gen- designer . The selection of the appropriate
of planning that the new wide body type of eral public, so as to guide them to their desired combination of elements will be predicated
aircraft carries vast amounts of cargo . The locations . upon the carrier who will utilize same, the com-
Early planning must take into account fire bination of carriers, the geographical site size
economics of the new aircraft require that a
sizable portion of its cargo-carrying capacity safety and access to the structure as well as and layout, and the economic considerations
be utilized in the transportation of passen- the probabilities of insurance premiums . The related to the total system development . All
fire hazards relating to the terminal structure these techniques are constantly being un-
gers .
can be most readily identified as aircraft, fuel- proved and updated .
Therefore the passenger terminal, if it is to
serve in the best interests of the airlines and ing operations on the aircraft apron, public
their equipment . must have the capacity to area hazards, baggage room areas, and cargo Dosign Solutions for Passenger Terminals
store cargo for loading into passenger aircraft . storage areas .
and sizes of passenger It is not unusual in smaller terminals for It is well to examine many of the historic tech-
This is true for all types
secondary functions of the airline to be in- niques that have been utilized in the develop-
terminal and will tend to hold for the small
corporated into the terminal building . These ment of passenger terminals, as much can be
terminal as well as major terminals . For with
may fall into categories such as in-flight feed- gained therefrom .
tire greater use of the wide-bodied aircraft,
this is becoming standard practice . ing, line maintenance, arid general office use .
Since the passenger terminal is the transfer The designer of the terminal building must Consolidated Passenger Terminal In this illustra-
at an early date include significant analyses of tion, the designer can examine the technique of
point between land and air, consideration must
engineering considerations, as this will involve relating several airlines to a consolidated
be given to the geornetrics of the aircraft apron .
boiler plants, air conditioning, electrical dis- single structure . This structure initially pro-
It should afford a great degree of flexibility
tribution, communications systems, waste vides a simple transfer stage for ground vehi-
to include larger aircraft, aircraft nrix (different
removal, and maintenance areas . Any rnechani- cles and air vehicles . The epitome of this and
types of aircraft), space required for ground
cal system that is utilized must of necessity the most efficient in operation would be a
equipment, the storage of cargo, and the tech-
have an alternate or redundant system so that simple airstrip with no more than a few air-
niques for loading people from the building
reliability of operation is guaranteed at the craft positions and occasional aircraft sched-
to aircraft .
airport . uled .
Any passenger terminal system will rely

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Fig . 15 Enplaning cargo.

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Fig. 16 Mail cargo.

The effective use of the consolidated termi- closely as possible to the consolidated func- of lessening the constraint for the individual
nal can best be measured by convenience to tion . The evolution of these two concepts has airlines and allowing each airline to operate
passengers and efficiency of operation for the introduced many varied problems with the within its own building, but it also causes diffi-
airline. Major terminal complexes invariably single terminal . The problems are related to culties to the public in terms of rapid communi-
are multiples of this small, consolidated ground transportation needs, access to the cations for the proper selection of a desired
group. building, prolonged walking distances, grave location . The decentralization causes further
limitations on the aircraft apron, and the fact problems of interline transfers . While it also
Finger Terminal (Consolidated) that all functional requirements for the airlines permits some advantages of more aircraft
are totally constrained because of the physical apron space, it does involve great demands
Satellite Terminal (Consolidated) In these two arrangement . upon ground vehicle transportation, problems
illustrations the designer can see the evolution which may possibly be solved by the use of
of a finger terminal and a satellite terminal Finger Terminals (Decentralized) a rapid transit system .
arrangement as merely an expansion of a con-
cept . Now the convenience to the passengers Satellite Terminals (Decentralized) By looking at Drive to Gate The next illustration shows a
has been questioned and the increased num- the next two illustrations, the designer can see drive-to-the-gate concept which is really the
ber of aircraft positions has been related as that decentralization offers the possibility simplest form of terminal, relating back to the

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Fig. 17 Terminal concepts . (a) Consolidated terminal . (6) Finger terminal (consolidated) . (c) Satellite terminal
(consolidated) . (d) Finger terminals (decentralized) .

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Fig . 17 (cont .) Terminal concepts . (e) Satellite terminals (decentralized) . (1) Orive to gate . (g) Mobile lounge .

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TABLE 1 Airline Statistical Data Requirements

1. Estimated enplaning and deplaning traffic :
Figures on enplaning and deplaning passengers should be given separately .
a . Passengers-total number per year
Passengers -average day, peak month
Passengers-peak hour and time
Passenger characteristic (business, vacation, studentl
b . Interline passengers
c . Intraline passengers
d . Originating passengers
e . Air freight cargo-total tons
f . Mail-total tons
g . Baggage-total number per year
Baggage -average day, peak month
2 . Projected flight schedule :
a . City pairs
b . Originating and terminating
c . Time frame
d . Aircraft type
3 . Aircraft :
a . Number of gate positions
b . Number and type of aircraft for gate size design
c . Aircraft parking attitude
4 . Terminal building spaces :
a . Gate lounge-number and sizes
b . Baggage claim type and size
c . Amenities area
d . Operational facilities-type and sizes
e . Central ticketing facilities
5 . Automobile parking requirements (airline experience) :
a . Public
b . Valet
c . Taxis
d . Limousines
e . Car rental
f . Employees

early consolidated terminal approach with a operations and power-out operations . The archi-
AIRLINE REOUIREMFNTS
minimum of passenger constraints . The suc- tect should determine the general technique
cess of this terminal approach is dependent The architect will carefully ascei sin from the that the airlines will utilize . The system they
upon a highly sophisticated information sys- individual carriers their specific needs . This select will have a great effect on the aircraft
tem and a ground vehicle connection between information should be correlated to the year apron area as well as the passenger loading
gates or related groups of gate locations . of operations, the anticipated level of pas- system that can be utilized .
senger and cargo, operational growth, the Power-out operations will involve special
Mobile Lounge The mobile lounge system as potential of changing route structures, and an design considerations with regard to the wall
a concept provides a consolidated terminal initial and future projected flight schedule . surfaces of terminal buildings and they will
with remote perking of aircraft, and this as a Table 1 lists the basic data information that require greater apron area . They will also call
system can operate efficiently and function is required from the airlines . There are many for blast protection in the operational areas
properly as long as the gate lounges are opera- additional technical information items which of the terminal . This method of operation will
tive (this precludes allowing drivers of the are not listed here, but the designer will deter- generally mean that fewer ground personnel
lounges the right to strike against the operator mine these by inference . and less equipment are required .
of the airport) . Each airline demands a distinctive visual The push-out operation requires the use of
It poses problems in ground control on the character that will make it readily identifiable expensive tractors and personnel to move the
air side of the terminal building and requires to the public . All too frequently the architect aircraft out of its gate position before it powers
additional personnel for its total operation . tends to dismiss this requirement . The careful away from the terminal area . The push-out
These illustrations show schematically the integration of individual airline identification operation does offer the advantage of requiring
design concepts that are in use in present-day in a total building design will assist the pas- less apron area . It also requires less square
airports . They also point out their own ef- senger. An airline will retain many professional footage at the terminal building because of a
ficiencies and their specific resultant problems, consultants in attempting to carry a corporate reduced linear length .
none of which are insurmountable . It is appar- image systemwide, and it will spend consider- Included in the date sheets is general infor-
ent that these basic concepts take many varied able sums of money in order to achieve this . mation related to the major types of aircraft
shapes and forms in present-day use and that Undoubtedly, not all corporate identity sys- presently in operation and some information
combinations of concepts are employed . It is tems are in good taste . However one should related to future aircraft (Figs . 18 to 21) .
also apparent that substitute methods of not dismiss the very special effort to achieve
ground transportation are in use for movement a simple visual image that the airlines attempt
within the terminal area and for remote air- to achieve . Design judgment at this point is of PASSENGER LOADING METHODS
craft parking areas . However, no matter what paramount importance .
combination of systems is designed, to reach The passenger is most vocal about the tech,
a desired solution, it must be tested and AIRCRAFT PARKING SYSTEMS nique that an airline uses for loading the air-
checked for the specific requirements of any craft . He responds rapidly to climatic condi-
given airport for its present use and for its The placement of aircraft on the aircraft apron tions and will inevitably express his distress to
future growth . may be divided into two categories : push-out the airport authority and the airline . Many sys-

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Fig . 18 Aircraft composite .

Fig . 19

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Fig. 19 (cons.)

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Fig. 20

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Fig. 20 (cont .)

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Fig . 21
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AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

Fig. 21 (corn.)

utilize the terminal facilities for the particular

terns have become available for passenger a separate ticket counter for the processing of
first-class passengers, and in some cases a airport .
enplaning and deplaning depending upon the
separate seating area is required . The type of The present-day averages of baggage that is
volumes of passengers, the economic consid-
loading bridge that an airline desires will have handled by the airlines ranges from 1 .6 to 1 .9
erations, and the general climatic conditions of bags per passenger . This will vary depending
the community. Any combination of systems a direct bearing on the plan layout of the
lounge . For example, Fig . 22h and i dernon- upon the airport and the airline for the type of
is available . The following chart illustrates
strates two different loading concepts for the route structure that exists . For example, the
some of these systems (Fig . 22) . longer the stage length, the greater the prob-
same type of aircraft . It is obvious that the
circulation pattern within the gate lounge for ability that passengers will take several pieces
these two types of loading bridges will be of luggage--although very long international
GATE LOUNGE CONCEPT stage lengths show a reduction . Therefore, an
completely different .
airline which has a route structure built basical-
The concept and functions of the gate lounge ly of long stage lengths will handle a much
are basically standard throughout the airline greater number of bags than an airline with a
industry . The basic functional requirements BAGGAGE HANDLING SYSTEMS
route structure based upon short stage lengths .
are a ticket counter with all its communication In providing space for a baggage handling
equipment, a secure or sernisecure seating area The need for a baggage handling system is
obvious, but the system techniques, sophis- system, the architect must have a complete
with sufficient seating capacity to handle the understanding of each airline operation and the
passengers, flight identification, last-minute tication of equipment, and the desired cost
relationship of all the airlines combined . This
level for a system are extremely difficult to
baggage drop, and circulation pattern which understanding should encompass the percen-
separates the deplaning passenger from the evaluate .
Examination of trends becomes important tage of baggage per passenger for originating,
enplaning passenger (Fig . 23) . terminating, and transfer (both interline and
However, each airlines requirements will in the baggage analysis . Currently the busi-
interline) . It also should be related to the time
vary in accordance with its operation proce- nessman traveler will carry on one suitcase
which will fit below an airline seat and a gar- schedule and the peak conditions .
dures and level of activity . A baggage check-in system can incorporate
Listed below are average sizes for gate ment bag of reasonable dimension which can
check-in points at a central ticketing counter,
lounges as required by each type of aircraft . be hung in a wardrobe on the aircraft . Thus
at the gate lounge, at the curbside, and in a
he bypasses the baggage system . There is also
Gate lounge sizes, sq ft : parking lot . The parking lot or curbside check-
all the transfer baggage which can bypass the
in provides the greatest amount of convenience
1. B-747 . . .8,000 check-in and claim part of the system .
2. L-1011 . .4,000 It is not unusual for the volume of business- for the passenger and allows for quick accep-
tance of the baggage . This means that the rest
men at a given airport to reach a 30 percent
3. DC-10 . . 4,000
4. 82702 . . .4,000 of the public space in the terminal area will
level, and it can be anticipated that at least
5. DC-8 . . . . .3,500
80 percent of these businessinen will not not be congested by baggage, taking floor
8. B-707 . . . .3,500
require any baggage check-in system . Nor is space while waiting to be checked in . The curb-
7. B-737 . . . .2,000
side check-in isolates the major portion of the
8. B-727 . . . .2,000 it unusual for the volume of transfer passen-
9. DC-9 . . . . .1,500 gers to vary from 10 to 45 percent of the total baggage handling with sky cap personnel and
passenger load . Therefore, the selection of the not with airline agents .
These sizes are approximate and should be A check-in system can be serviced by a
used for preliminary planning only . Some of desired system will require a complete under-
simple conveyor or a gravity chute . For large
the airlines prefer, for the wide-bodied aircraft, standing of what percentage of the passengers

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(a) From a single level terminal building the passengerm waU acres a the
apron to the aircraft . This method is presently being employed by
many airports in use today .

(b) From a two level terminal building the passengers walk down a flight
of stairs and then across the apron to the aircraft . This is an
intermediate phase in use, where the future development would employ
the use of jetways .

(t) This method shows a ,'etway which rotates into position and has the
capability of telescoping to accomplish the :.nterface between aircraft
of different sill height . This diagram demonstrates a power-in, push-
out gate position .

(d) VA-s is the same as method Ic) above, however, it differs

only in that this diagram demonstrates a power-in, power-out
gate position .

Fig. 22 Typical loading methods .

 Transportation
AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

(e) This diagram demonstrates a fixed jet way of short length

and with a
This jetwa also has the capa-
small amount of telespo ing capability . position
bility of making some adjustments in sill height . The gate
can only be a power-in, push-out condition .

consists of
(11 This method, which is used in some present-day airports, consist of the
a trair. of carts iesigned to carry passengers or it aircraft
may
to deliver the passengers to a remote parking
use of buses .
The terminal building can be either s ,)ne--level or two-level
position .
structure .

(g) This method is known as the Mots :--unge and -onsists of an elaborately
furnished bus with a scissor lift end a telescoping front to achieve tire
interface lassween both the aircraft and the terminal building . The air-
craft is parked at a remote position from the terminal building .

(h) This method is used for the wide-bodied aircraft and will accept the
B-71,?, the DC-1Q and the L-1011 . The two main corridors are fixed in
their location, however, the four short jetways nave telescoping capa
bility in order to achieve the interface with the aircraft . The gate
positior, requires a power-i-i, push-out. condition .

This
(i) method is also u9ed for the wide-bodied airoratt and will acc qrt
all three aircrafte as listed above . It is bared "on the concept of
a fixed corridor for access to the front two passenger doors and a
cantilevered jet way over the wing to reach the back door . Here again,
the gate position requires a power-in, push-out condition .

Fig . 22 (cont
.) TYpical loading methods .

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Fig . 23 Typical gate lounge .

terminal facilities where there can be many plish this handling . The volume of bags that is As larger aircraft, such as the 747, are
check-in points and more than one baggage to be transferred and processed must be deter- utilized in greater numbers, the peaking condi-
makeup space, a system can comprise fully mined in cooperation with the airline user . The tions increase and decentralization of the bag-
automated cars or pallets that move bags to precise system used and its building space gage claim system becomes more desirable for
many destinations . This type of sophisticated must have the capability of expansion from the the sake of passenger convenience and the
system is costly and, in order to justify its use, initial operational level. elimination of congestion .
it should be considered as a total system of all The selection of the correct baggage system Baggage claim devices can involve many
baggage movement, from aircraft to passenger must also be correlated to the reverse flow of different shapes, forms, and methods of me-
and from passenger to aircraft . baggage from aircraft to baggage claim. The chanical or manual handling of baggage. Figure
The acceptance of baggage from the originat- baggage claim system, by its very nature, pro- 24 demonstrates the basic concepts that are
ing passenger at the terminal is complicated duces an acute problem of baggage handling . available. The designer can see from these
by the acceptance of interline and intraline The terminating passenger from an arriving illustrations that the basic general technique
baggage for the transferring passengers . A flight expects to claim his baggage within a is to produce a great display of linear feet of
large number of employees, for the amount of short period of time . A peaking condition frontage so that passengers can readily identify
baggage handled, are utilized in interline trans- occurs when a combination of flights arrives their bags and claim same .
fers . Their route of travel by vehicle is frequent- within the same time frame . In contrast, the The interface between the aircraft and the
ly time-consuming . The transferred baggage originating passengers will generally arrive claim area is still generally accomplished by
is processed in the same backup area as the at the airport over an extended period of time, towing the baggage to the terminal building,
originating and terminating baggage, there- therefore dispersing the handling of baggage where a manual operation accomplishes the
fore space must be allowed in order to accom- over the same time period . placement of baggage on the claiming device.

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The ability to retrieve bags from the aircraft In order to size a baggage claim area, the CURB FRONTAGE UTILIZATION
and transfer same to the terminal baggage architect must have the following information :
handling system is a key element in rapid and the number of passengers and the amount of When designed correctly, curb frontage at the
efficient baggage dispersal . baggage that will be claimed within the peak face of the terminal building will function prop-
The design of an automated system to trans- condition, the type of claiming device and its erly for a very high percentage of the time .
fer the baggage modules to the building system physical size, its capacity, and its linear feet The curb frontage can be the failure point for
is technically feasible . This would eliminate of frontage . Care should be taken to determine the entire terminal operation . It can cause con-
the towing operation and provide a faster the actual working capacity of the claiming fusion, congestion, missed flights by enplaning
method of producing the baggage at the claim device and not the theoretical capacity as passengers, and become a safety hazard to
area . It would also mean that the baggage could advertised by manufacturers. The architect pedestrians if they must cross the road system .
be claimed in many different locations . How- should also determine the desired type of The architect must devote considerable time
ever, this will depend upon the airline's operation and degree of security required by and effort to designing the curbside frontage
required time frame, passenger convenience, either the airline or the authority . With the and the road system to it . Present design trends
and financial capabilities . correlation of this material, the architect can and concepts have separated the enplaning
Baggage rooms must be handled with special now start to size the claim area . For an interna- and deplaning road systems, but very few have
caution to make sure that sufficient quantities tional arrivals system, the architect should eliminated pedestrian traffic across these
of fresh air are provided if gasoline power allow additional space for the queuing of pas- roads . (See Figs . 25 and 26 .)
tractors are used . Sprinkler protection must be sengers between the claim device and the In the design of the curb frontage, the archi-
provided and careful fire cutoff must be made customs inspection system . tect must consider all the forms of vehicular
between the terminal proper and baggage movement, such as private passenger vehicles,
areas. Doors leading from the baggage room valet-driven cars, rental cars, taxis, and public
to the outside should be automated and must GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS transportation (especially buses) .
use rapid-acting equipment. However, it is To determine the quantity of curb frontage,
important to provide, on all doors, safety edges Needless to say, passengers who may be carry- the following factors and assumptions must
which will prevent closure should an obstacle ing baggage should be offered such conven- be considered :
be in the way. The design concept must incor- iences of design as automated doors, suffi- 1 . All vehicles will require approximately
porate the capability of future expansion, and ciently wide escalators, moving sidewalks, 35 tin ft at the curb . This is a realistic interpre-
preferably this should be accomplished with- and similar devices . At all times the analysis tation of the indiscriminate manner in which
out disturbing the existing claiming facilities . of traffic flow, volume of passengers, and vehicles tend to be parked .
direction of movement should be carefully 2. The average time required at the curb
considered . for passenger vehicles should be surveyed for
Area Considerations for Baggage Systems Air traffic passengers rapidly cross interna- passengers by type of vehicle .
tional boundaries, and language problems 3. Duration time for valet parking will
Enplaning Ballgsge As indicated in the flow must be anticipated . The International Air exceed the standard for passenger cars in
diagram (Fig . 14), baggage may be received Transport Association has given serious con- order to provide time for an attendant to queue
from three possible sources : sideration to the language problem and has the vehicle prior to its being parked and so as
1 . Curbside check-in . This area must provide attempted to develop a series of glyphs which not to impose a penalty on the need for curb
convenience of tagging and usually some can frequently be used in lieu of bilingual frontage . The total of parking queuing time is
mechanical conveyance back to a central bag messages . estimated at five minutes.
room . Telephone communication is a necessary 4. In order to compensate for heavy conges-
2. Counter check-in . This will coincide with and important element in the passenger termi- tion periods resulting from holidays, delays,
the usual ticket counter in the main terminal nal. In some instances this will require a tele- etc., occurring 12 times or more per year, it
area. It is customary to provide mechanization phone communication center with bilingual is recommended that the working frontage be
from an area directly in the back of the ticket operators. increased by 30 percent beyond normal cal-
counter to the central baggage room . The terminal must also provide amenities culations .
3. Gate check-in . In small quantities, bags for the traveling public . These may include 5. The system of curb frontage must be
are received at the gate . Bags must be checked any o1 the following list and such other items allowed for in the total master plan and thereby
in at this point because many passengers as may be determined by a particular- locale : its expansion from the initial operation.
mistakenly believe that their suitcases will be 6. Under no circumstances should the prime
accepted for storage in the passenger portion arterial circulation road be used as curb front-
Bank Newsstand'
of the plane. A significant number of airline age. Rather, a spur from the main road network
Berber shop Observation deck
passengers frequently use carry-on suitcases, should be extended to the curb frontage .
Camera shop Parcel lockers'
but unless such luggage can be stored below 7 . The curb frontage should be divided into
Candy store Restaurant and
the seat and out of aisle space, it must be active and passive curb . The passive curb is
carried in the baggage compartment. Car rental agencies' supplementary
utilized for valet queuing or other long-term
4. Transfer baggage. Additional bags will Cocktail lounge eating facilities`
uses such as bus connections .
be received at a convenient location adjacent Drug store Rest room facilities' 8 . It is necessary to determine the average
to the baggage room for transfer from other Duty free shops Shoe shine peak vehicular traffic for both enplaning and
airlines or the same carrier. All baggage rooms Employee snack bar Showers/ dressing rooms deplaning passengers . A graph or summation
which utilize mechanized equipment must be end cafeteria' Teenage lounge sheet should be prepared . It is helpful if this
Flower shop Telegraph (desk, phones,
provided with sufficient room for manual is done by 20-minute increments, and the
Gift shop or both)'
handling in the event that service requirements cumulative total peaking can be determined if
Haberdashery Telephones'
cause a shutdown . there is no separation of enplaning and deplan-
Hotel Television lounge
ing traffic. In the event that the enplaning and
Deplaning Baggage For baggage claim areas, Insurance vending' Valet deplaning functions are totally separated, the
a simple square foot calculation cannot be used Money exchange Women's wear summation peak will result in isolating the time
to determine the desired area, for there are too frame for the maximum parking demand as
many variables that influence establishment In addition to the amenities, consideration well as vehicle peak of appropriate road . A
of the proper layout . The basic terminal build- should be given to traveler's aid in large instal- typical example of a chart is shown and the for-
ing concept will have a great influence on the lations and nursery facilities adjacent to the mula to be utilized is demonstrated on p. 962.
baggage claim design . A terminal building women's lounge in the main portion of the
which consolidates all the airlines into one facility . Medical and first-aid facilities should Duration Schedule in Minutes lit no survey data
claim area establishes a different set of param- be included in the passenger terminal if they is available)
eters than does a terminal building concept are not provided elsewhere in the airport .
where decentralization of airlines separates An internal telephone system may be Enplaning Deplaning
the baggage claims for each airline. In some required between the airlines, the operating
decentralized concepts, airlines are now devel- authority, and/or police authorities. The size Private cars . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3
oping more than one claim area for each traffic of the terminal building and the complex needs Valet cars at curb . . . . . . . 3 3
level. A terminal building which processes of each user should receive consideration when Valet queuing . . . . . . . . 5
international arrivals requires another set of planning the telephone system . Rental cars . . . . . . . . . . 3 3
parameters for the establishment of the claim
Taxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5
area . 'Considered essential by airline operators.

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(a) The baggage is transported from the aircraft to the

claiming device by a cart and is then off-loaded manually
by an attendent .

(b) DIVERTER In this system the baggage is placed on a conveyor

at one end . A diverter moves back and forth along the
conveyor and disperses the baggage onto the claiming device .

(c) CAROUSEL A conveyor, from underneath or from above,

delivers the baggage to a rotating carousel .

(d) RACE TRACK A conveyor from underneath or from above,

delivers the baggage to a continuously circulating
conveyor, the length of which will depend upon the
terminal layout .

Fig . 24 Baggage claim systems .

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(e) POD The baggage pod is removed from the aircraft and
delivered to the claim area . The passengers remove their
baggage from the pod .

(f) AMOEBA This system is an extension of the race tracK

system . The only difference being that the baggage is
manually loaded directly onto the conveyor by an attendant
behind a wall and out of view from the passengers .

(g) AUTOMATED This system consists of carts that are operated

yb a computer system . The passenger inserts his claim
ticket into a call box at a desired location, the cart then
delivers the baggage at that location .

Fig . 24 (cont .) Baggage claim systems .

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FLATBED - DIRECT FEED FLATBED - DIRECT FEED

W CLAIM FRONTAGE BAG

SHAPE L
FT (M) FT (M) FT (M) STORAGE

© 65(20) 5 (1 .5) 65(20) 78

85(26) 45 (13 .7) 180(55) 216

85 (26) 65 (20) 220(67) 264

50 (15) 45 (13 .7 190(58) 228

CIRCULAR OVAL
REMOTE FEED SLOPING BED REMOTE FEED SLOPING BED

DIAMETER CLAIM FRONTAGE BAG L W CLAIM FRONTAGE BAG

FT(M) FT (M) STORAGE O FT(M) FT(M) FT (M) STORAGE O
20(6) 63 (19) 94 3601) 20(6) 95(29) 170
25(7 .5) 78 (24) 132 52061 20(6) 128(39) 247
30(9) 94 (29) ( 69 68(21) 18(5 .5) 156(48) 318

( THEORETICAL BAG STORAGE-PRACTICAL BAG STORAGE CAPABILITY IS 1/3 LESS

Fig. 25 Mechanized claim devices. SOURCE : Planning and Design Considerations for Airport Terminal Building
Development, Advisory Circular AC 150/5360-7, DOT, FAA, 1976.
Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

Fig . 26 Composite enplaning and deplaning working volumes at curb frontage .

TERMINAL AREA CONCEPTS of gates, and the probability exists that two or in schedules for aircraft size, capability to maneu-
more aircraft may frequently be taxiing between ver an aircraft in and out of a parking position
The following terminal concepts should be consid- two piers and will be in conflict with one another, under its own power, separation of aircraft servic-
ered in the development of the terminal area plan .
then two taxilanes are advisable . Also, access ing activities from the terminal, and reduced walk-
Sketches of the various concepts are shown in from this taxiway system by two or more aircraft ing distances for the passenger .
Figs . 1 through 4 . Many airports have combined
may require two apron-edge taxiways to avoid
one or more terminal types . delays .
CONCEPT COMBINATIONS AND
a . Simple Terminal Concept The simple terminal VARIATIONS
c . Satellite Concept The satellite concept (Fig .
consists of a single common waiting and ticketing
2) consists of a building, surrounded by aircraft, Combinations of concepts and variations are a
area with exits leading to the aircraft parking result of changing conditions experienced from
which is separated from the terminal and is usually
apron . It is adaptable to airports with low airline
reached by means of a surface, underground, the initial conception of the airport throughout
activity which will usually have an apron provid-
or above-grade connector . The aircraft are nor- its lifespon . An airport may have many types
ing close-in parking for three to six commercial
mally parked in radial or parallel positions around of passenger activity, varying from originating
transport aircraft . A simple terminal will normally
the satellite, which can have common or separate and terminating passengers using the full range
consist of a single-level structure with two to four of terminal services to passengers using limited
departure lounges . Since enplaning and deplan-
gates where access to aircraft is afforded by a
ing of the aircraft are accomplished from a com- services on commuter flights . Each requires a con-
walk across the aircraft parking apron . The layout cept that differs considerably from the other . In
mon area, mechanical systems may be employed
of the simple terminal should take into account
to carry passengers and baggage between the time, the proportion of traffic handled by these
the possibility of pier or linear extensions for ter- flights may change, necessitating modification or
terminal and satellite .
minal expansion . expansion of the facilities . Growth of aircraft size
or a new combination of aircraft types serving
b . Pier Concept The pier concept (Fig . 1) has d. Linear Concept In the linear concept (Fig . 3),
the same airport will affect the type of concept .
an interface with aircraft along piers extending aircraft are parked along the face of the terminal In the same way, physical limitations of the site
from the main terminal area . In the pier concept, building . Concourses connect the various terminal
may cause a pure conceptual form to be modified
aircraft are usually arranged around the axis of functions with the aircraft gate positions . This by additions or combinations of other concepts .
the pier in a parallel or perpendicular parked concept offers ease of access and relatively short
Combined concepts acquire certain of the ad-
relationship . Each pier has a row of aircraft gate walking distances if passengers are delivered to
vantages and disadvantages of each basic con-
positions on both sides, with the passenger right- a point near gate departure by vehicular circula-
cept . A combination of concept types can be ad-
of-way or concourse running along the axis of tion systems . Expansion may be accomplished by
vantageous where more costly modifications
the pier which serves as the circulation space linear extension of an existing structure or by
would be necessary to maintain the original con-
for enplaning and deplaning passengers. Access developing two or more linear-terminal units with
cept . For example, an airline might be suitably
to the terminal area is at the base of the connector connecters, accommodated within an existing transporter con-
(pier) . If two or more piers are employed, the
cept terminal while an addition is needed for a
spacing between the two piers must provide for e . Transporter Concept Aircraft and aircraft- commuter operation with rapid turnovers which
maneuvering of aircraft on one or two apron taxi- servicing functions in the transporter concept (Fig . would be best served by a linear concept exten-
lanes . When each pier serves a large number 4) are remotely located from the terminal . The sion . In this event, combined concepts would be
connection to the terminal is provided by vehicular desirable . In conclusion, the appearance of con-
transport for enplaning and deplaning passen- cept variations and combinations in a total apron-
gers. The characteristics of the transporter con- terminal plan may reflect an evolving situation
Planning and Design Considerations for Airport Termi-
nal Building Development, Advisory Circular AC 150/ cept include flexibility in providing additional air- in which altering needs or growth have dictated
5360-7, DOT, FAA, 1976. craft parking positions to accommodate increases the use of different concepts .

94 8
 Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

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d
c0
V
Y
.

N0
N

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mu
C
O

w
W

949
Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

KEY
1 BOARDING DEVICE
2 PUBLIC CORRIDOR
3 DEPARTURE LOUNGE
SECOND LEVEL
4 SECURITY FACILITIES
5 OPERATIONS
GROUND LEVEL

Fig . 3 Linear concept .

KEY
1 BOARDING DEVICE
2 PUBLIC CORRIDOR
3 DEPARTURE LOUNGE
4 SECURITY FACILITIES
B OPERATIONS

Fig . 4 Transporter concept.

950
 Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

Fig . 5 Medium-type air-passenger terminal .

HOWARD, NEEDLES, TAMMEN & BERGENDOFF,

Consulting Engrneers, Kansas Ci?y . Alexandria, New
York . TYPICAL SITE PLAN 951
Novol FacilIties Lng,reer,y l.On.lltt7nlj, ~epo " +men+ of
the Navy, Washington, D .C .
 Transportation

AIRPORTS AND TERMINALS

This diagram demonstrates schematically the design concept of curbside off-loading

for private vehicles, taxis, limos, buses, and valet queuing space . The valet
queuing space is separated from the active curb frontage because the duration tiaQ
is much greater for the valet car than for other vehicles . The number of through
lanes will depend upon the amount of traffic that will pass during the peak condi-
tion .
Fig . 6 Curb frontage diagram.

Working Curb Footage Requirement Schedule contrast, the majority of airline B's passengers There is no reason why the traveling public
return in two or three days' time . Therefore, should arrive at an airport when no aircraft is
time duration it seems obvious that airline B will have a available for departure . There is no reason for
35 ft -" routs at curb . min .
35 ft larger parking requirement . However, now the visitors to the airport, expecting to meet
(no . of cars) ' 20 min . transportation environment must be examined . people, to arrive at the airport only to find that
What percentage of airline B's passengers will there will be considerable delay in the arrival
-- curb footage required
Example : Assume 40 private cars on the leave a car parked at the airport for two or three of the aircraft .
enplaning road. days in a public parking area? Or is there The present technique of information dis-
enough money within the community that these persal is to utilize telephone communication
35 -1- 40 ,
20 `" 35 - 35 i 40 X 0 .1 35 n passengers will use the valet parking? between the interested party requesting the
35 -.- 140 The revenue rate for each type of parking is flight information and the airline . During
175 It of curb required also an important consideration in developing periods of airline operational difficulties, tele-
Note : After all vehicle types are calculated, the total requirement . As the rates change phone communication is often difficult and
increase total by 30 percent . in relation to duration of parking, so will the frequently impossible to achieve .
parking requirements . Therefore, when possi- The best medium presently available for
PARKING REQUIREMENTS ble, the rates should be established at an early mass public information is television . Although
date so that the parking space requirement can this has not been utilized to date, there are
The revenue that is collected from the public be determined . Planning must include future presently many technical alternative methods .
parking areas of an airport is one of the air- adjustments for changing rates . Future terminal designs must initially include
port authority's largest sources of income . Every airport has an inordinately large num- dispersal of information to the public outside
Therefore, the architect must devote attention ber of airline employees who also require park- the airport . If this is accomplished, the second-
to the different types of parking and how they ing space . The architect roust devote attention ary functions of public information at the termi-
function as well as to the amount of parking to this phase of the parking requirement . Care nal will be superior to present-day methods .
required as based upon the accrual rate (turn- should be taken to ensure that employees do Closed-circuit television systems (CRT),
over rate) . not take the parking spaces designated for the dynamic alphanumeric display boards, and
The different types of parking are short-term public . An understanding of the shift schedule, manual display boards are available . These
(metered parking), medium-term (one or two the number of employees involved, and the systems to a lesser or greater degree can tie
days), long-term parking, valet parking, and amount of time that is required to complete into an airline's internal information systems .
rent-a-car parking . Each parking area will a shift is necessary . The internal nonpublic system is frequently
require a separate system for collecting reve- The basic parking layout for both public and established so as to provide the many disci-
nues in an economical and rapid manner . This employees is no different from that for normal plines of the airline system with information
should be accomplished without requiring parking ; however, extensive consideration as to the number of passengers, seat availabil-
policing . should be given to all vehicular umvement ity, in-flight feeding requirements, cargo
It is possible to establish a formula for requirements to the parking area, around the complements, etc . It is also possible for the
determining the number of parking spaces parking area, and from the parking area, so that internal system to be directly related to the
required, but this is complex and unwieldy as congestion is avoided . Consideration should airline reservation system so as to compare
it is based upon the passenger traffic and rates . also be given to control of pedestrian safety actual condition of operation with preflight
In addition, each airline and especially each and vandalism within the parking areas . planning . This enables an airline, via the use of
airport has a completely different route struc- computers, to establish important levels of
ture, and each community has a completely information as related to actual operations
different transportation environment . There- INFORMATION SYSTEMS vs . Preflight .
fore computer analysis is recommended . Another information system which is re-
The route structure will affect the parking Public information systems, unfortunately, quired is a public address and paging system .
requirements because the accrual rate will tend to become an afterthought of the prime. This plays an important role in last-minute
vary from airline to airline . For example : airline information system that the airline announcements but is frequently excluded from
assume airline A and airline B have the same user feels he can afford . Little consideration tire amenity areas, thereby reducing the sys-
passenger count per day . Airline A's route ties been devoted to the net effect of space tem's effective use . Its importance during emer-
structure is such that the majority of its pas- demands in presenting accurate updated infor- gency conditions warrants the cost of installs-
sengers return within one day's time but, in mation to the traveling public . tion .

95 2
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AIRPORT CARGO FACILITIES

AIRPORT CARGO CENTER AND ITS BUILDINGS there should not be interference with passen- cargo facilities are dependent upon the type
ger operations . and size of aircraft used, airline schedules,
Interrelationships of Facilities 2 . The site should be readily accessible by and the type of materials handling system used .
surface vehicles from the passenger aircraft The need for direct access from certain facili-
As the air cargo industry grows, the complex
loading positions for efficient servicing of air- ties to the passenger loading apron, for access
on the airport designed to handle air cargo
craft carrying both passengers and cargo . to both combination and all-cargo aircraft
becomes a significant element in airport plan-
3 . The complex should be readily reached aprons for others, and for completely inte-
ning and design . These facilities must provide
from all access roads to the airport to assure grated building-apron relationships for certain
for the efficient transfer of air cargo between
noninterference of vehicular traffic with materials handling systems are all important .
surface transportation and aircraft . For larger
aircraft movement areas . Information on space requirements for aircraft
airports, the complex may include a number of
4 . Adequate space should be allowed for apron parking positions can be found in the
air carrier cargo facilities or multiple-occu-
expansion of air cargo operations without article dealing with airport design .
pancy buildings .
encroaching on other airport functions, partic-
ularly without interfering with the expansion Access, Circulation, and Parking
Design Considerations of the passenger terminal .
These four primary considerations indicate Discussion of ground vehicle movement con-
The elements that compose the airport cargo
the general relationships with other functions siderations is presented in general terms .
center facilities and establish their character,
and activities . They require extensive study to
size, and configuration will depend on the level Roads Access to and egress from the airport
determine the degree to which they can be
of activity of the air cargo industry in the com- cargo complex and circulatory roads within it
munity served . The architect-engineer should met on any individual airport . This study can
best be made through the medium of an airport should be direct and unimpeded . There should
work closely with the air carriers, air freight
layout plan in which the advantages of possible be as little interference as possible with airport
forwarders, truckers, and airport management passenger vehicular traffic . In those cases,
to determine what is needed, including any locations and their effect on other airport
facilities and operational activities can be where the number and types of trucks using
special requirements peculiar to these facili-
objectively weighed . the access roads will cause frequent passen-
ties . The resulting design must satisfy present ger traffic congestion, separate roads should
requirements and provide the flexibility neces- be designed specifically for truck traffic lead-
sary for future expansion . Buildings should Planning Considerations ing directly to the cargo center . Visitors, pas-
be oriented, and land should be available to
The general location of the cargo complex sengers, and customers should be provided
enable a logical expansion plan . convenient access from the passenger terminal
The air carrier cargo facility is the core of the having been established, a number of other
factors should also be studied prior to adoption area .
cargo center, and the emphasis in this article
is on that facility . It may be treated as a single of a siting plan .
The arrangement of buildings and associated Truck Parking Parking areas required include
building or combination of elements under one those designed to serve the trucker, the cus-
roof sufficiently integrated to permit operation support facilities is important to satisfactory
end efficient use, and it also affects future tomer and visitor, and the employee . Planning
as a single entity . of truck parking spaces and maneuvering areas
expansion of individual buildings . Important
The design program, in the architect's vocab- will probably present a difficult problem be-
ulary, denotes the building user's space in this regard is consideration of spacing of
buildings for access, vehicular circulation, and cause of the many variables . Maximum truck
requirements . It is one of the basic essentials sizes vary from state to state . Trucks bringing
fire and safety clearances . Vehicular access
for a successful solution to the design of any freight to the cargo center will be of many types
and roadways, and parking areas are discussed
building . Fundamental considerations in and sizes . Parking areas and truck-dock facili-
in detail in the paragraphs that follow . Proper
developing a program are the elements of the ties with adequate maneuvering space must be
orientation of buildings, with respect to these
building, the amount of space needed by each provided for movement of vehicles without
factors and the prevailing winds, is essential
element, and the relationships between the creating bottlenecks during peek loading and
to the functional operation of the buildings .
spaces . unloading hours .
Economical design dictates the need for bal-
ance of requirements for paved areas with Generally, the recommended distance for
other considerations discussed heretofore . maneuvering from the loading platform to the
AIRPORT CARGO CENTER LOCATION Good drainage, consistent with driveway, park- nearest obstruction is twice the length of the
ing, and pedestrian access requirements, is a largest road vehicle expected to use the facility .
Importance of Site Planning. The Air Transport Association suggests a
necessary design consideration .
The complex on the airport specifically de- Noise is a consideration which must not be minimum overall depth of 100 ft for the termi-
signed for the handling of air cargo is one of overlooked . Acoustical control can be achieved nal-truck apron which will allow 75 ft for
the major elements on the airport . The airport through proper landscape planting for sound maneuvering of trucks plus a 25-ft-wide access
cargo center must be sited in a location that absorption . roadway. Minimum interference distances may
will contribute to the efficient transfer of cargo in effect be less when tractors with smaller
between surface and air transport . The selec- turning radii are used, when the spacing be-
Cargo Center Site Plan tween trailers is increased, or when a saw-
tion of an appropriate site is the decision which
determines to a large extent the effectiveness To illustrate the application of functional toothed loading platform design is used .
of the air cargo operation . The location of the relationships discussed in this article, a dia-
elements of the complex in proper relationship grammatic site plan has been developed . Figure Customer and Visitor Parking Those seeking ser-
to each other is of equal importance . 1 indicates the relationships of facilities for a vice should have the most direct access possi-
number of air carrier cargo operators, truckers, ble to the reception areas of individual air
air freight forwarders, air express (REA), and carriers, freight forwarders, and other service
Location on the Airport facilities. These parking spaces may be adja-
airport mail facility (AMF) .
Four primary considerations dictate the selec- The site plan orientation on the airport cent to the building in conjunction with the
tion of the site on an airport for the cargo com- establishes optimum relationships of aircraft truck parking area . Permanent parking areas
plex . parking apron, and access and service roads should not be located where expansion of
1 . Taxi distance from the most used run- discussed in the following paragraphs . buildings is being contemplated .
ways should be as short as possible, and yet
Employee Parking Sufficient parking should
Aircraft Parking Aprons be provided for employees' cars which are
Paved apron requirements for aircraft parking generally parked for a period equal to the
Airport Cargo Facilities, Federal Aviation Agency,
Washington, D .C ., 1964 . and loading positions adjoining air carrier length of the working day . Since the employee

953
Transportation

AIRPORT CARGO FACILITIES

Fig. 1 Relationships of cargo facilities .

does not usually require ready access to his There are four major functional elernents to at the rate of 30,000 Ib per hour . Thus, there
car during this period, it is not necessary to consider in the design of the air carrier cargo would be a requirement for six truck spaces
locate the employee parking area directly adja- building . These are the freight-handling areas, at the dock for this operation .
cent to the freight handling facilities . Where administration area, personnel and customer The width of each truck station should be a
the airport is relatively small, an employee accommodations, and service facilities . Figure minimum of 12 ft to allow for parking of large
parking area common to all operational func- 2 indicates diagrammatically the space rela- vehicles . Building door openings at each
tions on the airport may be adequate for park- tionships for functions within the air carrier station should be a minimum of 10 ft wide by
ing needs . For the larger airport, strategically cargo facilities . Airport cargo buildings should 10 ft high . Extensive open platforms are not
located parking spaces which may be used by be designed for planned expansion in both recommended because freight left in the open
all employees of the airport cargo complex length and depth, where economically feasible, is subject to pilferage and damage from in-
should be considered . There may be just one and fixed support facilities so located to avoid clement weather . Protection from the weather
of these areas planned near the center of activ- interference with such expansion . for freight and personnel during stripping or
ity, or there may be several dependent upon the loading operations should be provided by an
size and spread of the airport cargo complex . overhang canopy of at least 5 ft . Clearance
Truck Dock Facilities
Administrative personnel usually require park- above the top of the parked freight van should
ing spaces adjacent to the office area because There must be a sufficient number of truck be approximately 18 in .
they may have to use their cars frequently stations to serve truckers, air freight forward- Building floor heights may vary from 44 to
during the working day . ers, and others for both incoming and outgoing 47 in . above grade . There are a number of
shipments . In addition to truck dock positions, leveling devices for accommodating truck
consideration should be given to providing bed heights ranging from 30 in . for a pickup
facilities for the airport-to-airport customers truck to 50 in, for a large tractor-trailer .
AIR CARRIER CARGO BUILDINGS who use other than trucks to deliver or pick up
small shipments .
Elements of the Building Processing Area
The number of truck dock spaces will vary
An air carrier cargo building may be planned with the airline operation and the community . Receiving, sorting, weighing, labeling, and
for single or multiple occupancy . The type of To determine the optimum number requires building up of loads for shipment are the major
occupancy normally will depend on the poten- detailed analysis of truck arrival in a peak hour, activities in the processing of freight from the
tial for air cargo industry growth in the con, the service time at the dock, and the acceptable truck to the aircraft . There are a number of
munity being served and the volume of busi- waiting time for those experiencing delays . factors which have a profound effect on total
ness generated by each of the airlines . At The roinunum number of dock spaces re- space requirements .
airports where there are a number of carriers, quired for incoming trucks can readily be 1 . Cargo turnover is affected by such vari-
each generating only nominal amounts of determined . Assume for example a normal ables as types of aircraft, frequency of service,
freight daily, a multiple-occupancy building "stripping or unloading rate at each dock time of day of arrivals and departures inbound,
can provide adequate space to satisfy the needs space of approximately 5,000 Ib per hour . This outbound, and directional preponderance of
of all . Single- or double-occupancy buildings rate includes time allowed for delays and spot- cargo .
with adequate aircraft apron space should be ting of vehicles . For an inbound volume from 2 . Density of cargo accounts for consider-
considered for those air carriers that operate trucks of 90,000 Ib of freight and a time al- able dimensional disparity . A ton of cut flowers
all-cargo schedules and handle larger amounts lowed for ' stripping' vehicles of three hours occupies many times more space than a ton
of air freight . the unloading would have to be accomplished of machine parts.

954
 Transportation

AIRPORT CARGO FACILITIES

3. Character of cargo creates a need for be made prior to preparinq the design program Aircraft space control office requirements
specific space allocation . Refrigerated storage of the building . The number of employees that are dependent upon the amount of freight
is required for perishable cargo, and other may ultimately be employed in the management handling activity . This office may be placed in
temperature controlled areas are needed for of operations should be studied . the receiving area or in the administration
live cargo. Bonded storage is needed for Reception areas should be provided to han- offices . Space must be provided for computing
customs, import/export control, as well as dle customers. In addition to serving as a and communications equipment and for air-
security accommodations for valuable cargo. receiving point for visitors, small packages craft charts indicating cargo space available
4. Methods of handling and storing rouse may be claimed or bills may be paid here . There on the aircraft . These functions are closely
variations in space requirements . Operations should be sufficient space for a counter, related to those of receiving and processing
utilizing forklifts and pallets require more accommodations for customers, and cases and to those of the communications center .
for display of brochures and other sales mate- Provisions should be made to facilitate close
square footage for circulation and maneuver-
ing. rial . liaison with these interrelated functions .
The arrangement of space in the load build- Sales offices may be required by some air- The number of personnel employed in cargo
up areas is also influenced by aircraft loading lines. Space in the safes office should pro- operations will vary not only with the type
characteristics . Space should be planned for .
telecommunications
vide for desks, files, and facilities for and volume of freight handled but also with
sequence loading to provide for distribution Files should be readily accessible the materials handling system used and the
to all the salesmen . The sales office 'nay serve scheduling of aircraft loading operations . A
of weight in the aircraft and for easy removal
of loads at destinations . Freight to be loaded also as a customer service center or clearing- careful study should be made of all factors
house for telephone inquiries . Close communi- including local codes and state labor laws
on combination aircraft should be kept sep-
arate from freight to be loaded on all-cargo cation must be maintained between this office, to assure adequate provision for employee
aircraft . Loads to be unitized on pallets, loads receiving, aircraft space control, and account- needs. Figure 3 indicates suggested space
requirements . This overall area may be allo-
to be unitized in containers, and those to be ing.
Management and general office space cated to administration, customer accommoda-
loaded on aircraft manually should be con-
trolled by providing separate but adequate requirements are dependent upon variables tions, and personnel accommodations such
space for each . The types of aircraft and the such as the type of operation, the amount and as rest rooms, locker rooms, and lunchrooms .
type of freight processed, and the community A first-aid room, pilot-ready room, or other
numbers of each type being served by the
facility should be given careful study. being served . Accounting and records offices specialized area may be included dependent
Consultation with the users as to the type of may be necessary facilities for operations of on circumstances peculiar to proposed facili-
materials handling systems to be employed is any sizable magnitude. The space required ties .
essential and will be most helpful in this area of varies with the type of record keeping and
design . As materials handling systems for the accounting equipment that may be used such
air cargo industry are developed and improved, as automatic filing systems and data process- Maintenance, Services, and Storage
space requirements for the load build-up area ing equipment.
in order to provide for an efficient operation,
and other operations may be reduced substan- Communications centers assist management
equipment must be kept in good working order
tially . Figure 3 indicates diagrammatically in the efficient movement of freight. Each at all times. Maintenance and storage of mate-
suggested space requirements for receiving facility component must be kept informed of rials handling equipment, such as containers,
and processing areas. changes in schedule, cargo space available,
should not be overlooked . The functions of
and of special shipments requiring unusual maintenance and storage may be joined, or
attention . The communications center can they may be completely separated. The manner
Administrative Area, and Customer and serve as the central nerve system . It can pro- in which these functions are handled depends
Personnel Accommodations vide the link between administration and largely on the type and amount of equipment
Adequate administrative space is necessary operations . Space may be required for teletype used .
for efficient management of cargo operations . machines and closed-circuit television facilities For large operations, maintenance and ser-
A thorough analysis of the duties and responsi- in addition to sufficient desk space for com- vicing shops may be necessary to provide
bilities of the administrative personnel should munications personnel . repairs for such items as pallets and contain-
ers, forklift trucks, conveyors, and other
materials handling equipment . Webbing used
to secure freight against dislodgment in air-
craft requires periodic repair . The maintenance
and the servicing shops may be centrally
located in the cargo complex, or they may be
constructed as a part of the air carrier's individ-
ual freight handling facilities .
Garage or hangar space may be required for
larger pieces of equipment, such as scissors
lifts, mobile freight loaders, or other vehicles
used in the freight loading operations . (In some
cases, it may be economically more practical
for the air carriers if this space and this type
of equipment are furnished by the airport
management on a rental basis.)
Space required for building utilities, such
as plumbing, heating, ventilating, air condi-
tioning, electricity, and gas depends pri-
marily on the geographical location of the
airport . Other factors, such as requirements
of servicing equipment, type of fuel available
in the area, and accessibility of public utilities
to the airport cargo center, also must be con-
sidered. All utilities may be centrally located
on the airport and furnished to users by airport
management . Each building may house its own
space for the provision of these utilities .

Special Handling

Some types of freight require special handling,

that is, facilities and techniques not ordinarily
used for normal items. Requirements depend
on the policy of the air carrier in accepting
shipments that require special techniques .
Basically, four types of shipments which fall
Fig . 2 Space relationships within buildings . into the special handling category are live

95 5
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AIRPORT CARGO FACILITIES

animals, perishables (pharmaceuticals, meats,

produce, and flowers), and bonded and valu-
able shipments.
If the volume o1 live animal shipments is
expected to be large, special provisions for
them should be given consideration . Heating,
ventilation, cleaning facilities, fresh water
supply, cages and stables, and storage facili-
ties for handling, cleaning . and feeding equip-
rnent will require study. Consultation with the
local chapter of the Society for Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) is suggested .
Perishables are being shipped in increasing
quantities . Bonded and other valuable freight
processed varies not only with the economic
character of the community but also with the
seasons .

Facilities at International Airports

Air carriers providing service for overseas
shipments at international airports will require
space for inspection of deplaned freight . Con-
sultation with Bureau of Customs, Agricultural
Research Service, and Public Health Service
officials in addition to the airlines is essential
in developing a proper design program for this
area .

Building Construction
Building design consistent with functional
requirements and the need for economical
construction and maintenance cannot be over-
emphasized . Airport buildings are often con-
structed in areas beyond the jurisdiction of a
city building rode . Materials and methods of
construction and desIgn of an airport cargo
building may or may not be governed by a
building code of the local community or regula-
tions established in state labor laws . When
local codes are applicable, particularly in small
communities, the standards designated in
such codes are sometimes below those accept-
able as good architectural or engineering prac-
tice for buildings on airports .
Selection of the structural system to be used
for the building should be based on careful
consideration of the insurance rates for vari-
ous classes of building construction and
occupancy. The initial cost of fire-resistant Fig. 3 Building area space requirements .
construction may be higher than other types
of construction, but a lower insurance rate
formly distributed load of 125 Ib per square locker room floor should have a painted,
will often offset this higher initial cost . Fire is
foot . smooth finished concrete floor if costs must be
not the only hazard about which the designer
Selection of doors must be given careful kept at a minimum . Walls may be painted
must concern himself. Protection against pil-
consideration . Overhead and roll-up doors are masonry units or plaster . Since locker rooms
ferage, vandalism, or possible sabotage in time
of emergency should be considered in choosing suggested in areas where there is movement are generally noisy places, an acoustic ceiling
materials of construction . The location of of freight. The tracks of the overhead-type door should be considered for this area .
the building and the types of commodities should be installed to provide as much head-
moved through the facility will also influence room as possible within the building . Utilities
the type of construction . Bumpers and guards for protecting truck-
dock edges are available in many designs. The Heating and ventilating requirements vary with
Structural systems having the capability of
economically spanning as much as 100 It pro- nature of activity, the devices used for loading the climate and the requirements of the user .
vide greater flexibility in building design and operations, and the amount of traffic are the It may be possible to integrate systems with
space arrangement . Clear-span structures are determinants in making a selection . The use of the humidity and temperature control required
desirable because they allow for greater ma- bumpers and guards will help keep mainte- for handling special commodities . A system
neuverability of forklift trucks and other freight nance of dock areas to a minimum. which will provide proper year-round condi-
Interior finishes depend upon local factors, tioning of air particularly in administrative
handling equipment . Large-space areas, free of
columns and bearing walls, can be divided and but they should be selected from the standpoint areas is important.
adapted to satisfy the changing demands of of minimum maintenance. The functional use Electrical and lighting systems should be
functional operations . Roof construction and of the area should be the determining factor adequate for the designed functions . The
roof design loads vary with the area of the in the selection of the finishes . In the process- requirements of the electrical service vary with
country. ing and storage areas of the building, a smooth the size and character of the facility . Much will
Floor construction, according to the NBFU- concrete finish for the floor should be ade- depend upon the nature of the materials han-
recommended National Building Code, should quate. A hardening additive may be used in the ciling system used . Minimum required lighting
concrete to make a durable surface. levels may be governed by local codes or state
be designed and constructed for the greatest
The toilet rooms should have floors and labor laws ; however, these may sometimes
loads that are anticipated by the user . Provi-
sion should be made for such items as floor walls finished with a hard impervious material be below those acceptable as good architec-
scales, pit elevators, and recessed tracks for for ease of cleaning and maintenance . The wall tural or engineering practice for buildings on
towveyor systems. Floors in the office areas, finishes may be an integral part of the wall airports . It is recommended that airport owners
where extensive tiling systems are maintained, construction, such as glazed partition block voluntarily adopt the standards tram one of
should be designed to carry a minimum uni- or glazed brick where budgets permit . The several recognized sources .

95 6
 Transportation

AIR CARGO TERMINALS

Fig . 1 souxce : U .S . Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Department of the Navy, Washington, D .C .

95 7
Transportation

AIR CARGO TERMINALS

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95 8
 Transportation

AIRPORT SERVICE EQUIPMENT BUILDINGS

BUILDING SITING extensibility of the equipment building to Office space is also an essential element
accommodate additional garage stalls . Impor- to be considered in the functional design of
Importance of Site Planning tant in this regard is consideration of spacing the building . Storage for hand tools and parts,
The service equipment building must be sited of buildings for access, vehicular circulation, although not discussed in relationship to the
in a location that will contribute to the efficient and fire and safety clearances . The proper various types of equipment, should not be
operation and performance of equipment and orientation of the building, with respect to forgotten in the analysis of space require-
personnel . The analysis and study to determine these factors and the prevailing winds, is monts . In addition, consideration should be
the location of the building is the most impor- essential to the functional operation of the given to the space required for personnel needs
tant single consideration presented in this building . In any climate, an attempt should be such as lockers, toilet and shower facilities,
discussion . made to orient the building so that the large multipurpose rooms, and personnel equipment
door openings will be least exposed to prevail- storage . At airports where few personnel are
ing winds . In snow country, an effort should employed, separate locker rooms and storage
Location on the Airport be made to take advantage of wind movements facilities may not be needed .
The study to determine the location for the to reduce drifting against the building and,
service equipment building should consider where possible, to remove snow, from vehicu- Space Requirements
the proper relationships of each of the essen- lar entrance doors .
tial airport building categories identified by Since, under most circumstances, it will not It has been found that there exists a closer
activities related to the terminal slid to adminis- be considered practicable to site the building relationship between the number of vehicles
adjacent to aircraft operational aprons, pro- used for maintenance and the amount of air-
tration, to commercial aircraft facilities, to
other airport oriented operations, and to avia- vision should be made for adequate circulation port pavement than between the amount of
tion oriented industry which may be located and unobstructed access . Economical design equipment and the number of operations or
dictates the need for balance of requirements passengers using the airport . Table 1 is a tabu-
on the airport . Operational activities in addition
for paved areas with other considerations lar listing of runway lengths and the number
to administrative functions are generally
grouped according to the relationship to the discussed heretofore . Good drainage consis- of vehicle stalls found to be satisfactory at a
tent with driveway, parking, and pedestrian representative group of airports . It is based
services provided by governmental agencies,
air traffic control, communications, and weath- access requirements is also important . on current usage figures . The application of
those. figures will provide general guidance
er ; to the service provided by airport manage-
where other data are clot available .
ment ; to the aircraft sales, storage, mainte-
nance, and flight training ; and to air cargo, THE BUILDING AND ITS SURROUNDINGS
express, and air mail movements . The service Combination Facilities
equipment building and fire and crash rescue Factors Affecting Space Requirements A consideration affecting space requirements
building are associated with a group of opera-
tional services provided by airport manage- The need for the facility having been clearly and space relationships is the advantages
established, the next step is the design of the offered by combining facilities designed to
ment for planning purposes . It is this relation-
building and provision for required support meet a number of airport operational needs .
ship which may lead to the combining of
items in the immediate surroundings . A review At some airports, it may be desirable to con-
facilities .
of the major factors affecting the need for a solidate the housing for fire and rescue ap-
There are three principal considerations that
facility and a review of existing or contem- paratus and maintenance and service equip-
should determine the location of this functional
group of operation buildings including the plated airport maintenance procedures should nlent into a single building . Airport manage-
provide an indication of what would constitute ment at an airport adjacent to large bodies
service equipment building . It must be. close to
an adequate number of garage stalls for the of water may want to consider combined facili-
the heart of airport operations for control of
equipment . No two airports can be expected to ties at a site that would permit incorporating
maintenance and service activities . It must be
need exactly the same equipment or facilities . a facility to house a rescue boat . In every case,
accessible to airport service roads, particu-
At some airports, a number of facilities may however, there are certain overriding factors,
larly the airport perimeter road. This will
already be furnished in another building . such as siting and accessibility for example,
permit the equipment to reach all operational
Some maintenance equipment, similar to that must be considered in evaluating the
areas of the airport without having to cross
construction equipment, will not require advantages and disadvantages of combining
active runways . It must be centrally located
storage in a building of the type discussed different facilities .
with respect to airport pavement areas, partic-
herein . Also, some types of equipment, if ade- There is an advantage in combining fire and
ularly air carrier aircraft passenger loading
quately serviced and maintained, will not rescue and service equipment facilities when
aprons, to other public loading and servicing
require shelter at all . At some airports, all ser- personnel utilized as volunteer firefighters
aprons, and to landing area facilities . Examples
vicing of vehicles may be done off the are maintenance personnel . This is particularly
of specific locations which have been select-
premises . true when the airport management has under-
ed after reasonable consideration of factors
discussed are shown in Fig . 1 . Site locations
are indicated by order of preference .

Planning Considerations

The location of the operational activity having

been established and the preliminary design
concept of the building selected, a number
of other factors should be studied prior to
adoption of a siting plan .
The arrangement of buildings and associated
support facilities is important to satisfactory
and efficient use, and it also affects future

Airport Service Equipment Buildings, Feder-

al Aviation Agency, Washington, D .C ., 1964 .

95 9
 Transportation

AIRPORT SERVICE EQUIPMENT BUILDINGS

Fig. 1 Service equipment building siting .

taken the training of these men to operate fire for firefighters, the disadvantages associated for typical equipment . While most service
and rescue apparatus . Even where this is not with combining facilities override all other equipment will conform to highway clearances
contemplated, combined facilities may be considerations . All of these factors must be and vehicular standards, the trend is toward
economical and satisfactory provided facili- evaluated . They are mentioned here prepara- larger units for special equipment developed
ties can be made available for total needs and tory to the detailed discussion of space rela- to meet the needs of airport operation . Where
other requirements can be met . The require- tionships and other building elements that stalls may ue arranged to provide tandem stor-
rnents peculiar to the fire and rescue operation follows . Included in Fig . 2 is a typical layout age of vehicles, the allowance for each vehicle
must receive just consideration . showing space relationships which may be space may be reduced to 35 ft with the overall
A certain degree of isolation of facilities in considered for a combined equipment building . interior depth of the building being 70 ft . An
rombination buildings is essential for security example of this is indicated in Fig . 3 . The ceil-
purposes as well its for functional reasons . ing height should be a minimum of 17 ft .
Space Relationships
A full partition separating the two functional
areas and isolating fire department activities Suggested space relationships for airports Office Space This should be sufficient to ac-
and equipment is a requirement . Apparatus having varying equipment requirements are commodate a desk, a few chairs, and a file cabi-
room requirements are such that tandem park- shown in Figs . 2 and 3 . net, which should be provided for the mainte-
ing of vehicles is not recommended for emer- nance superintendent . A room having an area
gency equipment . Office and storage space Equipment and Servicing Stalls
These should nor- of 100 sq ft would be adequate to fulfill this
to satisfy the needs of the fire department inally be between 12 and 14 ft wide and 40 ft need at most airports .
should be separate from similar facilities pro- long for typical equipment in order to allow
vided for service equipment operations . a reasonable amount of space for circulation storage space Storage space for tools and
At airports where a 24-hour crew coverage around each vehicle . Door openings of stalls equipment should be provided adjacent to the
requires living facilities including a dormitory should normally be 12 ft wide and 15 ft high stall area in which servicing of equipment

96 0
 Transportation

AIRPORT SERVICE EQUIPMENT BUILDINGS

is pelf 0rined . A storage area of 60 to 80 sq

ft would provide reasonably adequate space
fur this purpose . The space may be provided
along one wall of the service area in a group
of secured shelves or cabinets, in it separate
storage room, or both . Smaller equipment and
[land tools needed in addition to those used for
servicing may also be stored in the space
provided .

Personnel Accommodations
1 . Locker room facilities may be provided
at airports where five or more persons are
employed for maintenance and service work .
These facilities may be combined with a multi-
purpose room or other personnel acc-ommoda-
tions . When the number of maintenance per-
sonnel approaches 14, cGinpletely separate
locker room facilities should be considered .
One locker, 15 in . wide, 22 in . deep, and 72 in .
high, should be provided for each maintenance
and service employee regularly employed at
the airport . At small airports, where only a few
maintenance personnel are employed, facilities
for clothes storage and personnel needs may
be more conveniently provided elsewhere
than in the equipment building .
2 . Toilet, lavatory, and shower facilities
allowances should be based on the total num-
her of maintenance and service operations
personnel . Toilet and shower facilities should
LEGEND be located adjacent to the locker room, and
provision should be made for reasonable
I . OFFICE 5 . LOCKERS & MULTI-PURPOSE ROOM
access from all working areas of the building .
2. HEATING ROOM 6. VEHICULAR SERVICE 3 . A multipurpose room may, under some
3 STORAGE 7 . EQUIPMENT GARAGE circumstances, be considered desirable for
8 SAND STORAGE employee lunchroom space when other eating
4 . TOILET & SHOWER ROOM
facilities are not available on the airport . An
9. FIRE APPARATUS ROOM
allowance of approximately 10 sq ft per em-
Fig. 2 Combination equipment buildings. ployee would be adequate .

Storage Adjacent to the Building

At airports where icy conditions are experi-
enced and sanding is used as a method of
maintaining safe operating surfaces under
such conditions, availability of sand is often
a problem . Where airports are not located suf-
ficiently close to a quarry from which hot . dry
sand can be procured readily, an adequate
amount of sand should be stored in a dry condi-
tion on the airport .
At most airports where it is necessary to
sture sand, it has been found that between 250
and 300 tons should be readily available on the
site . Since a problem arises when sand is
stored in the open, various methods of provid-
ing for sand storage should be considered .
Hot, dry sand is most desirable for spreading
on icy surfaces . The dryness allows the sand
to be spread effectively, and the heat sets the
sand in the ice to provide a reasonably good
abrasive surface .
Where practicable, it is recommended that
LEGEND sand storage be provided adjacent to the build-
ing . One of the most effective methods of stor-
I . OFFICE ing sand is in an elevated silo or hopper . Where
this can be located adjacent to the building,
2 . HEATING ROOM
access for trucks loading beneath it and prob-
3 . STORAGE lems of providing heating can be simplified .
4 . TOILET & SHOWER ROOM Other methods of storage at grade may be
5 . LOCKER ROOM satisfactory provided mechanical loading
equipment is available .
6, MULTI-PURPOSE ROOM
7 . PASSAGE
8 . VEHICULAR SERVICE
9, EQUIPMENT GARAGE
10. SAND STORAGE

NO SCALE

Fig. 3 Service equipment buildings.

96 1
Transportation

AIRCRAFT FIRE AND RESCUE STATION

PARTIAL UPPER FLOOR PLAN

Fig . t

96 2
 Transportation

HELIPORTS

GOVERNMENTAL ROLE oping, ordinances covering environmental matters SELECTING A HELIPORT SITE
such as noise and air pollution . A few may have General Increased public awareness of the heli-
General Federal, state, and local governments specific rules or regulations governing the estab-
have related but somewhat differing roles in the copter's capabilities has enhanced its prominence
lishment and operation of airports (heliports) . as an important vehicle in the national transporta-
field of heliport development . Each has an obliga- Therefore, a careful study should be made to
tion to assure that the public's interests are pro- tion system . Continuing advances in helicopter
determine whether local laws, rules, and regula-
tected, yet each also has the responsibility to productivity and operating economics make it
tions permit the establishment and operation of reasonable fo anticipate increasing public and pri-
assist the public in developing a safe, efficient, a heliport. It is also important to determine if
and comprehensive transportation system. It is vate usage for intra- and interarea transportation .
these same laws permit helicopter landings to However, optimum public benefits cannot be real-
essential that heliport proponents contact FAA, be made at places other than a heliport on a
state, and local authorities early in the planning ized without an adequate system of public-use
one-time, temporary, or infrequent basis without heliports . Stage development is encouraged when
stage in order to proceed with full knowledge formally declaring the site a heliport .
of any regulatory requirements, assistance pro- it is unnecessary or uneconomical to construct
grams, or probable operational limitations . FAA the ultimate heliport . Early coordination with FAA
HELIPORT CLASSIFICATION
offices and many state aviation departments are airports offices on adequacy of the proposed
able to provide technical advice on heliport devel- General The terms used to classify United States stage construction and ultimate design of the heli-
opment and operations. Local governments fre- heliports are descriptive of the class of user al- port and with FAA Flight Standards offices on
quently do not have heliport expertise, and propo- lowed to conduct flight operations from the facil- operational procedures and limitations is encour-
nents may find it necessary to explain the special ity . aged .
nature of helicopter operations and how local
approval will benefit the community. Military Heliport The term "military heliport" is Location To be most effective, heliports should
applied to heliport facilities operated by one of be located as close as conditions or circumstances
Federal Role The federal government, through the uniformed services . Military heliports are de- permit to the actual origins and destinations of
the FAA, has established standards for heliport veloped in accordance with the design criteria the potential users. In some communities, this
development and rules for helicopter operations . of the applicable service and generally prohibit might require a heliport to be located in an area
Through its Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), nonmilitary usage. that could be described as congested or highly
the FAA prescribes various requirements that must developed. In many instances, a practical, safe,
be observed by the heliport owner and helicopter Federal Heliport The term "Federal heliport" is and economical ground-level heliport can be es-
operator which affect heliport development. The applied to heliport facilities operated by a nonmil- tablished on a portion of an automobile parking
regulations are comprehensive and concern such itary agency or department of the United States lot that is fenced off to control access . If a ground-
matters as minimum safe altitudes, ceiling and Government . Most Federal heliports are operated level site is unavailable, it is possible to locate
visibility limitations, aircraft and pilot licensing, by the Departments of Agriculture (DOA) and the heliport on the roof of a building or on an
and related standards appropriate to assure the Inferior (DOI). DOA and DOI heliports are located unused pier or wharf. Elevated or overwater heli-
safety of persons and property both in the air in national forests or national parks and are used port sites will have in many instances an advan-
and on the ground . The purpose for such broad to carry out departmental responsibilities for land tage over ground-level heliport sites since public
regulations is to achieve safety through the uni- management and fire suppression activities. Gen- access can be more easily controlled and unob-
form and standardized control of aviation opera- erally, DOA and DOI heliports are restricted to structed approach-departure paths may be easier
tions. departmental usage . to obtain . Other considerations in heliport siting
are the locations of populated areas, noise-sensi-
Environmental Considerations An environmental Public-Use Heliport The term "public-use heli- tive developments, and the existence of objects
assessment is required for all federally assisted port" is applied to any heliport that is open to in the proposed approach-departure paths.
heliport development in accordance with the re- the general public and does not require prior per-
quirements of the National Environmental Policy mission of the owner to land . However, the extent
of facilities provided may limit operations to heli- Layout The physical layout of the heliport is pri-
Act of 1969 and the Airport and Airway Develop-
marily dependent upon the operating characteris-
ment Act of 1970, as amended. Consult with an copters of a specific size or weight . A public-
tics of the helicopters to be accommodated and
FAA airports office for guidance on this important use heliport may be owned by a public agency,
the type of support facilities desired . A relatively
aspect of heliport development. an individual, or a corporation so long as it is
modest site will suffice if a minimum takeoff and
open for public use.
landing facility capable of accommodating one
State Role Many state aeronautics commissions
small helicopter is all that is desired . Even though
or similar authorities require prior approval, and Private-Use Heliport The term "private-use heli-
helicopters can maneuver in relatively high cross-
in some instances a license, for the establishment port" is applied to any heliport that restricts us-
winds, the approach-departure paths should be
and operation of a heliport . Requirements will age to the owner or to persons authorized by
oriented to permit operations into the prevailing
vary from state to state. Some state requirements the owner. Most private-use heliports are owned
winds.
apply only to public-use heliports, whereas others by individuals, companies, or corporations . How-
apply to any heliport . A few states administer ever, a heliport designated as "private-use" may
financial grant programs similar to the federal be owned by a public body . In this case, the Heliports at Airports The location and extent of
program for airport development . Heliport propo- private-use classification is applicable because separate takeoff and landing facilities to serve
nents should contact their respective state avia- the facility is restricted to a specific type of user, helicopter operations will vary from airport to
tion departments for particulars on licensing or such as the police department, or because the airport. Most airports would probably find it ad-
assistance programs . owner requires prior permission to land . Hospital vantageous to establish facilities and procedures
heliports are considered private-use facilities since to separate helicopter and airplane traffic. These
Local Role Most communities have zoning laws, operations are normally restricted to medical-re- helicopter takeoff and landing facilities may be
building codes, fire regulations, or similar ordi- lated activities . developed on a portion of the apron or on an
nances . Some have, or are in the process of devel- infield site adjacent to an apron or taxiway.
Personal-Use Heliport The term "personal-use When helicopters are scheduled to connect with
heliport" is applied to any heliport that is used airline flights, the helicopters should be allowed
exclusively by the owner. Personal-use heliports to board and discharge passengers in close prox-
Advisory Circular AC150/5390-1B, Heliport Design are owned by individuals, companies, or corpora- imity to the airline check-in areas. To the extent
Guide, DOT, FAA, August 22, 1977 . tions. possible, locate facilities to avoid mixing helicop-

963
Transportation

HELIPORTS

ter operations with airplane operations. Clear- in educating the public about heliports and heli- attitude . When federal aid is used, an environ-
ance between the helicopter takeoff and landing copters . mental impact assessment report is required to
facility and the airport's active runway(s) should assist the federal agency in making the environ-
be in accordance with the heliport-to-runway sep- Land-Use Zoning Zoning ordinances should mental decision . A similar report may be required
arations of Table 1 . be written to permit heliports as an accepted by state or local authorities .
land use in areas identified for industrial, commer-
TABLE 1 cial, manufacturing, or agricultural uses and in Noise The impact of helicopter engine and
Heliport-to-Runway Separations
any area that is unzoned . Some heliports, espe- rotor sounds upon populated areas is an impor-
at Airports (by Airplane Category)
cially those without support facilities, could be tant consideration in selecting a heliport site .
Single-engine Twin-engine All other a permitted use in certain residentially zoned Since helicopter sounds are greatest directly be-
propeller airplanes propeller airplanes airplanes areas . neath the takeoff and landing paths, these paths
should be located over sparsely populated areas,
300 ft 500 ft 700 ft Height Restriction Zoning The desire for clear over areas that have an already high level of
(90 m) (150 m) (210 m) approach-departure paths is an important consid- background sounds, or over areas that would be
eration in selecting a heliport site . When state- expected to have a high tolerance level to helicop-
NOTES : enabling legislation permits, communities are en- ter sounds . Improvements resulting from ongoing
1 . The above table shows the minimum recommended couraged to protect heliport approach and depar- research activities to reduce the sounds generated
ture paths by enacting height restriction zoning . by engines and rotors will be incorporated in fu
separations between a separate heliport facility and an
ture helicopters as quickly as economic and tech-
airport runway for simultaneous operations in VFR condi-
Environmental and Other Considerations The es- nological conditions permit .
tions .
tablishment of a heliport may have an impact
2 . FAA wake turbulence avoidance procedures must
on the community in terms of noise, exhaust emis- Exhaust Emissions Relatively few civil-use he-
be followed with heliport-to-runway separations under sions, public safety, ground traffic, aesthetics, and liports have sufficient flight operations for exhaust
2,500 ft (750 m) .
3 . At controlled airports, two-way radio communica-
tion is required to be maintained with the aircraft in-
volved so that pertinent traffic information may be is-
sued.
4 . When airplanes of different categories are in-
volved, use the separation required for the larger air-
plane category .

Transportation Studies The proponent of a pub-

lic-use heliport should review all transportation
studies for the area . These studies frequently iden-
tify area origin-destination patterns and provide
descriptions of existing and proposed public
transportation systems . The studies may also de-
scribe existing and projected land development
patterns for commercial, industrial, public, and
residential usage and zoning actions taken to
permit or to encourage such usage . Some studies
may have identified tentative public-use heliport
locations. Communities planning urban renewal
projects may find the inclusion of a public-use
heliport to be the catalyst needed to attract desir-
able commercial or industrial development .

Operational Safety A major consideration in he-

liport siting is the availability of suitable op-
proach-departure paths. It is preferable for heli-
copters to make takeoffs and landings into the
prevailing winds but in some situations this may
not be possible . In congested areas it may not
be possible to develop a straight-in approach
or departure procedure and a curved approach-
departure path may be necessary to avoid ob-
stacles . In other situations special letdown and
climb-out procedures may be desired to confine
helicopter sounds to a small area near the heli-
port . Helicopter approach or departure proce-
dures are developed for each heliport on the
basis of site conditions, helicopter capabilities,
and the type and number of activities to be con-
ducted therefrom . When necessary, the FAA
may condition an airspace decision by requiring
special flight routes, altitudes, or approach and
departure procedures in the interest of user safety
and airspace compatibility .

Local Regulation Because helicopters can oper-

ate safely at sites of limited size, it is quite likely
that heliports may be suggested for areas that
have not been exposed to significant aviation
activity . Consequently, the heliport proponent
may have to take a substantial and active role Fig . 1 Relationship of heliport surfaces .

964
 Transportation

HELIPORTS

mensions are expressed in units of helicopter

length or rotor diameter . Heliport dimensions are
summarized in Table 2 .

Takeoff and Landing Area For ground-level heli-

ports, the length and width or diameter of the
takeoff and landing area is recommended to be
at least 1 .5 times the overall length of the largest
helicopter expected fo use the facility . Under
some design conditions, the definable and desig-
nated takeoff and landing area may be physically
incapable of supporting a helicopter and/or may
be impossible or impractical to mark or light,

Peripheral Area The peripheral area is intended

as an obstacle-free safety area surrounding the
takeoff and landing area . It is recommended that
the peripheral area width be one-fourth of the
overall length of the largest helicopter expected
to use the facility, but not less than 10 ft (3
M) .

Approach-Departure Paths Approach departure

paths are selected to provide the best lines of
flight to and from the takeoff and landing area
considering prevailing winds; the location and
heights of buildings or other objects in the area ;
and the environmental considerations . It is desira-
ble for a heliport to have two approach-departure
paths separated by an arc of at least 90 degrees.
However, under some conditions, operations at
heliports with one approach-departure path may
be conducted safely . Curved approach-departure
paths are permitted and may be necessary in
some cases to provide a suitable obstruction-free
path . The radius of the curve is dependent upon
the performance capabilities of the helicopters
using the facility and the location and height of
existing objects . Areas suitable for an emergency
landing are desired along the approach-departure
path unless the heliport is used exclusively by
multiengined helicopters with proven capabilities
to continue flight with one engine inoperative .
Fig . 2 Relationship of heliport surfaces for a mini-
mal "circular" facility .
Heliport Imaginary Surfaces The imaginary sur-
faces of subparagraphs b and c below represent
idealized heliport design standards . They are not
operationally limiting in cases where an onsite
emissions to be considered a significant problem. GROUND-LEVEL HELIPORT DESIGN evaluation concludes that surfaces steeper than
Research on aircraft fuels and engines to reduce those recommended would not have an adverse
General The need for adequate heliport facili-
pollutant levels will also be applicable to helicop- effect upon the safety of a particular operation .
ties is not limited to the centers of large cities .
ters . However, any object which would exceed the
Public acceptance of the helicopter has encour-
published standards for defining heliport imagi-
aged heliport developments in suburban areas,
Public Safely Heliport sites and approach-de- in communities of quite moderate size, and in nary surfaces is considered an obstruction to air
parture paths should be selected to avoid areas navigation. These surfaces are described below
locations that are difficult to reach by other modes
of public concentration . The approach-departure and are depicted on Figs . 1 through 3.
of transportation .
paths should also be free, and capable of being
maintained free, of objects that interfere with a. Heliport Primary Surface The area of the
helicopter movement to and from the heliport. Heliport Layout The size, shape, and appurte- primary surface coincides in size and shape with
nances of a heliport are determined by a number the designated takeoff and landing area of a
Ground Traffic Potential problems with pas- of interrelated factors, principal among them are heliport . This surface is a horizontal plane at the
senger ground ingress or egress to a heliport may the size and nature of the proposed site, the elevation of the established heliport elevation.
be minimized if there is direct access fo an adja- size, number, and performance capabilities of the
cent major roadway. Access to one or more modes helicopters expected to use the facility; the type b . Heliport Approach Surface The approach
of public mass transit is desirable. A freeway and extent of services to be provided ; and the surface begins at each end of the heliport primary
environment has some inherent advantages over location and height of buildings or other objects surface with the same width as the primary sur-
other sites . First, helicopter sounds may be unde- in the heliport area . The recommended minimal face and extends outward and upward for a hori-
tectable over the existing background noises . Sec- heliport facility consists of a takeoff and landing zontal distance of 4,000 ft (1 220 m) where its
ond, approach-departure paths can frequently area, a peripheral area, and an approach-depar- width is 500 ft (152 m) . The slope of the approach
follow the freeway right-of-way which is generally lure path . A large heliport may have several take- surface is 8 to 1 for civil heliports.
unencumbered with objects that would be hazard- off and landing areas and approach-departure
ous to flight safety . paths, separate parking positions, and extensive c. Heliport Transitional Surfaces These sur-
passenger and helicopter servicing facilities . A faces extend outward and upward from the lat-
Aesthetics Community acceptance of ground- takeoff and landing area may take any shape eral boundaries of the heliport primary surface
level heliports can be enhanced if the facility has necessary to fit the site, but most heliports are and from the approach surfaces at a slope of
an attractive appearance . Attractive buildings configured as squares, rectangles, or circles. Fig- 2 to 1 for a distance of 250 ft (76 m) measured
and carefully planned walls, fences, hedges, etc., ures 1 through 3 illustrate the relationship of heli- horizontally from the centerline of the primary
are to be encouraged . port surfaces . With few exceptions, heliport di- and approach surfaces .

965
Transportation

HELIPORTS

TABLE 2 Summary of Recommended Design Criteria

7
HELIPORT CLASSIFICATION

PRIVATE USE
PUBLIC-USE PERSONAL USE

DESIGN FEATURE DIMENSION COMMENT

TAKEOFF & LANDING AREA To preclude premature obsolescence,

Length, width, diameter 1 .5 X helicopter overall length consider the possibility of larger
helicopters in the future .

TOUCHDOWN PAD Elevated touchdown pads less than

Length, width, diameter 1 .0 X rotor diameter 1 .5 rotor diameters in size may
_ - subject using helicopters to oper-
Minimum ground-level otional penalties due to loss of
Length, diameter 2 .0 X wheelbase 1 .5 X wheelbase rotor downwash ground effect. Min-
width 2 .0 X tread 1 .5 X tread imally sized touchdown pads are not
encouraged, but may be used in cases
Minimum elevated of economic or aesthetic necessity .
Length, diameter 1 .0 rotor diam . 1 .5 X wheelbase Touchdown pads less than one rotor
Width 1 .0 rotor diam. 1 .5 tread diameter in size should have addi-
tional nonlood-bearing area for
downwash ground effect .

PERIPHERAL AREA An obstacle free area surrounding

Recommended width 1/4 helicopter overall length the takeoff and landing area . Keep
Minimum width 10 ft (3 m) the area clear of parked helicopters,
buildings fences, etc .

TAXIWAY Paved taxiways are not required if

Paved width Variable, 20-ft (6 ml minimum helicopters hover taxi .

PARKING POSITION Parking position should be beyond

Length, width, diameter 1 .0xhelicopter overall length the edge of the peripheral area .
Parked helicopters should not violate
the 2 : 1 transitional surface .

PAVEMENT GRADES
Touchdown pod, taxiways,
parking positions 2 .0% maximum
I
OTHER GRADES A 10-ft (3 m) wide rapid runoff
Turf shoulders, infield shoulder of 5% slope is per-
area, etc . Variable, 1 .5 to 3 % mined adjacent to all paved surfaces .

CLEARANCES, ROTOR TIP TO OBJECT Consider possibility of larger heli-

Taxiways, parking positions 10-ft (3 m) minimum copiers in the future .

HELICOPTER PRIMARY SURFACE Imaginary plane overlying the takeoff

Length, width, diameter 1 .5 X helicopter overall length and landing area . Area to be free
Elevation Elevation highest point takeoff & of all obstacles.
landing area .
__
HELICOPTER APPROACH SURFAC Protection for helicopter approaches
Number of surfaces Two and departures . The surface should
Angular separation 90° min ., 180' preferred not be penetrated by any objects that
Length 4,000 ft (1 220 ml are determined to be hazards to air
Inner width 1 .5 X helicopter overall length navigation .
Outer width 500 ft (152 ml
Slope B: 1

HELICOPTER TRANSITIONAL SURFACE Surface should not be penetrated by

Length Full length of approaches and objects .
primary surface .
Width 250 ft (76 m) measured from
approach 3 primary surface
centerline
Slope 2: 1

966
 Transportation

HELIPORTS

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967
 Transportation

HELIPORTS

NOTES :

1. Markers used to define the takeoff and landing area of a turfed

heliport should provide visible contrast against the natural
background of the site .

2. Flush-type markers may be located at the edge of the touchdown

pad .

3. Above-ground markers should not project more than 18 inches (45 cm)
above the surface of the ground . Manmade markers should be
solidly anchored to the ground to prevent their being blown about
by rotor downwash . Raised markers should be located at the outer
edge of the peripheral area .

4. This drawing illustrates numerous types of markings that could be

used to identify limits of a turfed heliport . It is not intended
that a heliport owner use more than one type of marker .
Fig . 5 Examples of markings for a turfed heliport.

Paved Takeoff and Landing Areas Paved takeoff (1) Public-Use Heliports . The minimal-sized Taxiways Taxiways connect one operational
and landing areas at ground-level heliports are touchdown pad for a public-use heliport area on a heliport with another . Most often, taxi-
usually developed to support heavier helicopters should have a length and width at least ways connect the takeoff and landing area with
or to accommodate greater traffic volumes . While 2 .0 times the wheelbase and tread, re- helicopter parking positions . Helicopters with
it is desirable to pave the entire takeoff and land- spectively, or a diameter of 2 .0 times the wheel undercarriages normally are taxied in
ing area, there is no operational requirement to wheelbase of the largest helicopter ex- ground contact. Helicopters with skid or float gear
do so . When it is intended for the helicopter to pected to use the facility . must hover taxi . The minimum recommended
touch down on a designated takeoff and landing (2) Private-Use or Personal-Use Heliports . paved taxiway width is 20 ft (6 m) . Paved taxi-
area, a paved touch-down pad located in the The minimal-sized touchdown pad for a ways are not required for hover taxiing . A lateral
center of the area, the size of either a or b below, private-use or personal-use heliport should clearance of at least 10 ft (3 m) is recommended
will suffice . have a length and width at least 1 .5 times between the blade tip of the taxiing helicopter
the wheelbase and tread, respectively, or and any building or object .
a . Touchdown Pad The recommended dimen- a diameter of 1 .5 times the wheelbase
sion of a touchdown pad is equal to the rotor of the largest helicopter expected to use Heliport Buildings Heliports may require an ad-
diameter of the largest helicopter expected to the facility . ministration or passenger service building, service
operate from the facility . and storage hangars, or maintenance buildings .
Parking Areas Requirements for physically sepa- The location and space requirements of heliport
b . Minimum Touchdown Pad At a heliport rated helicopter parking areas will be based on buildings will depend upon the extent of current
that has an extremely low level of activity or is operational needs . Each parking position, and projected operations,
subject to economic or aesthetic pressure, smaller whether used for passenger boardings, helicopter
paved areas may be used . Pad dimensions are servicing, or extended parking, is recommended
HELIPORT VISUAL AIDS
based on rectangular configurations . A circular to have a length and width or diameter equal
pad having a diameter equal to the longer side to the overall length of the largest helicopter ex- General Recommendations for marking and
of the rectangular configuration set forth in (1) pected to use the facility . A minimum clearance lighting of ground-level heliports are based on
or (2) below is acceptable . Skid or float length of 10 ft (3 m) is recommended between adjacent tests conducted for the FAA with the cooperation
should be substituted for wheelbase as appropri- parking positions or between a parking position and involvement of civil and military helicopter
ate . and a fence or other object . pilots . For day VFR operations, it is recommended

968
 Transportation

HELIPORTS

off and landing area . Dimensions for these mark- to 10 cm) thickness of crushed stone is used for
that the takeoff and landing area be marked
ings are shown on the referenced figures . The markings .
and that the heliport be equipped with a suitable
standard heliport marker (Fig . 4) is recommended
wind direction indicator . For night VFR operations, Guidance or Position Markings All painted
to identify the designated takeoff and landing
it is recommended that the takeoff and landing
area of a heliport . While this symbol is widely heliport guidance and positioning markings are
area and the wind direction indicator also be
used throughout the helicopter industry, a number yellow . These markings are primarily intended to
lighted and a heliport identification beacon be
of private-use and personal-use heliports are ei- assist pilots in ground movement and to aid in
installed.
ther not marked at all or utilize a company logo judging clearances between turning rotors and
or some other marking recognized by the helicop- other aircraft or fixed objects . The markings are
Marking FAA standards for marking heliports
ter pilots authorized to use the facility . illustrated in Fig . 6 .
serve two purposes . One type of marking serves
to identify the heliport's designated takeoff and Other Markings Passenger walkways and fire
landing area and provides visual approach cues Touchdown Pad Boundary Markings Bound-
ary markings are white and are used to delineate extinguisher locations should be appropriately
to the pilot. The second type of marking provides marked.
guidance for ground movement and helicopter the limits (edges) of the portion of the takeoff
and landing area capable of supporting the heli-
parking . Markings may be painted on paved sur- (1) Walkways . Passenger ingress and egress
copter. Paved surfaces may be marked by a solid
faces using reflective or nonreflective paint of routes must be marked to indicate the safe
or segmented white paint stripe at least 18 in
the recommended color . A 6-in (15-cm), or wider,
(45 cm) in width . Black edging may be used to walkway . The width, location, color, and
black (red for hospital heliports) border may be marking are at the owner's discretion . Fig-
improve contrast . Turf heliport takeoff and land-
used to enhance painted markings . The marking
ing areas may be delineated in a variety of ways . ure 6 illustrates one method of marking .
of turfed heliports may be accomplished in a vari- Walkways should be textured to insure
Figure 5 illustrates possible methods . Individual
ety of ways . positive footing .
markers are spaced from 25 ft (7 .5 m) to 100
ft (30 m) apart as site conditions dictate . A soil
Identification Markings Heliport markings Fire Extinguisher Locations . Fire extin-
sterilant or an impervious membrane should be (2)
identifying the takeoff and landing area are
used to deter vegetation when a 3- to 4-inch (7 guisher locations should be marked for
white . They are centered on the designated take- ready identification . A bright red circle
3 ft (1 m) in diameter is suggested . Figure
6 illustrates one method of marking a fire
extinguisher position on an access-control-
ling fence .

ELEVATED HELIPORT DESIGN

General An elevated heliport, whether it be lo-

cated on the roof of some building or parking
structure or on a waterfront pier, presents unique
design problems . Developing structural design
and construction specifications for elevated heli-
ports requires the services of qualified architects
and engineers . This section is limited to covering,
in general terms, the basic design features that
are peculiar to an elevated heliport .

Siting When a suitable ground-level site is unat-

tainable, the alternative may be the development
of an elevated heliport . Elevated heliports are
found in many cities . Most would be classified
as private-use or personal-use facilities . An ele-
vated facility has two advantages for the propo-
nent of a private-use or personal-use heliport .
First, the facility provides more privacy and secu-
rity than a ground-level site . Second, with the
heliport at or above the level of most buildings
in the vicinity, there are fewer problems in provid-
ing and maintaining suitable approach-departure
paths .

Codes and Regulations Local, state, and national

safety codes pertaining to building construction,
occupancy, ingress-egress, fire safety, etc ., should
be carefully reviewed to determine their impact
on establishing and operating an elevated heli-
port . Early coordination of a proposed elevated
heliport facility with FAA, state, and local authori-
ties is recommended to insure that no pertinent
code or regulation is overlooked .
NOTES :
Takeoff and Landing Area The dimensions of the
are in yellow .
1. All markings for helicopter parking or ground guidance takeoff and landing area of an elevated heliport
are keyed to the size of the helicopter expected
. Diameter of
2. Stopping circle "A" is at least 3 feet (1 m) in diameter to operate therefrom . To the extent that circum-
design
the parking circle "S" is equal to the overall length of the stances permit, the recommended dimensions of
Clearance to objects "C" is at least 10 feet (3 m) .
helicopter . the takeoff and landing area are identical to those
of a ground-level facility . The takeoff and landing
the owner's
3. Passenger walkway widths, locations, and markings are at area, together with the associated peripheral
.
discretion, the intent being to clearly delineate safe passageways area, may require the entire roof area or only
a part of it. Elevated takeoff and landing areas
Fig . 6 Heliport guidance, position, and other markings.

969
Transportation

HELIPORTS

having a long axis should have that axis oriented Load-Bearing Surfaces The entire rooftop sur- width at least 1 .5 times the wheelbase
in the direction of the prevailing winds . face designated as the takeoff and landing area, and tread, respectively, or a diameter 1 .5
plus any helicopter parking positions, should be times the wheelbase of the largest helicop-
Peripheral Areas In some instances, it is nei- designed to support the static and dynamic loads ter expected to use the facility, is the mini-
ther possible nor practical to provide the surface imposed by the largest helicopter expected to mum recommended . Skid or float length
area required to permit the development of a use the facility . Where a touchdown pad or park- should be substituted for wheelbase as
takeoff and landing area and associated periph- ing position is to be provided, and it is impractical appropriate .
eral area . In some of these cases, it is reasonable to structurally stress the entire takeoff and landing
to presume that the natural open space surround- area, then an area of at least the size of (1) Approach Clearances Elevated heliports have
ing an elevated heliport will suffice as an obstruc- and (2) below should be provided . the same requirements for approach clearances
tion-free area and the peripheral area require- as a ground-level heliport . At an elevated facility,
ment may be eliminated . To take full advantage (1) Public-Use Heliports . A load-bearing area it is usually easier to secure unobstructed ap-
of ground effect, the dimensions of the minimal at least one rotor diameter in length and proach and transitional surfaces . This benefit
takeoff and landing area should be 1 .5 times width, or a diameter of the largest helicop alone may be quite significant to privately owned
the rotor diameter of the largest helicopter ex- ter expected to use the facility, is the mini- heliports since approach and transitional surfaces
pected to operate therefrom . A surface smaller mum recommended . usually cannot be protected under the zoning
than this may subject using helicopters to opera- (2) Private-Use and Personal-Use Heliports. powers of the community . In many instances, it
tional restrictions. A load-bearing area having a length and will be difficult to prevent obstructions within the
entire rooftop takeoff and landing area . There-
fore, special consideration may have to be given
to the presence of penthouses, air-conditioning
towers, exhaust stacks, antennas, etc . The FAA
should be contacted early in the planning stages
to undertake a study to determine the effect of
such objects upon aeronautical operations . Ele-
vated heliports may also be subjected to turbu-
lence . Flight tests are recommended to ascertain
the effect of different wind conditions on the
safety of flight operations .

Construction-General Elevated heliport takeoff

and landing areas present some special problems
to the heliport designer who must consider the
following factors .

Construction Materials All materials used in

the construction of the heliport should be noncom-
bustible or fire-retardant. Most frequently used
materials are portland cement concrete, asphaltic
concrete, steel plates, or treated wood . Synthetic
and resilient plastic coatings of different compo-
sitions have been proved to possess excellent
characteristics for operating surfaces . All surfaces
should be textured to have nonskid properties
or have a nonskid coating applied . If night opera-
tions are contemplated, a light-colored surface
is recommended to improve pilot depth percep-
tion . Treat the decking and supporting structure
of a wood or metal load-distribution platform to
make it weather-resistant .

Perimeter Protection Safety nets, guard rails,

or fences should meet requirements of local or
state building codes . Guard rails or fences should
not penetrate heliport primary, approach, or
transitional surfaces nor should the installation
create an actual or perceived psychological ob-
stacle to pilots using the heliport . A safety net,
Fig . 7, is recommended for touchdown pods raised
above the level of the roof. These nets should
be located below, and not rise above, the plane
of the heliport primary surface . A net width of
at least 5 ft (1 .5 m) is recommended .

Surface Drainage The takeoff and landing

area should be designed with gutters that would
isolate the runoff of any spilled liquids. It is essen-
tial that these liquids be prevented from discharg-
ing into the building's drainage system . Local
building codes should be reviewed to determine
whether the proposed collection system complies
with the applicable code provisions .
NOTE : Platform heliports shall have two entry-exit points . The
heliport perimeter lights and safety net should not project Structural Implications The surface used for
above the level of the touchdown pad . takeoffs and landings on elevated heliports should
be an integral part of the building's design
Fig . 7 Platform heliport showing lighting and safety net . whether it is incorporated as a roof-level or plot-
 Transportation

HELIPORTS

form facility . The actual landing surface should Marking An elevated heliport may be subject same or on an adjacent building as conditions
be constructed of materials that will not yield to an operational weight limitation. A red numeral dictate .
under hard landings . However, the heliport de- on o white square is recommended to convey
signer may take advantage of any energy-ab- this information to the pilot of the approaching Fire Protection Requirements for elevated and
sorbing properties inherent in roof-decking mate- helicopter . The number indicates the helicopter rooftop heliport fire protection are contained in
rials or structural-framing techniques . Design gross weight the facility is capable of supporting . the National Fire Protection Association's Booklet
loads other than those applied by the helicopter, 418 (1973) . These requirements are set out in
such as snow, rainfall, wind, passengers and Lighting Because an elevated heliport takeoff Table 3 . When local fire codes are more restric-
cargo, flight-supporting equipment, additional and landing surface is likely to be size-limited, tive, the local code shall prevail . Personnel en-
weight of the heliport, etc ., should be calculated perimeter lights may be installed on supports ex- gaged in heliport operations should be instructed
in accordance with applicable building codes . An tending beyond the edge of the touchdown pad . in the proper use of installed firefighting systems .
analysis of this magnitude requires the profes- (See Fig . 7 .) Perimeter lights should be at or only The design, installation, and periodic performance
sional services of a qualified architect or engineer . slightly above the level of the touchdown pod . testing of fire protection systems should be carried
Proponents of elevated heliports should consider Under some conditions, a floodlighted touchdown out by qualified persons .
the probability of future operations by larger heli- pad with reflective markings may be acceptable
copters when designing the facility . as an alternative to perimeter lighting . Elevated
heliport lighting plans should be discussed with
Marking and Lighting The basic marking and the appropriate FAA Airports office . The recom-
lighting for an elevated heliport are identical to mended heliport beacon may be mounted on the
that of a comparable ground-level facility .

TABLE 3 NFPA Recommendations for Heliport Fire Protection-Rooftop Heliports (NFPA-418, 1973 Edition)t

Water for foam production using protein Additional

or fluoroprotein foam concentratestt water for

Foam-compatible foam if
heliport
Heliport Amount of Total rate of dry chemical
is elevated
category water discharge (rating)*

Gallons Liters Gpm Liters Gallons Liters

H-1 None** None** None*" None** 2-80B :C Extinguishers None** None **

H-2 5001 1,9001 100 380 2--80B :C Extinguishers 10001 3,BOOt

or
1-160B :C Wheeled Extinguisher

H-3 15001 5,7001 200 760 2-80B:C Extinguishers 15001 5,7001

from two 100 gpm and
nozzles or from 1-160B :C Wheeled Extinguisher
one mobile unit
with a turret

* See Standard on Installation of Portable Fire Extinguishers (NFPA No . 10 ; ANSI Z112 .1) .
** Many times a water supply meeting the suggestions for Category H-2 may be readily available . In such cases it should be
made available assuming personnel are available to utilize the equipment in event of on emergency .
t This amount of water should be immediately available from a hydrant (standpipe), pressurized tank, reservoir, or mobile vehicle
so that it can be dispensed at the rates indicated and at a satisfactory pressure . Additional water should be available to provide
a continuing rescue and fire fighting capability wherever feasible .
tt The quantity of water may be reduced one-third when aqueous film-forming foam concentrate is used .
t Deviations and/or equivalent substitutions may be authorized by competent authority to comply with local fire codes or to
meet unusual site or operational conditions .
Transportation

STOL PORTS

DESIGN CRITERIA by the FAA . The type of equipment has been other hand, it is also recognized that the avail-
designed specifically for steep gradient ap- ability of a crosswind runway on a metropolitan
General proaches . The siting of the microwave system STOL port will be rare . Accordingly, the de-
During the process of developing these design may be relatively simple since the localizer signer should attempt to obtain maximum wind
criteria, certain assumptions had to be made and glide slope functions may be collocated . coverage . The minimum desirable wind cover-
because of the lack of commitment of large (See Fig . 1 .) Offset instrument landing system age is 95 percent based on the total hours of
STOL aircraft to civil production . Therefore, (ILS) approaches would be advantageous under available weather observations . In other words,
these standards represent considered judg- certain site conditions and are under study . the objective is to attain rnore than 95 percent
ment of what constitutes a practical set of Nevertheless, an offset approach should be usability (preferably 9e percent) . The allowable
criteria considering available data, safety, considered only where obstructions in the ap- crosswind component will be determined by
noise, environment, and economics . It is proach would prevent a straight-in ILS pro- the crosswind capabilities of the most critical
apparent that the shorter the runway the easier cedure . aircraft expected to operate at the STOL port .
it will be to locate a STOL port site, and the
greater will be its compatibility with the local Parallel Runways-STOL Port
Obstruction Clearance
environment . On the other hand, the criteria
cannot be so restrictive that aircraft manufac- The imaginary surfaces for protection of the For simultaneous VFR operations on a STOL
turers will be unable to produce a vehicle which STOL. port are shown in Fig . 3 . port, the minimum separation between the
can operate safely and economically from centerlines of parallel runways should be 700
the STOL port . General The surfaces have been defined on the ft .
basis of operational tests with the microwave
ILS . The 15 :1 slope for the approach/departure
Design Criteria Runway Capacity
surface is predicated on adequate obstruction
The following criteria have been developed clearance for steep gradient approaches and The capacity of a runway is the number of air-
based on STOL aircraft, bidirectional runway also for takeoff climb . craft operations (landings and takeoffs) that
operations, and a precision instrument ap- the runway can accommodate in a limited peri-
proach . See Figs . 1 and 2 and Table 1 for illus- Curved Paths For VFR (visual flight rules) od of time . The operational capacity of a STOL
tration of specific dimensions . operations, a curved path for approach or runway will be lowest during IFR conditions .
departure is quite practical and may be neces- To obtain maximum IFR capacity, the STOL
sary in some cases to provide a suitable route . runway should be equipped with a microwave
Runway Length Determination For example, an IFR (instrument flight rules) ILS and radar surveillance (including an air
A discussion of takeoff and landing runway procedure may be feasible from only one direc- traffic control tower) . A method for calculation
lengths is needed to establish a common under- tion . Under adverse wind conditions, it would of capacity values is given in Advisory Circular
standing of the terms used . This is particularly be desirable and perhaps necessary to con, 150/5060-1A . This publication discusses the
necessary for the case of the elevated STOL plate the IFR approach, transition to VFR and numerous factors which must be considered
port, where reference to Federal Aviation Regu- land from the opposite direction . The radius in a capacity analysis . However, as a general
lations (FAR) field length cannot be considered of the curved path will vary according to the guideline, with current procedures, the IFR
in the same context as the conventional airport . performance of individual aircraft and the angle capacity of a single STOL runway will be
of bank used . For planning purposes, a radius approximately 45 operations per hour. It is
of 1,500 ft may be used . expected that this capacity will be considerably
Microwave ILS
expanded when adequate data have been col-
Microwave instrument landing systems for lected and analyzed .
Runway Orientation
STOL operation are currently being evaluated
One of the primary factors influencing runway
Potential Configurations
orientation is wind . Ideally, the runway should
be aligned with the prevailing winds . It is In many metropolitan areas, siting of a STOL
Planning and Design Critoria for Metropoli- recognized that the limited number of STOL port may necessitate an elevated structure . At
tan STOL Ports, Federal Aviation Administra-
tion . Department of Transportation, Washing- port sites will minimize the opportunity for the such sites, the designer should strive to
ton, D .C ., 1970 . runway to have optimum wind coveragge . On the achieve vertical loading and unloading of pas-

Fig. 1 Dimensional criteria .

 Transportation

STOL PORTS

Protection surfaces . CROSS SECTION

Fig. 2

Fig. 3 Isometric of protection surfaces .

Transportation

STOL PORTS

TABLE 1 Design Criteria for Metropolitan STOL Ports'

Recommended
Design item criteria Comment

Runway length at sea level and 90 F 1,500 to Correction for elevation and temperature to he made
1,800 ft on the basis of individual aircraft performance .
Runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 ft Widening may be desirable if wind coverage is less
than 95 per cent .
Runway safety area width. 200 ft Widening may he desirable if wind coverage is less
than 95 per cent . If elevated, a 300-ft width is
recommended for the structure.
Runway safety area length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,700 to If elevated, the structure would be within this
2,000 ft range.
Taxiway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . 60 it Based on expected configuration of second
generation aircraft .
Runway CL to-| taxiway
CL 200 ft Based on expected configuration of second
generation aircraft .
Runway CL to edge of parked aircraft . . . . . . . . . 250 ft Based on expected configuration of second
generation aircraft .
Runway CL to building line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 ft Height controlled by transitional surface.
Taxiway CL to fixed obstacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 ft Based on second generation aircraft .
Runway C7, to holding line 150 ft Based on second generation aircraft .
Separation between parallel runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See text .
Protection surfaces :
Primary surface length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Runway length
plus 100 ft
on each end
Primary surface width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 ft Based on the use of microwave instrument approach
equipment.
Approach/ departure surface length . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 ft
Approach/ departure surface slope . . . . . . . . . 15 :1
Approach/departure surface width at:
Beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 ft Approach/ departure surface is 765 ft wide at
10,000 feet 3,400 ft 1,500 ft from beginning
Transitional surface slope 4:1
Transitional surface maximum height . . . . . . . 100 ft
Clear zone :
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 ft
Inner width 300 ft Begins at end of primary surface .
Outer width . . . . . . . . . . . 532 ft
Pavement strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150,000 Ib Based on second generation aircraft . Also see
gross weight paragraph headed "Structural Design ."
on dual
tandem gear
`The criteria are subject to change as further experience is gained .
-|- C / . centerline

sengers and cargo ; i .e ., from one level to landing and the other for takeoff, but not availability of a practical and economic site . In
simultaneously . Spacing must be provided for metropolitan areas, this causes a detailed look
another . Such a design will allow an opera-
tional area that is virtually free of fixed ob- taxiing past parked aircraft and aircraft back- at elevated STOL ports . For example, in New
out for turning around . The figures are intend- York City, several waterfront sites on Manhat-
stacles . Each STOL port should be designed
ed to illustrate the new approach which must tan Island have been studied . In Los Angeles
with due consideration of local conditions,
be taken in the planning and design of STOL and San Francisco, sites have been analyzed
particularly the configuration of the land avail-
ports ; they are not intended to require a paral- over railroad yards . All are intended to provide
able and surrounding land uses . Figure 4
lel runway configuration . air transportation integrated with surface
shows one possible layout of the staggered
transportation . Such a facility appears to have a
runway concept . One runway is used primarily
great potential for accommodating the short-
for landing and the other for takeoff . This con-
ELEVATED STOL PORTS haul air passenger demand . However, since it
figuration allows a considerable reduction in
is elevated, there are some unique design prob-
the total operational area by eliminating paral- General lems which must be recognized .
lel taxiways . Also, the flow of traffic is opti-
mized, since no aircraft backout or turning The siting of a STOL port involves a series of
around is involved . Figure 5 shows the tandern tradeoffs . One of these is the optimum site Operational Surface
runway concept . Again, one runway is used for for the origin/destination of passengers versus
Essentially, the same standards are used for
elevated STOL ports as surface facilities .
Nevertheless, the question arises as to what is
the recommended minimum .

Length of Structure
The length of structure rec-
ommended is a range between 1,700 and 2,000
ft .

Width of Structure The recommended width of

the structure is 300 ft for the runway opera-
tional area . However, this is dependent upon
the emergency arresting system selected for
Fig. 4 Potential layout. lateral containment, the degree of wind cover-
 Transportation

STOL PORTS

Fig. 5 Potential layout .

However, many of the operational problems oriented, time-conscious, and carry relatively
age, and the need for a parallel taxiway . The
associated with a floating STOL port are the little baggage, gate processing should be quite
lateral arresting system may require a greater
same as for an elevated STOL port . For exam- feasible . Also, mutual-use (or common use)
or lesser area width, adjacent to the runway .
ple, emergency arresting systems should be gates appear to be a requirement .
Also, if the runway is not aligned with prevail-
ing winds, it may be appropriate to have a wider provided to ensure that the aircraft does not fall
runway . For most STOL ports, a parallel taxi- into the water. On the other hand, wind flow Vertical Movement

way will be needed . In this case, the structure should be considerably less of a problem. In On elevated STOL ports, it may not be feasible
should be at least 400 ft wide . many metropolitan areas, a floating facility, to locate the terminal on the same level as the
on either an interim or permanent basis, may operational area . This would, of course, require
provide the best solution to establishing STOL vertical movement of passengers and baggage.
Structural Design service . Several methods of accomplishing this have
The landing area should be designed for the been studied. Among these are escalators,
largest aircraft expected to use it . The maxi- elevators, and loading bridges . The escalators
TERMINAL AREA
mum weight aircraft anticipated by 1985 is would involve the least cost but would create
150,000 lb . Other types of loads, such as snow, General a fixed obstacle in the aircraft maneuvering
freight equipment, etc., should be considered area . The elevators can be located on the side
in the design of the area and the structures The primary purpose of the terminal area on a of the structure but are expensive and preclude
as appropriate . STOL port is the same as the terminal area on a a steady flow of passengers to the aircraft .
conventional airport --to provide for the trans- The loading bridges completely protect the pas-
fer of passengers and cargo from one mode of senger from the weather but are expensive and
Emergency Equipment transportation to another. However, due to the create an obstacle . At surface STOL ports,
Provision should be made for equipment on the specialized function of the STOL system, atten- vertical movement of passengers may be feasi-
operational area to handle emergency medical tion should be given to possible innovations in ble between mass transit vehicles and the air-
and fire situations . Consideration should also the terminal area, such as gate processing and craft gate area . This should be given careful
be given to some type of built-in hydrant sys- vertical movement of passengers . The STOL evaluation during the initial planning of the
tem . system, which is aimed at short-haul, high- terminal .
density air transportation, must be efficient
in every aspect . Capacity
Aircraft Maintenance and Fueling
The size of the terminal is determined by the
Due to the limited parking space available, it Terminal Building peak-hour volume of passengers and cargo .
appears logical to plan only for emergency
The terminal building should be designed to The forecast of the peak-hour volume must be
maintenance. The decision to install an aircraft
accommodate a steady flow of passengers made recognizing the maximum capacity of the
fueling system will depend on several factors, runway (in VFR conditions), the aircraft pas-
among which is the requirement of the local rather than long-term holding of passengers .
This means secondary features of the terminal, senger capacity, the aircraft load factor, and
building code .
such as concessions and eating facilities, the frequency of service . Further, an analysis
should be minimized . To aid in efficient passen- must be made of the maximum capacity of the
Floating STOL Port ger handling, consideration should be given surface access systems. Surface congestion
to passenger processing at the gate . Since the has a direct effect on the efficiency of the air
A STOL port located on water (floating or semi-
majority of short-haul passengers are business- transportation system .
submersed) is not truly an elevated facility .
Transportation

SEAPLANE TERMINALS

SITE SELECTION portent safety factors involved, such to accommodate the aircraft must be made .
maneu-vers can createillwil and antagonism on the These developments might require a dredged
Water Areas part of local inhabitants and boating interests . channel, extended piers or special hoisting
In selecting an adequate site within the areas Where a suitable water area exists and the equipment depending upon the slope of the
deemed feasible for water flying, it will be shore and surrounding development prohibits shore . It follows that the greater the water
necessary to choose one having the proper straight-away approach zones, it may be possi- variation, the more extensive will be the facil-
ble to establish operations in which an over- ity requirements .
water-area dimensions, depth, and approach
or glide path ratio for the types of planes to be water climbing turn or let-down procedure is
used . Water-Surface Conditions Open or unprotected
accommodated . Table 1 shows by comparative
groups the recommended minimum standards water-operating areas may become so rough
for water landing areas . Generally, most locali- Currents and Water-Level Variations Current and under certain conditions of winds and cur-
ties will not be concerned with lengths of water changes in water level usually will not be great rents as to prohibit operations ; hence, the
enough to cause construction or operational varying water conditions at the proposed site
areas of 5,000 ft or more . Larger installations
are primarily for large commercial aircraft difficulties. Only under extraordinary condi- must be investigated . The average light plane
and military operations . tions will currents affect size requirements (3,000 Ib or less), equipped with twin floats,
of the water landing area . Landing and takeoff can be operated safely in seas running to about
Prevailing Winds The direction and velocity operations can be conducted in water currents 15 in . measured from crest to trough, while
of prevailing winds over the surface of the in excess of 6 knots (7 mph) but any taxiing 18-in . seas will restrict normal safe operations
water will be the controlling factor in deter- operation between the water lanes and the of these aircraft . Larger float-equipped or hull-
mining the direction of water lanes . It is not shore facilities will usually require the assis- type aircraft ranging in weight from 3,000 to
necessary to consider winds of 3 mph or less tance of a surface craft . Currents in excess of 15,000 Ib can generally be operated safely in
when making these determinations . 3 knots (3 .5 mph) usually cause some difficulty seas running as high as 2 ft measured from
When the water landing area consists of a in handling seaplanes, particularly in slow crest to trough. At the other extreme, smooth
single lane (covering two wind directions) taxiing while approaching floating docks, or dead calm water is undesirable because of
the greatest percentage of wind coverage or in beaching operations. In some cases un- the difficulty experienced in lifting the floats
should be obtained . In many cases these single- desirable currents may be offset to some extent or hull from the water during takeoff. The most
lane operating areas cannot be oriented to take by advantageous prevailing winds . Locations desirable conditions exist when the surface
maximum advantage of the prevailing winds . of the following types should be avoided : (1) of the water is moderately disturbed, having
In this regard, a shifting of the direction of the Where the currents exceed 6 knots (7 mph) ; ripples or waves approximately 3 to 6 in . high .
water lane should be effected so as to utilize (2) where unusual water turbulence is caused Locations at which excessive ground-swell
the greatest possible wind coverage in conjunc- by a sharp bend in a river, the confluence of action may be encountered should be given
tion with water currents and approach condi- two currents, or where tide rips are prevalent . careful consideration to determine the effect
tions . The influence of approach zones and cur- As a general rule if the change in water of such action on the intended operations .
rents is explained under these two respective levels exceeds 18 in ., it will be necessary to Another consideration which must be taken
headings that follow . Where all-way landings utilize floating structures or moderately in- into account, when examining the water con-
and takeoffs can be provided, a study of the clined beaching accommodations to facilitate ditions, is the presence of floating debris .
wind conditions will indicate the primary and handling of aircraft at the shoreline or water Areas in which there is an objectionable
secondary water-lane directions . front . Where water-level variations are in ex- amount of debris for considerable periods of
cess of 6 ft, special or extended developments time should be avoided.
Approach Zones For seaplane operations the
ideal approach zone is one which permits
unobstructed approaches over water at a ratio TABLE 1 . Recommended Minimum Standards for Water Landing Areas'
of 40 :1 or flatter, with ample clearance on
either side of the approach zone center line . Mini- Mini- Turning
The width of the zone should increase from the Minimum mum mum basin
ends of the water lanes so that at a distance length in feet width in depth in feet-
of 1 mi from the end of the water lane, the zone (see level) feet in feet diameter Remarks
is approximately the width of the water lane
plus 1,000 ft . 2,500 200 3 None Minimum for limited small float
Under favorable temperature conditions a plane operation . Approaches
water-borne aircraft will leave the water and should be 20 :1 or flatter for e
fly level for approximately 4 seconds and a
distance of at least 2 mi .
distance of about 400 ft before starting to
climb . The rate of climb after this 4 second 3,500 300 4 None Minimum for limited commercial
period is about 20 :1 . Where commercial opera- operation . Approaches should be
tions are anticipated, it is recommended that 40 :1 or flatter for a distance of at
the approach angle should be 40 :1 or flatter .
least 2 mi .
The approach zones should be over water
wherever possible, thereby permitting a rea- 5,000 500 10 1,000 Minimum for extensive commercial
sonably safe landing in the event of power operation . Approaches should be
failure during initial climb or landing ap- 40 :1 or flatter for a distance of et
proach . Furthermore, for obvious safety rea- _ least 2ml .
sons, climbs and approaches should not be
made over populated areas, beaches and simi- 10,000 700 15 2,000 Unlimited . Approaches should be
lar shore developments. Apart from the all-im- 50 :1 or flatter for e distance of at
least 2 mi

'The lengths indicated above are for glassv water, no wind, see level conditions at standard temperature of 59°F . The
lengths shown will be increased at the rate of 7 percent for each 1,000 ft of elevation above sea level . This corrected length
Civil Aeronautics Administration, U . S. shall be further increased at the rate of one-half of 1 percent for each degree that the mean temperature of the hottest month
Department of Commerce, Washington, D C. of the year, averaged over a period of years, exceeds the standard temperature . See Fig . 1 .
 Transportation

SEAPLANE TERMINALS

by selecting a more suitable anchorage area . May be used . For example, a facility basing 15
Sheltered Anchorage Areas A cove, small bay,
Where boulders are found on the bottom, some aircraft in the water and 6 on land would need
or other protected area is desirable for use as
construction difficulties may be encountered a maximum of 21 car-parking spaces (one for
a seaplane anchorage or mooring area in order
and anchor lines may tend to foul . Mud bottoms each plane) during maximum use period, plus
to relieve floating-dock or onshore parking .
ordinarily present little or no difficulty . one for each employee ; i .e ., approximately 25
A sheltered area that is protected from winds
cars or 6,250 all ft of area . Hangar or tie-down
and currents is required, particularly if over-
space for 6 planes would occupy 18,000 sq ft .
night or unattended tie-ups are to be made at The Onshore Facility One small office building with food counter
locations where sudden and sometimes unex-
No site for the onshore development should would require another 400 sq ft. Finally, the
pected storms or squalls develop . Appreciable
be given serious consideration until it is known common outdoor use space would occupy
currents and winds in the anchorage area make
that adequate room is available for all of the about 4,930 sq ft (this figure representing 20
the approach and picking up of a buoy more
space-taking elements required . Determination percent of the sum of the other areas) . Accord-
difficult and at times will call for the assistance
of size will require a knowledge of (1) How ingly, the total area would amount to about
of a boat . The anchorage area should be within
many planes will need hangars or tie-down 29,580 sq ft or about seven-tenths of an acre.
sight and calling distance of the floating dock
space ; (2) how many car parking spaces will In addition to being adequate in size, the
or ramp if possible . It also should be located
be necessary ; (3) how many patrons will use shore facility should be located reasonably
so as to permit unrestricted maneuvering of
the facility ; (4) whether a small office will suf- close to the water-operating area to eliminate
the aircraft when approaching the buoys .
fice or whether an administration building with long taxiing operations .
facilities for eating, refreshments, and other The availability of utilities such as electri-
Bottom Conditions The type and condition of
nonaviation activities is required ; (5) how much city, water, telephone and sewage should be
the bottom at the proposed seaplane-facility
outdoor common space, such as for lawns, investigated . The basic installation may not
site can influence the arrangement of the vari-
walks, terrace, etc_ is needed . Answers to require all utilities, but water and sanitary
ous components thereof, the means of con-
numbers 1 and 2 can be fairly accurately mea- facilities of some sort should be provided for
struction of the fixed structures, and the water
sured while 3, 4, and 5 will depend upon local at all locations . In remote rural areas, estab-
operations to and from the shoreline .
conditions varying from a very simple instal- lished water lines and sewerage facilities will
Reservoirs and other artificial bodies of
lation, in remote recreation areas, to large be out of the question . If such is the case, well
water often are flooded natural-land areas and
installations in metropolitan areas. Minimum water and chemical toilet units are feasible.
frequently are not grubbed (stumps and logs
unit requirements are as follows : State or local sanitary codes must be respected
removed) before flooding . This situation
when it is planned to install water and sanitary
causes anchors and anchor lines to foul and, Minimum Unit Requirements for a Single Onshore facilities of this nature .
over a period of time, can create a hazard if
Facility The most desirable sites have a moderately
these submerged objects rise to the surface
Area, sloping shoreline and a water depth suitable
and remain partially or totally submerged .
Item Facility sq ft to permit aircraft taxiing operations as close
Obstructions which project from the bottom
to the shoreline as possible . Excessive fluc-
and constitute a hazard should be removed or, 1 plane . . . . . . . . Hangar or tie- tuations in water level are not desirable since
if this is impractical, must be suitably and con- down space 3,000 this condition requires expensive shoreline
spicuously marked to indicate their presence
1 car . . . . . . . . . . Parking space 250 installations . Care should be taken to deter-
to those utilizing the water area .
Office . . . . . . . . . . Small building 80 mine whether the water level offshore will per-
A hard bottom composed of shale or solid
Walks, lawn, 20 percent of mit aircraft operations when the water level
rock formations will make the construction of Common outdoor
is low .
fixed offshore structures difficult and costly . space or open space above total
In all cases, the area for a seaplane facility
Anchors also tend to drag over this type of
To compute the number of square feet for should be sufficient in extent to form a com-
bottom . Unless specially designed mooring
a given facility, multiples of the above criteria plete unit without any interior private holdings
anchors are used, precautions should be taken

Fig . 1 Effect of elevation and temperature on water-lane lengths .

Transportation
SEAPLANE TERMINALS

and with good boundary alignment for com-

plete land utilization and protection . It may
also be desirable in some cases to secure a
liberal setback from the highway in order to
protect the project and adjacent property from
noise and glare and to provide room for widen-
ing any highway paralleling the property line.
If sufficient land is available, a greenbelt all
around the project will enhance the desirabil-
ity of a seaplane facility in a neighborhood
area .

General Planning Considerations

Having determined the best site available from
the aeronautical point of view, other elements
of community, county and state planning
should be considered . These elements are
accessibility and land use .

AccessibilityProbably the most obvious con-

sideration influencing the location of a sea-
plane facility is its proximity to the ultimate
destination and source of the users . The
ability of the airplane to cover long dis- Fig. 2 General operating area .
tances in a short space of time often is cited
as its outstanding attribute . To retain this ad- for the segregation of other water surface- swells or heavy wakes from boats are common .
vantage, every effort should be made to locate craft activities . In some cases anchorage areas Center-to-center spacing of anchors, where
the facility convenient to good streets and may be necessary . small twin-float aircraft are to be moored,
rapid or mass transportation facilities in urban should not be less than twice the length of
areas, and to major highways or good roads Water Lanes Minimum dimensions of water the longest anchor line plus 125 ft . For larger
in rural areas . Utilization of speedboats and lanes necessary for seaplane operations are types of aircraft, including flying boats and
other surface water transportation should also set forth in Table 1 . Inasmuch as elevation and amphibians this spacing should be increased
be carefully explored . If these associated temperature affect water-lane length require- by an additional 100 ft . A general layout of
means of access and transportation are over- ments, these factors must be considered and anchorages is shown in Fig . 3 .
looked, minimum use of the facility can be the lengths adjusted accordingly . Figure 1 pre-
expected . In rural or recreation areas where sents a chart showing the effects of these fac-
the seaplane is used primarily for sport, loca- tors on certain basic lengths . A typical layout The Shoreline Area
tion of the facility with regard to access will for a single water-lane operating area is shown Shoreline installations are partly on land and
not be a serious problem except that the means in Fig . 2 . in the water . They are required to perform two
of access or transportation for fuel, repairs, general functions : (1) to provide servicing,
and supplies must be adequate . Taxi Channel For small seaplanes the taxi chan- loading and unloading, handling and tie-up
nel should have a minimum width of 125 ft, facilities for seaplanes without removing them
Land Use Locating a facility in a residential although a width of 150 ft or more is preferred . from the water, and (2) to provide haul-out fa-
neighborhood where let-down and takeoff pro- These channels should be located to provide cilities for removing seaplanes from the water .
cedures occur over homes may be a source direct access to the onshore facility and when The types, size, and arrangement of these
of annoyance to residents in the area . Unless possible should be so oriented that approach installations will be determined by water con-
flight traffic procedures can be developed to the ramp or floats will be into the prevailing ditions, the topography of the land adjacent
which will eliminate the objection of takeoffs wind . They should provide e minimum of 50 ft to the water . the configuration of the bottom
and landings of this nature, the planner should clearance between the side of the channel of the water area, the number and type of
seek a location where the existing land use and the nearest obstruction . planes to be docked or removed from the water,
will be benefited by seaplane activities . Per- and wind conditions . The installation will vary
sonal seaplane flying is desired in certain Turning Basins Turning basins will be required from a simple wood-plank platform to the more
neighborhoods where boating and seaplaning where the use of water area is restricted . A elaborate ramps with railway facilities, piers,
are of mutual interest . Here the seaplane facil- minimum radius of 125 ft should be available and floats .
ity will be as much an asset to the community for surface turns . These turning basins should
as a yacht club . The onshore development be located at both ends of the water lanes and Ramp$ The simplest form of ramp consists
might well include a combination office and adjacent to the shoreline area . The same mini- of a wood-plank platform approximately 15 by
club house for seaplane and boating interests . mum clearance criteria, i .e ., .50 ft, should be 20 ft, laid on a sloping shore, with half its
Normally there will be little use for a personal used for the separation between the side of length in water . A device such as this will allow
seaplane facility in an industrial area where the turning basin and the nearest obstruction . a small float plane to taxi up and out of the
local truck and auto traffic congestion make water . The use of such a ramp is predicated
access time-consuming and undesirable . Anchorage Areas Where anchorage areas are upon a relatively constant water level and the
Every effort should be made to recognize required, they should be located so as to pro- shore slope no steeper than 8 to 1 .
existing conditions and future proposals so vide maximum protection from high winds The slope of any ramp should not be greater
that the seaplane facility can take its proper and rough water . The space requirements for than 7 to 1, with gradual slopes down to 10 to
place in the community . an anchored aircraft, and the number and size 1 being preferred . Slopes less than 10 to 1 usu-
of aircraft to be accommodated, will determine ally are too long and hence costly to construct .
the size of the anchorage area . Each aircraft Figure 4 shows the maximum draft of sea-
will swing around the mooring while anchored . planes of various weights and types . These
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS To determine space needed, one must know data are useful in determining the depth to
the wingspan and length of aircraft, the length which the submerged end of a ramp roust be
The Water-operating Area of line and bridle, and the lowest water level . lowered . A depth of ramp toe of 4 ft will pro-
Most natural water areas will provide, without The length of anchor line should be at least vide sufficient depth for most types of water-
modification, the required dimensions neces. six times the maximum depth at mean high borne aircraft in use today ; a depth of 3 ft will
sary for seaplane operations . Where the avail- water at the anchor location . In cases where permit handling of all but the heaviest type of
able water area is limited, the minimum water- the aircraft swing space is limited, the length amphibians . For small, light, float planes a
operating area must consist of one water lane of the anchor line may be shortened to not less depth of about 18 in . i s adequate . In all cases,
for landings and takeoffs and a taxi channel . than three times the high-water depth, pro- this dimension should be established for mean
A turning basin will be necessary in cases vided the normal anchor weight or holding low water .
where turning must be confined to a restricted capacity is doubled . Short anchor lines cause A ramp width of 15 ft is the minimum for
area because of water depth requirements or hard riding and should not be used where small twin-float or amphibian aircraft opera-
 Transportation

SEAPLANE TERMINALS

Fig . 3 General layout of anchorage areas.

lions when the water and wind conditions are when handling an aircraft on the ramp, deter- access walk approximately 5 ft in width with
relatively calm . 8y adding 5 ft to this minimum mines the minimum practical width . Ramp- hand railings on both sides and an open-decked
width, practically all water-borne aircraft of width determination does not necessitate con . handling area approximately 30 by 50 ft at the
gross weights up to approximately 15,000 Ib sideration of wheel tread of present-day float walk's end . An open-docked area of this size
can be handled with safety, and pilots of small plane dollies. Normally, the dolly wheels are will provide tie-up space for four small or three
seaplanes can make an unattended ramp ap- spaced to fall between the floats, and in cases large seaplanes. On long piers, where the walk-
proach under adverse conditions . In figuring where the wheels are outside, the tread is ing distance is too great for convenient han-
the ramp width, the outside-to-outside float 16 ft or less . dling of service equipment, a small storage
dimensions of twin-float aircraft and the treads shed may be located near the open-decked area .
of amphibian aircraft are important factors PiersPiers or fixed over-water structures can Fueling and lubrication facilities should also
and for reference are shown in Fig. 4. The max- be utilized where the variation in water level be located at the end of the pier .
imum dimension--based on the largest aircraft is 18 in . or less . The pier should extend into
to be accommodated--plus additional space the water to a point where the water depth is Floats and Gangways Floats offer the greatest
on either side to allow for drift when approach- adequate for the types of aircraft to be handled. flexibility in providing docking facilities . This
ing, and safe working space for personnel The usual design for a pier incorporates an type of unit rides with wave action and is equal-

Fig. 4 Water-borne aircraft dimensional data by aircraft weight groups .

Transportation

SEAPLANE TERMINALS

ly satisfactory in areas of great or negligible for safe and easy walking and to prevent the be so located that an aircraft may approach
water-level variations . Universal action must handrails from becoming an obstruction to and tie up in any one of the units when adjacent
be provided in anchoring or attaching floats wings . units are occupied . When aircraft are operated
together . Figure 5 shows various types of In some locations it may be desirable to an- between the various units under their own
floats for docking . A float which provides an chor the float offshore with anchors and anchor power, the recommended minimum separation
unobstructed wing clearance of 17 ft will per- lines with connection to the shore by a floating between the near faces of piers . floats, ramps
mit practically any twin-float seaplane or small walkway . A floating walkway 5 ft or less in or marine railway is 50 ft because a water-
amphibian aircraft to come along its side safely . width must have outriggers spared longitudi- borne aircraft can normally be taxied safely
Floats are usually connected to the shore nally approximately every 10 ft . Outriggers 8 to past obstructions as close as about one half
or pier by booms and a gangway . The maximum 10 ft long will prevent excessive rolling of the of its wing span . Where aircraft are moved
water-level variation dictates the length of the walk . between units by hand, the separation between
gangway . In no case should gangways be less the units may be less than 50 ft to facilitate
than 15 ft in length and should be at least 5 ft Spacing The desired clearances between the handling . A minimum of 100 ft of unobstructed
in width . Hand rails, preferably on both sides, various docking units and ramps obviously water should be available directly offshore
should be provided to assist persons using will have a decided influence on their arrange- from a ramp in the direction from which ap-
the way . A 2 .75 : 1 slope ratio is the maximum ment and location . Each docking unit should proaches normally will be made .

Floating Be rages The lease or purchase of land

for a seaplane-facility site may be a problem
at some desirable locations and yet pier or
gangway rights may be easily obtained . At
such locations a floating barge, anchored off-
shore, makes an excellent facility . An office,
lounge, and service shop can be included
"aboard" and by adding a floating dock along-
side and ramps at the ends, a very practical
and efficient facility results . The floating barge
may be anchored direct to the shore or a pier
by booms and a gangway, or anchored offshore
in e fixed position . Some operators prefer to
silo- the barge to drift downwind or down-
water from a single anchor . Boat transportation
will be needed if the unit is mobile and moored
offshore . The very uniqueness of this type of
installation will, in some localities, attract
many persons otherwise not directly interested
in water flying . The possibility of organizing
this activity on a club basis should not be over-
looked . This type of installation can be made
more attractive by appropriate use of paint,
colorful deck chairs, awnings, marine appoint-
ments, and recreation facilities .
Some units are in operation today where an
entire barge is floating but is attached to the
shore . Large logs are decked over and form
the base for the entire structure, which is in
some cases 150 ft long by 100 ft wide, in a
series of flexible units .

The Service, Tie-down, and Storage Area

This element will occupy more space than any

other onshore facility . For safety and conven-
ience, it should be separated from other inci-
dental activities on the site, either by adequate
buffer space, fencing, or both . Every effort
should be made to locate floating docks and
piers so that access to them by the public will
not require crossing the apron or hangar area .
(See Fig . 6 .)

Hangars Both storage and repair hangars

should be located so as to permit the off-site
delivery of repair material and use by service
personnel over a route as direct as possible
and without interference with the movement
of aircraft . The service and storage hangar
area should be located in such a position in
relation to the ramp or marine railway that
aircraft may be moved there as directly as pos-
sible, with the least possible amount of distur-
bance to tied down aircraft or aircraft already
in repair parking spaces .
The amount of space required for apron tie-
down and hangar facilities will depend upon
the number and types of aircraft that are to be
accommodated . Dimensions of various aircraft
are shown in Fig . 4 . This information can be
used to determine the space required for taxi-
ing, turning, and storing .
Hangars should be located in an orderly and
functional relation to haul-out and ramp facili-
Fig . 5 Various types and arrangements of floats . ties, and to eliminate as much noise and con-
 Transportation

SEAPLANE TERMINALS

Fig. 6 Seaplane slipway .

Fig. 7 Typical layout a1 onshore and shoreline development

Transportation

SEAPLANE TERMINALS

Fig. 8 Typical layout of onshore end shoreline development .

Fig. 9 Typical layout of onshore and shoreline development .

fusion as possible should be sufficiently sepa-

rated from the administration building and
common public-use areas.

The Administration Building and

Common-Use Area

In simple installations, it may be necessary

to utilize a hangar for both aircraft service and
office space. In larger projects a separate ad-
ministration building may be required to pro-
vide adequate space for the manager's office,
passenger and pilot lounge, display space,
restaurant or snack bar, and observation deck .
A community room for public use, such as for
lectures, meetings and classes should not be
overlooked if needed . The building should not
be oversized or monumental in character . Only
a simple, functional design, adequate to take
care of the estimated needs, is required . The
location should be in a prominent position on
the site, readily accessible to aircraft arrival
and to customers and visitors from the onshore
approach . Like airport administration build-
ings, visibility of the water area from the admin-
istration building is needed for the control of
aircraft at locations where traffic in and out
requires two-way radio communications .
Ample outdoor space reserved immediately
adjacent to the administration building for
public use is desirable . This space may consist
of a small lawn or paved terrace on the water
area side or, in more sizable installations, a
larger section broken down into recreation
areas, an outdoor dining terrace and lawn .

Access Access to the land area, both for cus-

tomers and for service and delivery, should
ordinarily be a two-way, all-weather road . How-
ever, when a long access road is required and
the traffic to and from the facility is not sea-
sonal but relatively constant and without
peaks, a one-way road will suffice . In such
cases, turn-outs should be provided at con-
venient intervals. The plan should be designed
for one traffic connection with the main high-
way or street, in order that its free-way may
be preserved. A public highway should never
be used as a part of the road system within
a project if public use for through traffic is to
continue after the project has been put into
operation. Through traffic will unduly congest
the land facility, could be hazardous to pedes-
trians, and splits the property into two sepa-
rate units which is undesirable.

Roads Vehicular circulation must be provided

for deliveries of gasoline, oil, fuel, and for
refuse removal. These routes will influence
walks and interior road system and to some
extent the pattern of the master plan . In order
to reduce development costs and maintenance,
it is advisable to concentrate buildings for cer-
tain uses in areas with servicing facilities such
as a service road, on one side . When topogra-
phy and shape of tract are favorable, this type
of plan effects economies .
Roads should be planned economically, but
must be adequate in width to serve the antici-
pated traffic, to permit easy circulation and
safe driving . In some instances, they may af-
ford parking space on one or both sides, de-
pending on the solution of a particular site
problem. Some service roads may be desired
for limited use . i n such cases the entrance can
be barred by removable posts or chains .

Parking Areas Provision of parking areas for

cars must be made . As previously mentioned,
one should allow one car for each based air-
craft, one car for each employee, plus a ratio
of visitors' cars commensurate with the judg-
installation .

are:
Capacity

Normal standard walk .

TS
ment of local interest in the use of the facil-
ity. An overall space of 250 sq ft of area will
be required for each car . The type of parking
space layout will, of course, depend upon the
space and shape of the area available for the

Parking areas should not be located so that

pedestrians must cross a public road to reach
the facility proper . This creates an unnecessary
hazard, particularly to unescorted children who
might dash across the public highway. Parking
areas should be located convenient to the on-
shore and shoreline facilities . In no case should
the pedestrians be required to walk a distance
greater than 200 ft from the parking area or
service road to reach buildings or shoreline.

Walks All walks should be laid out for direct

access to and from the facilities to be reached .
Like roads, they should not be oversized in
the interest of economy of construction and
maintenance . Recommended walks widths

Width, ft
Public walk serving less than 100 persons . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Walk serving over 400 person . . . . . . .

All walks should clear obstructions (as plant-

ing, fences, etc.) by 2 ft . Avoid steps in walks;
single risers should never be used in public
walks. Avoid stepped ramps. A 10 to 15 per-
cent gradient is preferred to steps.
Figures 7 to 9 show layouts on three dis-
tinctly different shapes of land area . These
layouts indicate the inter-relationship of each
use area . From arrangements such as these,
studied in accordance with the previous dis-
cussion on the master plan elements and the
general water-operating area shown in Fig. 2,
the master plan is developed.
. . .
. . . . . .
3
4
5
Transportation

BUS TERMINALS

By JULIUS PANERO, Architect and Planning Consultant

INTRODUCTION

The growth and development of bus transpor-

tation has closely followed advances in auto-
motive technology and the improvement and
expansion of the national highway network.
The first bus routes were originated by individ-
ual entrepreneurs using converted passenger
automobiles. These routes were short and ser-
vice was generally unreliable . As the highway
network expanded and more suitable bus
equipment became available, these short, dis-
connected routes were merged into larger con-
solidated operations providing more reliable
through services over longer distances . Our
modern express highway system and the de-
velopment of more comfortable and efficient
high-speed buses have made bus transports-
tion the leading means of public transport in
the United States . Over the past decade bus
services have evolved into several general
operational categories and characteristic ter-
minal types.

TERMINAL TYPES

Intercity Bus Terminal

The intercity terminal is usually found in the
downtown core and is accessible directly by
local transit, taxi, and auto . It differs from
other terminal types in that it includes long-
haul service in excess of several hundred miles
and provides for a much greater number of bus
movements. Land costs normally dictate ver.
tical expansion capability in the denser city
areas. (See Fig. 1 .)
More elaborate "package express" facilities
are provided in the intercity terminal and a
greater amount of concession and rental space
is provided to defray higher terminal construc-
tion and operating costs.

Airport-City Bus Terminal

The airport-city bus terminal provides primar-
ily for the transportation of airline passengers
from an urban center to the major airports it
serves . Usually located in the urban center,
the terminal is accessible by local transit sys-
tems, taxis, and autos. Oriented to departing
and arriving flights, the terminal normally has
provisions for arrival and departing flight infor-
mation as well as preticketing and check-in
facilities .

Urban-Suburban Commuter Terminal

This type of facility may be located within the
downtown core, as a central passenger collec-
tion and distribution node, or on the periphery
of the core, as a rapid transit feeder station .
It is characterized by a diversified bus route
structure and high-turnover commuter-type
bus operations . Bus accessibility is an impor-
tant consideration . Grade separated access by
underpass or overpass connections and exclu-
sive bus lanes on connecting highways are Fig. 1 Terminal types. (a) Urban located intercity terminal . (b) Airport-city bus terminal. (c) Urban-suburban com-
desirable to maintain schedule efficiency . muter terminal . id) Suburban-interstate terminal .
 Transportation

BUS TERMINALS

Suburban Interstate Terminal

The suburban interstate terminal is a peripheral
type designed to avoid the traffic congestion
and heavy investment associated with central
city and/or airport terminal facilities .
The terminal is usually located adjacent to
interstate highway connections with major
cities or regional airports and in many in-
stances serves the increasing outlying "urban
sprawl" areas .
In an increasing number of cases terminals
of this type serve a commuter-type function
where the daily journey to work in the central
city may take as long as 2 hours .
Sometimes referred to as "park and ride"
terminals, because access is primarily by auto,
these facilities are provided with open, paved
parking spaces . Investment in waiting-room
and bus-berthing facilities is minimal . The
terminal is usually a one-story building of sim-
ple construction .

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS PLANNING CRITERIA

Fig. 2 Flow diagram.
General functional organization of the terminal
is determined by site configuration, the volume significant planning requirement is adequate to the antiquated caged windows . In the larger
and type of bus operations, and passenger and provision for parking . Many, if not most of intercity terminal, where more than one carrier
bus traffic circulation . Although all terminal the passengers drive to the facility and park may operate, separate self-contained glass-
types to some extent share common planning their cars until their return in the evening, walled ticket offices may be provided, each
problems, there do exist some significant dif- while others may be driven to the facility and housing their individual open ticket counters .
ferences in design rationale . discharged . In many instances access to the The number of selling positions or agent sta-
One of the most complicated terminals is terminal may also be via local bus service and tions varies with the individual operations
the intercity type, since it is often found in a taxi . policy of the carrier and the particular terminal
dense, developed area in the heart of the cen- It is essential, therefore, that the parking type .
tral city and its general configuration is too facilities be located so as to minimize the walk- Perhaps the greatest number of selling posi-
often inhibited by existing construction and ing distance to the terminal and that egress tions are required in the intercity terminal . On
high land costs . Moreover, the underlying and ingreg% be planned to avoid traffic conges- the average, one position should be provided
design rationale should maximize provisions tion along nearby arteries . If possible, some for each 25 to 30 waiting room seats . The lin-
for short lines of flow and communication be- covered walkways should be provided leading eal feet of counter space depends on individual
tween ticketing and baggage functions and the from the parking field to the terminal building . carrier operation and the type of ticketing
bus interface . Since there will be movement of both vehi- equipment used and may vary between 3 to 5
An island plan with the functional elements cles and passengers at the same level, pro- ft per position and/or about 50 to 60 sq ft per
radiating from the core allows for maximum visions must be made, for obvious safety rea- position . The height of the counter is usually
efficiency. Such a relationship would allow sons, to separate the two as much as possible . 42 in .
the "waiting" areas to serve as the central Terminal requirements should include pro- In the airport-city terminal the ticketing
focal point, with all bus berth positions being visions for ticket sales, vending machines facilities are usually in the form of continuous
equidistant . As the terminal becomes more and/or small snack bar, toilet facilities, office, counters with a certain number of selling posi-
linear in plan, functional elements begin to baggage and/or storeroom . (See Fig . 2 .) tions allocated to each airline . The length of
lose their cohesiveness and often require each position is determined by the type of
electronic equipment, TV equipment, and
duplication . Space Requirements
Although the design of all terminal types scales to be housed and usually varies between
is largely dictated by bus and passenger vol- Public Seating Seating in any of the terminal 4 to 5 ft .
umes, this consideration becomes even more types may be provided in the form of a separate
significant in the design of high-volume com- waiting room or, in a more open plan, in the Baggage Boom Baggage room requirements
muter bus terminals . form of a simple seating area within a larger vary significantly with terminal type and op-
In such facilities the design is controlled public space . This function should be directly eration .
more by bus and passenger volumes, traffic accessible to the concourse area and should In the intercity terminal and the airport-
circulation, and the resultant space demands be provided with drinking fountains, trash bas- city terminal, the baggage handling problem
for large numbers of bus berths, while baggage kets, ash urns, and clocks . is more severe.
handling provisions are minimal or nonexis- The amount of public seating varies depend- Ideally, in both cases, the sooner the depart-
tent . These space demands may dictate a ver- ing on individual circumstances, terminal type, ing passenger and his baggage are separated,
tical, multiple-bus-level solution, with inter- and economic priorities . As a general rule of the better . In the airport-city terminal this usu-
mediate passenger circulation concourses . thumb, however, an allowance of one seat for ally occurs at the ticket counter where the bag-
Traffic access, by direct exclusive highways every three passengers would be adequate for gage is sent by conveyor directly to the loading
on the bus side and by feeder transit, auto, an intercity terminal . The passenger quantity platform or to a staging area or baggage room,
and taxis on the passenger side are important is calculated by multiplying the number of where it remains before it is placed on board
elements of this type of terminal . loading berths by an average bus capacity of the bus .
Generally, with regard to the airport-city between 35 and 37 people . A 10-berth load- In the intercity bus terminal the baggage is
terminal, the primary planning considerations ing platform therefore, would result in terminal normally hand-carried directly onto the bus or
include provisions for efficient check-in facil- seating of between 117 to 124 . to the baggage room, and from there it is placed
ities, baggage handling, and flight information . In a high-volume commuter terminal, seat- on the bus . The baggage room should be acces-
Moreover, counter space requirements are ing accommodations may be reduced consid- sible from both the public area and the con-
usually more extensive and should include erably since in-terminal waiting time is much course and have an area equal to about 10
weigh-in provisions and conveyors for han- less . This would also hold true for the subur- percent of the total building or contain about
dling of baggage . Adequate provisions should ban interstate terminal . 50 sq ft for each bus loading berth, whichever
also be made for limousine, auto, and taxi is higher . The baggage room should also be
access . Ticketing Facilities
The trend in ticketing facil- equipped with standard metal racks about four
The suburban interstate terminal is perhaps ities in the modern terminal, regardless of or five tiers high for baggage storage .
the simplest of the terminal types . The most the type, is toward open counters in contrast A portion of the baggage room may be used
Transportation

BUS TERMINALS

for a package express service, which and tained when average area occupancies are
Queuing Areas
should function without interfering with con- about 5 sq ft per person and human locomotion
course traffic. A separate package express is limited to a restricted, shuffling gait . Pedes- A number of different pedestrian queuing situ-
counter should be provided . The length of the trians require an average of more than 35 sq ations occur in terminals which affect their
counter depends on the scope of the operation, ft per person in order to select their normal functional design . Linear queues will occur
which varies with each location . walking speed and to avoid conflicts with where passengers line up to purchase tickets
other pedestrians . Human locomotion on or board buses. Care must be taken that these
Public Lockers and Telephones Lockers and tele . stairs and the convenience and comfort of lines do not disrupt other terminal functions .
phones are revenue producing, and the quan- pedestrian waiting areas is similarly related The length of a linear queue may be estimated
tities to be provided depend to a great degree to average pedestrian area occupancy . on the basis of an average per person spacing
on their potential earning capacity . of 20 in . The presence of baggage has little
effect on this spacing because baggage is
Dispatch Oflice The dispatch office controls Corridor Design placed on the floor either between the legs or
all bus movement and consequently should be Minimum corridor widths are based on the at the sides. Bulk queues may occur within
located on the concourse so that it can ob- pedestrian traffic flow volume less appropriate a passenger terminal where passengers are
serve all loading berths . The size of the dis- allowances for disruptive traffic elements waiting for bus arrivals or other services .
patch office may vary anywhere from 50 to such as columns, newsstands, stairways, win- Where no circulation through the queuing
150 sq ft . dow shoppers, etc. Where the corridor is also space is required, area occupancies as low as
used as a waiting area to accommodate stand- 5 sq ft per person may be tolerated for short
Offices All terminals regardless of type require ing pedestrians, the maximum potential accum- periods. This allows standing pedestrians to
a certain amount of office space. The specific ulation and safe human occupancy of the cor- avoid physical contact with each other. Where
area to be provided depends on the terminal ridor should be determined . (See "Queuing movement through the queuing space is re-
size and type . Although usually offices for Areas," below.) The maximum practical flow quired, such as in a passenger waiting con-
the terminal manager, passenger agent, and through a corridor is approximately 25 persons course, an average area of 10 or more sq ft
switchboard are sufficient, in larger terminals per foot width of corridor per minute (PFM) . per person is required . Human area occupan-
more elaborate facilities are required . The flow volume that allows for the selection cies below 3 sq ft per person result in crowded,
of normal walking speed and avoidance of immobile, and potentially unsafe queues, par-
Rental Space The amount of rental space to be traffic conflicts is equivalent to 7 PFM (or ticularly where pedestrians may be jostled
provided for stores, shops, concessions, ate ., less). This standard would be used in passen- off platforms.
depends primarily on the earning potential ger terminals that do not have severe peaking
involved and the amount of space available . patterns or space restrictions . Where severe Escalators and Moving Walks
repetitive peaks and space restraints occur,
such as in a commuter terminal, the more The high costs of escalators and moving walks
stringent standard of 10 to 15 PFM may be present difficult design quality decisions. The
used . This standard allows the attainment of units are generally designed close to their
near-normal walking speed but does result in practical operating capacities even though
more frequent traffic conflicts with other this practice causes pedestrian delays and
By JOHN J. FRUIN, Ph .D. pedestrians. queuing . Escalator and moving walk manu-
facturers will rate the theoretical capacity
of their units on assumption of uniform step
Entrances or space occupancies, but detailed photo-
PEDESTRIAN DESIGN FOR PASSENGER The criteria utilized for corridor design can graphic studies of pedestrian use of these
TERMINALS be roughly applied to the design of doors. The units show that, even under the most crowded
maximum capacity of a free-swinging door is conditions, pedestrians will leave vacant step
The design of pedestrian facilities for passen-
approximately 60 persons per minute, but this positions or gaps, thus reducing effective
ger terminals is dependent on the category of
capacity is obtained with frequent traffic dis- capacity . This is caused by the pedestrian's
terminal and its pedestrian traffic patterns .
ruptions and queuing at the entrance section . own personal space preferences and momen-
Commuter passenger terminals, with extreme
A standard of 40 persons per minute would tary hesitation when boarding these units, par-
but short peak traffic patterns and repetitive
be representative of a busy situation with occa- ticularly when they operate at higher speeds .
users, can be designed for lower standards
sional traffic disruptions. Where free-flowing This had led to the use of a nominal or prac-
of service than long-distance terminals, where
traffic is desired, a standard of 20 persons per tical design capacity of 75 percent of the theo-
the users are generally unfamiliar with the
minute should be adopted. retical as shown in Table 1 .
facility and peak traffic levels may be sustained
over several hours. Detailed photographic
studies of the use of pedestrian facilities indi- Stairs
cate that maximum capacity coincides with TABLE t Nominal Capacity-Escalators and
the most crowded pedestrian concentrations, Human locomotion on stairs is much more
representing a poor design environment . Many stylized and restricted than walking because Moving Walks
of the elements of aesthetic design are lost of the restraints imposed by the dimensional
configuration of the stairs, physical exertion, Capacity, persons per minute
in this type of crowded environment, as the
pedestrian becomes preoccupied with the dif. and concerns for safety . As with corridors, T ype of unit Speed-90 fpm Speed-120 fpm
ficulties caused by the close interaction and capacity flow is obtained when there is a dense
crowding of pedestrians combined with re- 32-in. escalator . . . . . 63 84
conflicts with other persons. The challenge
stricted, uncomfortable locomotion . The maxi- 48-in . escalator . . . . . 100 133
to the terminal designer is to balance the space
requirements for a comfortable and aestheti- mum practical flow on a stair is approximately 24-in . walk . . . . . . . . . . . 60
cally pleasing human environment against the 17 persons per foot width of stairway per min- 30-in . walk . . . . . . . . . . . 1 20
space restraints caused by building configura- ute (PFM) in the upward or design direction.
tion and cost . An average of about 20 square feet per person
The most recent approach to the design of or more is required before stair locomotion
pedestrian spaces has been the use of the becomes normal and traffic conflicts with
level-of-service concept. On the basis of this other pedestrians can be avoided . This is equiv- Stationary stairs should be located in close
concept, a qualitative evaluation is made of alent to a flow volume of about 5 PFM. This proximity to escalators and inclined moving
standard would be used in terminals that do walks to allow for their alternative use in cases
human convenience at various traffic concen .
not have severe peaking patterns or apace of mechanical failure. With a rise below 20 ft,
trations and this is translated into appropriate
restrictions . In commuter terminals, the more pedestrians will also make alternative use of
design parameters . For example, it has been
found through detailed photographic analysis stringent standard of 7 to 10 PFM would be these stairs if escalator queues become too
acceptable. Riser height has a significant im- long . With high-rise applications above 20 ft,
that the maximum capacity of a corridor is ob-
pact on stair locomotion . Lower riser heights, virtually all pedestrians will use the escalator,
7 in . or less, increase pedestrian speed and causing long queues and delays in the heavier
thus improve traffic efficiency . The lower riser traffic applications . Space for pedestrian traf-
From "Pedestrian Planning and Design," height is also desirable to assist the handi- fic circulation and queuing should be allocated
® (Copyright) by John J. Fruin, Ph .D . capped pedestrian . at all lending areas.
 Transportation

BUS TERMINALS

By JULIUS PANERO,
Architect and Planning Consultant

BUS GEOMETRICS

Bus Date Bus geometrics, or the physical

dimensions and maneuverability of the bus,
determine the width of roadways, shapes of
platforms, column spacing, ceiling heights,
and other aspects of bus-level design . The
apparently insignificant detail of the right-side
loading of buses often restricts terminal design
possibilities.

Swept Path When a bus turns normally, it al-

ways turns about a point which is somewhere
on the center line of the rear axle . This is true
whether motion is forward or backward .
The turns required to accomplish the move-
ment and positioning of buses are variable and
differ considerably with the equipment encoun-
tered. The turning template provides a con-
venient graphic method to determine minimum
clearances required . (See Fig . 3.)

ROADWAY RAMPS

Bus Roadway Widths Ten-foot-wide single lanes

will suffice for 8-ft-wide equipment. Eleven-foot
lanes are preferable where ample terminal
space is available and especially to accom-
modate equipment 8 ft wide, the use of which
steadily is increasing .
Double-lane runways, enabling standing
buses to be overtaken by other buses, provide
a great advantage over one-lane runways
SWEEP PATH 40' BUS 90 ° TURN because of the increased flexibility of opera-
tions that is made possible .
For the purpose of merely overtaking another

Fig. 3 Bus data .

Transportation

BUS TERMINALS

CLOCKWISE MOTION COUNTERCLOCKWISE MOTION

ISLAND BUS RAIL TRANSFER STEPPED PARALLEL

SINGLE
(b) PARALLEL LOADING
Fig. 4 Bus loading plans .

PLATFORM TYPES
Straight Sawtooth Loading
Parallel Loading " Efficient-employed where lot is compara-
" Requires excessive amount of space . tively narrow and deep .
" Buses must usually wait until first bus " Passenger has direct approach to loading
exits. door .
" Large terminal requires pedestrian under/ " Baggage truck can operate between buses
overpass facilities to protect passengers while for side loading .
crossing lanes .
Radial Sawtooth Loading
Right-Angle Loading " Most efficient buses swing into position
" Disadvantages include : along natural driving are.
1 Outswinging bus door which forms a " Space required at front is minimum-wide
barrier around which passenger must pass . space at rear making maneuvering easy .
2 Bus maneuvering difficult . (See Fig. 4.)
 Transportation

BUS TERMINALS

Fig. 5 Bus roadway widths .

bus or row of buses having no appreciable tail- ft . Also, a total minimum berth length of 40 ft wheelbase of buses, critical attention should
out, double-lane runway widths should be at plus 16 ft, or 56 ft, would be required . Obvi- be paid to the vertical clearance where a sag
least 20 ft and preferably 22 ft, especially if ously, the shorter the berth length allowed, the curve exists, since required bus clearance will
extra-wide equipment is to be accommodated wider the runway must be, and vice versa . be greater . Where buses are to enter terminal
-immediately or in the future . However, for a buildings, doorways and other structures
flexible operation under which departing buses Ramping Where roadway ramping down or up, should allow sufficient side clearance to permit
may pull out from the platform around a stand- at entrances or exits to runways is necessary, free movement of vehicles and to avoid damage
ing bus, the runway width and the amount care should be taken to avoid sharp grade and delay . Door headroom should be at least
of lineal space at the platform for the pull-out changes which will result in discomfort to pas- 12 ft for typical equipment, allowance being
maneuver are directly related . This relationship sengers or rough treatment of equipment, made for any use of the terminals by deck-and-
is indicated by Fig . 5, from which it is seen, for particularly when heavily loaded . Here again, a-half or double-deck buses . Actual dimensions
example, that a 40-ft bus having a 16-ft clear- where this factor is involved, tests should be of equipment to use the terminal should be
ance ahead actually uses 22 ft of runway width made with buses and allowance made for pos- checked before fixing critical dimensions .
for the pull-out . This would indicate, for prac- sible future vehicles having a longer wheel- Minimum side clearance to all structures along
tical purposes, a runway width of at least 24 base and overhang . Because of the longer the roadway should be at least 12 in .
Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS

A truck terminal is a highly specialized facility, lected for one point. If the terminal is replacing c. Inbound break-bulk by origin and destina-
designed for a specific function and operating two or more existing terminals or has an tion points
plan in terms of the service standards it must entirely new mission, then information may be d. Interline and cartage received by carrier
meet, the area it serves, and the volumes to be collected for several points . The designer, of e. Pickup unloaded by route
handled. The objective of this article is to ex- course, would like to have complete informa- f. Outbound loaded by destination
plain the planning required to assure that the tion available to make his forecast, but he must The availability logs should show the work-
facility will be adequate for: be practical and use whatever information is load arrivals in terms of units (or trucks), ship-
1 . Dock design and yard layout . Provide at hand . The type of information which can be ments, and pounds, and when it arrived . At the
sufficient space for trucks to maneuver in and used for evaluating seasonal peaks and valleys end of each day, summarize the information on
out quickly and for parking equipment . Protect is : the logs to show the workload availability by
freight and personnel from the weather . Design a. Number of shipments hour . At the end of the 4-week test period,
docks to provide ready access for moving b. Pounds handled summarize the vehicle and freight activity for
material into trucks . c. Revenue dollars the entire period in hourly increments . Review
2. Number of dock spots. Provide the appro- d. Number of loads the daily results for a consistent pattern of
priate number of doors to enable trucks to load 2. Tabulate and analyze peak period. Estab- vehicle and freight arrivals and for variations
and unload without undue delay. lish a logical basis for a peak period . Planning from the pattern.
3. Accumulation space. Space is required the facility to handle the absolute peak day 5 5. Evaluate future changes. Before establish-
immediately behind shipping and receiving years in the future is not logical. This would ing the design year workload characteristics
spots for accumulating shipments so that mean unnecessary building cost . Select a peak and specific terminal mission, determine those
vehicles can be processed quickly . period somewhat lower then the average, workload availability changes which might
The complete design of the truck terminal, depending upon evaluation of daily or weekly occur in the interim, either through manage-
of course, depends upon first establishing the variation. For a small facility, a 40-door term- ment direction or from other sources . Key
operating plan and mission. Evaluation and inal or less, a good rule of thumb is to take an factors to consider are:
considerations of alternate handling systems average of the 10 highest consecutive weeks a. Different closeout times at origin termi-
and building designs are beyond the scope during the year and use this as a base to com- nals
of this article. pare other periods of the year for which you b . Changes in routing between origin and
Possible future changes must be thoroughly are collecting detailed information. A larger destination terminals which may alter travel
analyzed in establishing the design year re- facility deserves detailed analysis . Tabulate time
quirements . Facilities are designed for the the daily or weekly data on a bar chart. Ex- c. Changes in cutoff times for interline
future, and they must be able to handle peak amine it, and establish some logical cutoff for freight
loads . Although the data gathering and analyti- the peak period. Usually a design base which d. Feasibility of replacing single trailer with
cal techniques required to accurately establish will accommodate the volume of 85 to 90 per- double trailer operations, to reduce elapsed
a design basis appear complex, they are neces- cent of the working days of the year will be loading or eliminate combination loads
sary . Only with this information can the design- suitable . e. Possibility that double trailer combina-
er assure that the facility will operate as 3. Establish the design year planning base . tions may mean earlier arrival at new terminal
planned. The new terminal should be planned for 5 years f. Break-bulk traffic patterns may change by
hence. Site and yard space requirements review of system operation
should be planned for 10 to 20 years in the For new areas to be serviced by acquisition
DESIGN YEAR REDUIREMENTS future to allow for expansion of the platform of additional rights or by merger with other
facilities and other facilities beyond the design carriers, estimate the workload availability
The planning starts with a 5-year forecast . year . Design year peak should include the based on the location of possible new terminals
The planners have established the specific following : and estimated freight volumes to be handled.
mission of the facility and have thoroughly a. The current planning base Evaluate all of these factors, and establish
estimated the needs of the future including : b. Forecasted growth for inbound-outbound the design year workload availability for the
1 . Inbound and outbound destinations to be transfer and interline freight new terminal .
served c. Acquisition of operating rights within 6. Establish service objectives. The planner
2. The nature of the workload to be handled present system including new distribution now has available a good description of the
3. The terminal schedules required points and peddle routes new terminal workload in terms of its content
The objective of the planning analysis is to d. Mergers with other carriers and possible and availability . The next step is to establish
establish a few numbers such as pounds per consolidation of terminals in the same city two key factors :
hour which describe what the terminal will a. Change in the freight pattern a. Required cutoff times for outbound
have to do during the peak period of the design The design year daily volume should be in loading
year day. The designer must know whet the pounds . Be careful in projecting growth based b. Required time that delivery vehicles
workload availability will be in terms of truck on pest revenue increases, because these usu- should be available on the street
arrivals, dispatches, loading, and unloading ally reflect rate increases, not actual growth The planner, therefore, will know when the
times for peak operations . of traffic. The final figure established should workload is available and how much time the
1 . Determine design year peak . Historical represent the planned peak design year day in dock crew will have for processing the work-
data are of interest only as they relate to the terms of total pounds handled. Detailed infor. load .
future . Usually, current information must be mation on current workload can therefore 7 . Establish distribution of traffic by out.
collected to describe the details of the present later be adjusted to reflect a future planning bound destinations . The objective is to esti-
terminal workload, so that the data may be base . mate the amount of traffic to be loaded over the
adjusted for the future . Determine how this 4. Tabulate data on workload availability . platform to each outbound destination to be
current test period relates to the normal sea- Set up the teat period and accumulate 4 weeks served . Tabulate the daily average test period
sonal peaks and valleys encountered during the of data by maintaining daily activity logs and weight in pounds to each destination . The pro-
year . If the terminal is a new facility replacing records. The objective of this analysis is to cedure is as follows:
en existing one, then data can usually be col- provide complete information on all elemedts a. Tabulate daily average weight in pounds
of the workload, to determine the time of its to each destination .
availability and what must be done with it . b. Apply the forecasted growth factor to
Daily activity logs should be maintained for: each destination for design year daily average
a. Inbound arrivals by origin point weight . If forecasts are not available by desti-
Shipper-Motor Carrier Dock Planning Model, b. Delivery loaded by route and interline nation point, use the same growth factor for all
The Operations Council of the American Truck-
ing Associations, Inc., Washington, D.C, carrier points .
 Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS

c . List all new destination points acquired TABLE 1 loading and Unloading Rates'
through operating rights or mergers with other
Shipments
carriers .
d. Determine design your daily average out- overage
bound weight for each new point. p ou nds Pounds per hour t
Type
A similar analysis should be prepared for in-
bound traffic . List all present routes, including Very small shipments* . 150 2,000- 4,000
commercial consignees and interline carriers . Small shipments . . . . . . . . . . . 300 4,000- 5,500
Evaluate these routes end determine whether Average shipments . . . . . . . . . . 500 5,500- 6,500
future plans will call for rerouting and handling Large shipments . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 6,500- 8,000
additional volume by more routes, improved
Unit loads§ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,000-30,000
delivery load averages, or more trucks on the
Containers1' . . 17,000-21,000
some routes . Tabulate the expected volume
Conveyor loading . . . . . . . . . . . 9,000-11,000
of freight for each route .
At this point, the planner should have a
'Rates based on steady flow of freight to or from doorway . Pounds per hour will decrease if freight flow is interrupted
complete description of the future workload, to pick or detail inspect shipments and to travel long distances between storage and shipping or receiving area .
when it will be available, where and how it t Rates are based on one-man operation . With two-man operation rates will increase 50Minimum
percent to 60 percent .
must be loaded, and what the loading and *Includes large percentage of minimum shipments and one shipment delivery or pickup. service time is 6 minutes
unloading-overall handling capacity required per vehicle .
-will be for the design year day . § Includes pallet loads, skid loads, clamp loads, and slip sheet loads .
Includes cages, metal, wood, end plastic containers .

NUMBER OF DOORS
separate destinations if the freight is sorted SHIPMENT ACCUMULATION SPACE
for them and loaded separately .
The number of loading and unloading doors
2 . Calculate number of inbound doors. The Accumulation space is needed to stage ship-
required is based on the peak period during
number of doors for local delivery will depend ments so that they are ready for the pickup
the design day. The peak doorway requirement
upon the number of routes and the method vehicle and for placing goods received prior
may be for the inbound operation or a peak
used for servicing the route . Before calculating to disposition . Shipments should be staged in
where the inbound and outbound overlap . The
the number of doors, the operating plan must an area convenient to the truck dock .
planner has already established the volumes
be established . The planner must know : Accumulation space may contain storage
to be handled, the destinations to be sorted,
a . The number of dropped trailers or trucks aids such as racks, bins, or shelves . Shipments
and the availability of freight to be unloaded .
for interline or large customers may be accumulated on pellets, skids, carts,
The number of doors for a given workload will
b. Whether the plan calls for flooring freight trucks, or in containers . The apace might also
therefore depend upon the number of destina-
and loading all trucks in sequence, or whether be occupied with conveyor banks to accumu-
tions to be loaded inbound and outbound as
the inbound operation will be all or partially late orders or merely contain cartons stacked
well as the rates at which freight can be loaded
a cross-dock or direct-loading operation on the floor .
and unloaded through a door . Typical truck
c . Whether all delivery vehicles will be dis- In an operation in which all freight is moved
terminal unloading and loading rates are shown
patched at once or whether there will be a directly into vehicles spotted at the dock,
in Table 1 . These may be used if the planner
second wave of local delivery accumulation space is not needed . In this case,
has not already established loading and unload-
Use the planning data developed to deter- the vehicle serves as the accumulation area,
ing rates for his own operation. The rates
mine the volume of freight for each route . and having been filled with freight, is replaced
shown are based on the number of pounds
per hour which normally can be loaded and Develop the operating plan, end provide with an empty .
enough truck spots for each route to be loaded 1 . Determine peak accumulation . The
unloaded through a doorway based on a one-
at any one interval of time . accumulation space should be calculated for
man operation . The rates also include time for
3 . Calculate number of doors required for the design year . Adequate space must be avail-
spotting equipment .
unloading . The calculation of the number of able for the total shipment accumulation
1 . Calculate outbound doors required. For
doors required for stripping or unloading in- volume for the peak hour of the day . The ware-
outbound, obviously the minimal requirement
bound trailers or pickup and delivery vehicles house is picking orders at a certain rate and
is one door per destination . Additional doors
is relatively simple . From the design day peak loading trucks at certain times . The accumula-
will be needed for destinations which have a
workload analysis, the planner knows the tion space requirement, therefore, must pro-
greater volume of freight then can be loaded
volume of traffic, its availability and how much vide storage for the cumulative total of orders
through a door in the required time period . Let
must be stripped in a given number of hours . picked during the day minus the cumulative
us say that a carrier has four destinations and
The only additional information needed is at total of orders loaded out . By tabulating both of
can load freight through a doorway at a rate of
what hourly rate he can expect a dockman to these cumulative volumes by hour, the planner
6,000 lb per hour. The design year requirement
unload freight through a doorway. can determine when the peak will occur as
for the peak period during the design day has
well as what the peak volume needing to be
been established . The calculation is as follows .
stored will be . The peak accumulation for most
Example : There are four destinations, and Example facilities will generally occur sometime in the
the average loading rate is 6,000 Ib per hour.
A carrier's daily peak period is during the in- early afternoon, just prior to the peak arrival
bound operation . The plan calls for dock crews period for carriers .
Pounds per Number of Number of to start in force at 2 A .M . and complete unload- 2 . Calculate space required . Convert the
ing inbound trailers by 7 A .M . Workload avail- maximum accumulated volume for the peak
hour to be doors doors
ability analysis shows that 300,000 Ib of into cubic feet . Convenient conversion factors
Destination loaded calculated allowed
inbound is available for stripping during this can be established for converting pounds or
1 .7 2 period. The elapse d time for the operation is 5 cases into cubic feet . Finished goods, how-
A . . . , . . . . .10,000
1 hours . Stripping is planned at a continuous ever, are not accumulated in one solid mass .
9 . . . . . . . . . 4,000 0 .7
level rate ; then the crew has 5 hours to com- Additional space must be provided for access
C . . . . . . . . .25,000 4 .2 4
plete the unloading . The plan will require strip- and for separation of shipments by carrier .
0 . . . . . . . . . 2,000 0 .3 1
ping inbound vehicles et a rate of 60,000 Ib For most conditions, the allowance for addi-
tional space is usually about 2'4 to 3 times as
Total . . . . .41 .000 6 .9 8
per hour . Delivery can be loaded at an average
rate of 4,000 Ib per hour through a door ; then great as the actual cube of the product. There-
As a rule of thumb, when determining the the number of doors required for stripping is : fore, multiply the finished goods cubic feet by
number of doors for each destination, round the storage space utilization factor of 2A to 3
60,000- 15 doors required
all decimal values of 0 .3 to the next higher to obtain total storage cubic feet required .
whole number, and drop all decimal values less 4,000 3 . Prepare block layout . The next step in
then 0 .3 . When calculating the number of out- Similar calculations can be made for strip- planning the shipping accumulation space is
bound doors, be sure that all destination points ping pickup vehicles . Important factors to determining the number of square feet . The
are well defined . For example, Chicago might know are when the pickup is available, and at procedure is as follows :
be a destination . There may be additional sub- what continuous rate stripping should be a . Determine the overall stacking height for
destinations required such as Chicago proper, planned in order that the unloading be com- the shipment to be stored .
Chicago interline, end Chicago route truck . pleted in time to close out the outbound equip- b. Divide the total storage cubic feet by the
Each of these would have to be treated as ment on schedule . stacking height .
Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS

The result will be the storage area in square wider tractor-trailer combinations . This width roof may strike the building when backing in .
feet. can be used for outside parking or parking in b . Although most loaded trucks are de-
Additional space must be provided for an enclosed dock area . Use Table 2 as a guide . signed to pull a 15 percent grade, the start-up
access aisles . Depending on the storage aide grade for pulling away from a dock is much
used, area requirements for aisles will range lower. In addition, dock facilities even if
from 50 percent to 150 percent of the storage TABLE 2 Minimal Parking Space or Dock covered cannot be kept dry in wet weather . A
area, according to the size of the storage bank, 3 percent grade is the maximum allowable for
Approach Length and Width (Width-12 ft)
type of equipment used, and whether aisles are pulling away from a dock .
used for more than one purpose . In most cases, Overall length Apron Dock approach 6 . Specify door height and width. Almost
the allowance for aisles is equivalent to the of tractor-trailer, feet length, feet length, feet all shipper-consignee facilities should have
storage apace available . Prepare a typical lay- truck dock doors to provide security and dock
out for one bay . Measure storage space and, 40 43 83 area protection from wind, rain or snow when
based on aisle space needed, multiply the 45 49 94 vehicles are not at the dock . For most installa-
storage ores in square feet by a factor of 1 .5 50 57 107 tions, a 9-af door width is recommended for
to 2.5. The total square feet should provide 55 62 117 vehicles not perfectly spotted . Trailer widths
adequate space for shipment accumulation . may increase in the future to 102 inches . Door
60 69 129
Draw a layout of the configuration of the area, widths greater than 9 ft will cause excessive
giving the required number of square feet, and lose of heat or refrigeration ; doors less than 9
arrange the storage blocks on the layout as h wide will require extra maneuvering of
they actually will be . If adjustments must be 3. Plan for good traffic flow. When prepar- vehicles for spotting at the dock .
made in space allowances, make them at this ing the plot plan, include : To determine door heights, subtract the dock
time . a. Vehicle movement on site. Vehicles height from 14 ft . In most cases the door height
should circulate in a counterclockwise direc- will range from 9 ft 8 in . t o 10 ft . This height
tion . Making left-hand turns with large vehicles will accommodate up to 13-ft 6-in .-high trailers .
enables the driver to see more easily the tail
DOCK DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS If only straight trucks deliver and pick up
end of the vehicle . freight at the dock, the height of the door will
The third major element in planning the ship- b. Service roads . For two-direction traffic, range between 8 ft and 9 ft 4 in .
ping facility is to see that docks are the proper roads should be 23 ft wide . This will allow for 7 . Install permanent, self-leveling dock-
height for loading and unloading vehicles, that a 3-ft clearance between passing eh-ft-wide boards . Installation of dock levelers enables
people and freight are protected from weather, vehicles with a 1 h-h side clearance . For one- faster turnaround of trucks and contributes to
end that adequate apace is allowed for access way roads, the minimum straightaway width increased dock productivity . Permanently
and perking . Once again, plan for the design should be 12 ft . installed boards are safer to use than portable
year and allow for expansion . c. Roadway approaches and intersections . boards . The one exception to the use of dock-
1 . Determine vehicle parking requirements . Gates and approaches to roadways should be boards would be for facilities exclusively utiliz-
Estimate the following for the design year : at least 30 ft wide for two-direction traffic and ing conveyors to transport freight out of or into
Company or contract carrier vehicles at least 20 ft wide for one-way traffic. For a vehicles.
a. If company trucks or contract carrier right-angle roadway intersection, a minimum The dockboard specification will depend on
vehicles are used for distribution, determine radius of 50 ft will be satisfactory for most the following factors :
the maximum total number and type of vehicles vehicles . However, if the road is wider than a . Greatest height difference between the
on site. This maximum number will generally 20 ft, the minimum radius may be decreased dock and bed of trucks or trailers serviced
occur on a weekend or over a holiday . to 35 ft . b . Type of materials handling equipment
b. Multiply the number of each type vehicle d. Pedestrian lanes . These should be located used
-such as 40-ft trailer, 18-ft straight truck, adjacent to a service road, but separated from c . Type of loads handled into and out of
tractor with 40-ft trailer-by the square foot the roadway by a physical barrier. The width vehicles
allowance for each different length of vehicle . of the lane can range from 4 to 6 ft, depending d. Type of vehicle road equipment picking
Parking space for a vehicle should be 12 ft on the volume of pedestrian traffic . up or delivering freight
wide, end the length of the space should be 4 . Provide proper dock height. Truck-trail- After determining the maximum height dif-
the overall length of the vehicle plus 20 ere and pickup and delivery vehicles are not ference from dock level, the length of the clock.
percent . built to any specific bed height ; therefore, board can be calculated by using the allowable
docks for vehicles at plants and distribution percentage grade for the type of handling
Parking space per vehicle, sq ft centers cannot be constructed to one specific equipment used . Allowable grades are shown
= (overall length, ft X 1 .2) X 12 ft height . For most trailers designed to handle in Table 3.
dry merchandise, the vehicle bed height will
c. Add total space requirement for all vary between 48 and 52 in . For some high .
vehicles. cubs trailers with smaller wheels, the bed TABLE 3 Percent of Grade for Material
d. Subtract space for number of vehicles to height will be less than 48 in . Truck chase!* Handling Equipment
be spotted at the dock. with a "reefer" body will increase the bed
Allowable percent
e. Calculate truck apron area, employee height up to 6 in . Pickup and delivery vehicle
Type of equipment of grade'
parking area, and service road area . Total area bed heights will vary between 44 and 50 in .
for combined facilities . Vehicles with capacity loads can compress Powered handtrucks . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Common carrier vehicles springs and change the bed height . A single- Powered platform trucks . . . . . . . . . 7
a . Estimate the maximum number and size axle trailer bed height can change as much me
of vehicles which could be waiting for a door 6to8in .
Low-lift pellet or skid trucks . . . . . . 10
position, and provide space for these vehicles . To provide the best dock height for a facility, Electric fork trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
b. Keep apron and dock approach area clear a survey should be made of the type of equip- Gas fork trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
to permit rapid removal and spotting of vehi- ment used to determine the bed height of
cles at the dock . vehicles servicing the plant or distribution Contact manufacturer and check manufacturer's specifications
2 . Provide adequate maneuvering space. center . Different heights may be provided if belore operating beyond allowable percent of grade .
The length of a vehicle's parking space or all straight trucks arrive et one dock location
dock approach is the greatest length for the and all trailers arrive at another . In general, Most standard truck dockboard lengths
tractor-trailer combination (stall length) and selecting a dock height lower-rather than range from 6 to 10 ft . For most applications,
the apron length necessary to maneuver the higher-will enable the driver to open or close dockboards should be 6 ft wide . Use 7-ft wide
vehicle in and out of the parking spot . The vehicle doors while the truck is at the dock . dockboard for loading or unloading unit loads
apron is measured from the outermost part 5 . Avoid pits and ramps . If at all possible, with fork truck .
of the longest vehicle to be accommodated grade the approach and apron area for the 8 . Provide area for access to trucks . A
or from the outermost part of any obstruction, proper dock height and keep equipment near minimum area measured inside the plant from
such as a post or part of a building structure level . If loading pits and ramps cannot be the edge of the dock should be kept clear end
in front of the dock . As a general rule, the avoided, use the following guidelines : unobstructed for the movement of freight and
dock approach should be at least twice the a . If a ramp is needed, grade the approach materials handling equipment . The depth of the
length of the longest tractor-trailer combina- to the dock so that the truck or trailer Is nearly area must allow for maneuverability of mate-
tion . level . Equipment parked at a steep angle is un- rials handling equipment in end out of vehicles
The width for each new parking spot or stall safe to load and unload . If the front end of the and for two-way cross traffic behind the dock .
should be 12 ft to accommodate the longer and truck or trailer is elevated too much, the truck If dockboards are used, provide a minimum
 Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS

d. Long loading and unloading time intervals minimum of 12 ft wide . The overall clear height
depth of 12 ft behind the inside edge of the
occur et the dock . in the vehicle docking area should be a mini-
board . If dockboards are not used, allow 15 ft
e . There is a limited range of vehicle sizes mum of 1'h ft higher than the highest vehicle
from the dock edge . If conveyors are used
picking up and delivering freight . or legal height . For most installations, this will
to load and unload all freight, the requirement
Canopies should extend a minimum of 8 ft be a 15-ft overall clear height.
for a clear distance behind the dock edge will
out from the building to provide adequate pro- The back-in type enclosure is the most com-
not apply .
tection over the rear end of parked vehicles et mon type of completely enclosed dock facility .
9 . Provide for weather protection . An
the dock . For level driveways, the outside edge For this enclosure, each vehicle dock position
alternative to a fully enclosed dock is the instal-
of the canopy should be no less than 1 5 ft high has its own doorway for direct access to the
lation of dock shelters and canopies completely
to accommodate 13-ft 6-in . trailers . If the outside as shown in Fig . 1 . The distance from
enclosing the space between the building and
height of all vehicles using the dock is less than the leading edge of the dock to the inside of the
the rear of the vehicle . Dock shelters provide
13 ft 6 in ., locate the canopy 1'h ft higher than doorway where the vehicle backs in should
a closure between the truck and dock doors .
exceed the maximum length of the vehicles
Canopies provide a roof over the dock and the highest vehicle .
10 . Evaluate fully enclosed dock . The initial using the facility or the maximum legal length
should be extended over the dock's entire dis-
cost of constructing a completely enclosed of the vehicle combination by at least 5 ft . For
tance . In order to reduce the effects of wind,
dock facility, compared with an outside dock most installations receiving tractor-trailers,
rain and snow, the installation of canopies
an overall length of 65 ft will meet this require-
should also include side panel walls extending facility, may be justified if :
ment .
from the building at each end of the dock area . a . Maximum security is needed .
Most shelters are designed to accommodate b. Plant site is located in cold, windy or wet
vehicles ranging from 10 ft to 13 ft 6 in . high . climate .
Dock shelters should be considered for plants c . Vehicles are dropped for overnight load- DOCKING FACILITIES
and distribution centers which have the follow- ing .
ing characteristics : d . High value merchandise is handled . The primary consideration in planning mod-
a . Plant site is located in cold, windy or wet e. Merchandise handled is sensitive to tem- ern loading and unloading facilities for motor
climate . perature and water . transport equipment is to provide adequate
b . A large concentration of people work in f. A large concentration of people work space for efficient maneuvering into and out
the area and the adjacent dock area . in the area and the adjacent dock area . of loading position at properly constructed
c . Female employees, performing stationary If a dock is completely enclosed in a building, docks . No one plan will fit all requirements,
tasks, are located near the dock area . the width of each dock position should be a but careful study of present needs and future
possibilities will determine the type and size
of facilities essential to efficient operation .
There is, of course, no set of standard dimen-
sions covering the space required for maneu-
vering the many possible combinations of
tractor-trucks and semitrailers into and out
of loading position at docks or in stalls and
driveways . However, the maneuvering space
required is largely dependent on three factors :
(1) overall length of the tractor-trailer unit ;
(2) the width of the position in which the vehi-
cle must be placed ; and (3) the turning radius
of the tractor-truck which pulls the unit . Inas-
much as a tractor-trailer uses slightly more
space to pull out than to back in, all reference
to maneuvering apron space is based on the
requirements for pulling out .

Length of Tractor-Trailer Unit

The length of tractor-trailer units to be accom-

modated will vary in accordance with state
laws and differing types of operation . Analysis
of the specific problem will determine the
largest vehicle to be considered . For the pur-
poses of this discussion tractor-trailer units
of 35, 40 and 45 ft are considered to be the
most prevalent overall lengths . If an apprecia-
ble volume of traffic is handled by "for hire"
motor transport, it may be expected that the
unit length to be accommodated will approxi-
mate the legal limit in the state concerned,
usually between 45 and 50 ft . It is obvious that
commercial haulers will use the maximum size
tractor-trailer practical for efficient operation
within state limitations . In general, it may be
assumed that straight trucks can be accommo-
dated in the space required for tractor-trailer
units inasmuch as it has been impractical to
build trucks even approaching the length and
cubic capacity of modern trailers . In some
states trains of more than one trailer are per-
mitted . Such equipment is not being considered
as it is assumed that each trailer in a train
would be spotted separately .

Width of Position

The maximum allowable width of a truck or

trailer is 8 ft and it may be assumed that virtu-
ally all units (other than those for light city
delivery) are built to take full advantage of
this dimension .
Fig . 1 Back-in type enclosure .
Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS

one maneuver has been worked out in practi-

cal tests with standard equipment handled by
experienced drivers . Inasmuch as a high aver-
age turning radius has been arbitrarily used
to provide a margin for differences in equip-
ment, the variable factors were overall length
and position width . The apron space required
is measured out frorn the outermost part of
any vehicle or other possible obstruction in
the area of the maneuver (Fig . 4) .
In the case of a single-position unobstructed
dock (Fig . 4a), the distance would be measured
straight out from the dock . However, if a can-
opy or roof, supported by posts (Fig . 46) should
be present to protect the loading area, the dis-
NOTES : (A) Should be at least 6 in . over legal height for tance would be measured out from the posts .
level area, more for slope. If it is necessary to spot a trailer alongside
(B) Dock height, 1,8 to 52 in . for road trailers, another vehicle (Fig . 4c), the distance would
44 in, for city trucks . be measured from the outermost point of the
(C) Concrete apron of the dimensions shown vehicle obstructing the maneuver . When a
will accommodate trailers from 22 to 40 ft stall or driveway is involved (Fig . 4d), the dis-
tance would be measured from the outermost
long . obstruction, such as a curb, pole, or vehicle,
(D) Additional slab length recommended to sup- ate .
port tractor wheels . It is highly recommended that at least the
(E) General rule for distance required : total minimum apron space be allowed and that
length of tractor-trailer times 2. it be kept clear for the approach and maneu-
Trailer width-8 ft vering of transport units .
Trailer stall width-10 ft mininnunl, 12 ft In locations where the proper space is not
reeoniniended. available for parking in one maneuver, trailers
can be jockeyed into position . This, however,
Fig . 2 Recommended dimensions and clearances for truck loading docks . is a time-wasting, costly, and unsatisfactory
The consensus among transport and traffic made to determine the space required . Units process for both commercial and private trans-
men interviewed is that 12 ft is a very desirable utilizing cab-over-engine truck-tractors have port operators .
width for stalls or truck positions . Slightly somewhat shorter turning radii for the same
narrower position widths can be utilized when lengths and consequently require less apron Overhead Clearance
necessary but should be avoided in order to space than units with conventional tractors .
reduce the possibility of damage to equipment Standard trailers vary in height up to 12''A ft .
Many of these tractor-trucks are in use, but
and loss of time for jockeying into position . Consequently, it is recommended that 14-ft
few shippers can count on their exclusive use .
Also, as position width increases, the apron clearance be provided at docks or in yards,
space required for maneuvering will decrease . driveways, doors, stalls and interior roadways .
Apron Space Required Special transportation conditions such as
The apron space required to maneuver tractor-
Trailer DimensionsAverage dimensions of large delivery of large machinery may require greater
trailers are shown in Fig . 2, along with recom- trailer units into or out of loading position in clearance .
mended dimensions end clearances for dock
structures .

Turning Radii of Tractor-Trucks

The turning radii of tractor-trucks have a defi-

nite bearing on the apron space required for
maneuvering equipment . However, because
of the variation in this dimension among trucks
of different types, capacities and makes, a high
average turning radius has been used in arriv-
ing at recommendations regarding space
requirements .
The requirements of heavy-duty units with
extremely long turning radii call for special
consideration . If such equipment is a factor
in any operation, a special study should be

When designing for ramps, dips, or crowns

in the terminal area, special care must be
taken to provide clearance at the points
indicated in the diagram. Actual dimensions
must be obtained . Cab clearances are more
critical when the combination is jackknifed .
Landing gear height (A) may be as low as
10 in.
Fig. 3 Critical points for clearance . Fig . 4 Apron space required for various conditions .
 Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS

and obstructions . Railroad crossings, auto- Pavement: 6-in. concrete slab reinforced
mobile traffic, parked vehicles, and material with 6 by 6 in . No . 6 gauge welded wire mesh ;
carelessly stored outside all contribute to expansion joints 30 ft on centers .
delays in pick-up and delivery. If a right-angle Fence : 2-in . wire mesh No . 9 gauge, 7 ft high
turn must be negotiated in a narrow driveway, including several strands of barbed wire at
extra clear apace should be provided on the the top . Protect the fence from damage by
inside of the turn to eliminate maneuvering . trucks by placing bumpers or 2-ft-high earth
For instance, in a driveway 12 to 14 ft wide, curbs 5 to 15 ft from the fence, depending
the triangular area, formed by the inside corner upon the type of truck using the yard . In car
of the turn and the two points 24 ft on each parking areas place bumpers at least 3 ft from
side of the corner, should be left clear . This the fence .
will allow proper clearance for the turning
radius of the tractor-truck and the cut-in of Dock Building
trailer wheels . Orientation : If possible, place the long
dimension of the building parallel to the pre-
Turning Clearance (see Fig. 5) vailing storm winds .
Column spacing : Depends upon stall width .
Site Recommended stall width 12 ft, column spac-
Location : In selecting a site, consider the ing 24 ft .
Fig. 5 Turning clearance for driveway. following factors : Width of building varies from 45 to 70 ft,
l . Proximity to pickups, deliveries, and depending upon the type of operation : usual
Drainage connecting carriers figure is 60 ft .
2 . Accessibility to main traffic arteries Height: Minimum clear interior height, 12 ft .
Roofs or canopies over loading docks should
3 . Obstructions such as bridges, under- Foot overhang or canopy projection-3 ft
be constructed so as to avoid drainage into
minimum, no maximum (the longer the better) ;
the loading area. This precaution will reduce passes, and railroad crossings
usual figure, 12 ft .
the hazards of mud and ice and the resulting 4 . Zoning
End walls : May be extended a similar dis-
loss of traction . It is particularly important 5 . Urban and regional plans ; future growth
tance for better weather protection .
to prevent ice formation on the pavement where pattern of city
Doors : Overhead type, 8 to 10 ft wide by
tractor and trailer are coupled . 6 . Transportation facilities for employees
8 to 9 ft 4 in . high ; the larger sizes are more
7 . Utilities
usual .
Grade : Site should be approximately level :
Traffic Congestion maximum slope 3 percent ; minimum slope for Floor : Reinforced concrete designed for a
drainage, 1 percent . Storm drains recom- live load of 150 to 250 par ; nonslip finish
So far as possible, loading areas and ap-
mended 60 to 75 ft on centers, 100 ft maximum . (float or abrasive) .
proaches should be free from general traffic
Bumpers : Wood usual ; steel or rubber may
be used .
Steps : Iron bar rungs set in concrete dock
front are less expensive than stairs ; provide
one set of steps per four stalls .
Light: 15 footcandles recommended ; sky-
lights optional . Floodlights arranged to shine
into truck or trailer bodies are required, also
floodlights for the general yard area .
Heat : Required in northern areas ; suspended
unit heaters or radiant heat in floor slab may
be used .
Ventilation : Mechanical ventilation required
if fork-lift trucks are used .
Sprinklers : Recommended for entire dock
area .
(See Figs . 6 and 7 .)

Offices
The office facilities may include any or all
of the following :

General office
Message center
Billing office
Cashier
Telephone room
Foreman's office
Office manager
Terminal manager
Operations manager
Salesmen's room
Record room
Heater room
Central checking
Drivers' locker room
Transportation department
Dormitory
Cafeteria
Drivers' ready room

Other Facilities
Maintenance shop
Fueling area (near shop)
Weighing area
Truck and trailer parking area (two parking
spaces per dock stall recommended)
Employee and visitor parking area
Fig. 7 Truck terminal dock plan for fork-lift truck and pallet storage.
Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS
Truck Types and Dimensions

Fig . 8

"How Blg Is a Truck-How Sharp Does If Turn, "The

Operations Council of American Trucking Association,
Inc ., Washington, D .C ., 1974 .
 Transportation

TRUCK TERMINALS
Truck Types and Dimensions