CLASS XII

QUICK
REVISION
SUPPORT
MATERIAL
 CLASS - XII: INFORMATICS PRACTICES (2024-25)
QUICK REVISION (QR) SUPPORT MATERIAL
Compiled By: Rajesh Kumar Mishra, PGT (CS), PM SHRI KV AFS, Manauri, Prayagraj (UP)

UNIT-I [25 Marks] 1M 2M 3M 4M 5M Total

Data Handling using Pandas and Data Visualization 9 4 3 4 5 25 M

Introduction to Python Libraries-

A Python library or package is a collection of Python modules containing ready-to-use functions to perform
specific task related to an application. The advantage of using libraries is that we can import libraries and can use
its different functions in Python program. Some commonly used Python Libraries are-
1. Python Standard Library: It is a collection of modules which is available after installing Python. Examples of
such libraries are – (a) math module- provides mathematical functions (b) random module- provides functions
for generating random numbers. (c) statistics module- provides statistical functions
2. Numpy (Numerical Python) library: Offers functions for working with matrices and multi-dimensional arrays.
3. Pandas (PANel + DAta) library: Pandas is a fast, powerful, flexible and easy to use open-source library for data
manipulation and analysis of data. Commonly used to handle Series and Data Frame.
4. Matplotlib library: It provides functions for Visualization of Data i.e. plotting and drawing graphs.
A Python library can be imported in a program by using import command as – Ex: import pandas as pd
import <library Name> [as <object>] import numpy as np
What is PANDAS? Features of Pandas:
Pandas (PANel DAta System) is fast and  Pandas Data structures are Fast and efficient in functionality.
powerful open source data analysis library of  Supports functions to handle missing data.
Python developed by Wes McKinney. Pandas  Supports Label-based slicing and indexing.
has functions for analysing, cleaning,  Offers conditional selection, merging and joining of data sets.
exploring, and manipulating massive data.  Offers import/export to handle variety of data source.
Data Structure in PANDAS:
A data structure is a collection of data values and operations that can be applied to that data. It enables efficient
storage, retrieval and modification of data.
Pandas offer the Series and Data Frame data structures for handling and analysis of big data.
Series: DataFame:
 Series is one dimensional (1D) homogeneous data  Data Frame is two-dimensional (2D) heterogenous
structure with labelled index. data structure with rows and columns like Excel sheet.
 Series is size immutable and Value Mutable i.e.  Data Frame is both Size and Value mutable i.e. you can
new values cannot be added but existing values add new rows /columns or delete.
can be deleted and modified.  Rows and Column of Data Frame are indexed or
 The default positional index starts from zero, if labelled with row index and column index. Default
index/label are not given. positional index starts with 0, if indexes are not given.
Creating Series:
A series can be created using Series() function with
optional parameters for data and index.
<Series Object>= pandas.Series([data=<data set>],
[index=<index set>], [dtype=<datatype>])
Where dataset can be a list/Dictionary or any scalar
value.
Series DataFrame
Creating Empty Series: import pandas as pd Output:
An empty series can be created using Series () s= pd.Series() Series([], dtype:
without any parameters. print(s) float64)
Creating Series with ndarray: import pandas as pd 0 10
A series can be created using numPy array (ndArray), import numpy as np 1 20
as data in Series() method. Default index [0,1,2..] will arr=np.array([10,20,30,40]) 2 30
be generated, if labeled index is not given. s= pd.Series(arr) 3 40
print(s)
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Creating Series with list: import pandas as pd p 5
A series can be created by passing a list as data lst=[5,6,7,8] q 6
in Series() method. idx=[‘p’,’q’,’r’,’s’] r 7
If no index is given then by default index will s=pd.Series(lst,index=idx) s 8
be generated as [0,1,2,3…len(list)-1]. print(s)
Creating Series with Dictionary: import pandas as pd A 45
A series can be created using dictionary as data d={‘A’:45,’B’:67,’C’:34,’D’:78} B 67
in Series() method. s= pd.Series(d) C 34
The keys of dictionary become index and values print(s) D 78
are assumed as data. import pandas as pd A 45.0
Note: If index is provided then Series created d={‘A’:45,’B’:67,’C’:34,’D’:78} S NaN
with matching index and Keys only. NaN (Not a idx=[‘A’,’S’,’D’,’C’] D 78.0
number) value is used for not matching index. s= pd.Series(d,index=idx) C 34.0
print(s)
Creating Series with Scalar value: import pandas as pd 0 8
A series can be created using a constant (Scalar) s1=pd.Series(8) ----------
value. The value is repeated as per given index. print(s1) a 5
s2=pd.Series(5,index=[‘a’,’b’,’c’]) b 5
print(s2) c 5
Accessing Elements of Series: import pandas as pd
Data values of a series can be accessed in three ways- val=[10,20,30,40,50,60] 20
 Positional Index: Single value at given index. idx=['a','b','c','d','e',’f’] ---------
s=pd.Series(val,index=idx) 20
 Labelled Index: Single value at given index.
# using positional index ---------
 Slicing: To assess multiple values (subset) for given
print (s[1]) b 20
range of indexes.
# using labelled index c 30
The range can be defined as [start : end : step]. Default
print(s[‘b’]) d 40
step value is 1. Negative step value will cause access of
e 50
series in reverse order. # slicing using Positional index
---------
Note: print (s[1:5]) b 20
Labeled index : values are retrieved from START to END # Slicing using labelled index c 30
Positional index: values are retrieved from START to END-1 print(s[‘b’:’d’])
d 40
Conditional Access of Series elements: import pandas as pd a False
You can filter/access data values of a series based on b False
val=[5,20,10,80,25]
defined condition. c False
Applying condition on whole Series: idx=['a','b','c','d','e']
d True
It will return True or False based on given condition. s=pd.Series(val,index=idx) e True
Applying condition on elements: # applying condition on whole series -------------
It will returns selected values based on condition. print(s>20) d 80
# applying condition on elements e 25
Any single conditional expression with Relational
operators (>,<,=,!=,>=,<=) can be applied on series. print ( s[s>20] )
Modifying Series Elements : import pandas as pd a 100
You can modify data value of b 20
lst=[10,20,30,40,50]
corresponding index by providing index/ c 5
position. To modify values in a range of idx=[‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’,‘e’])
d 5
indexes, slicing can be used. s=pd.Series(lst,index =idx) e 5
# modifyng single value p 100
Series[index] = <new value> s[‘a’]=100 q 20
Series[start : end] = <new value> # modifying multiple values r 5
s 5
Modifying Index of Series: s[‘c’:’e’]=5
t 5
Index of Series can be modified using index print(s)
attribute of series. #modifying index
Series.index = <new index values> s.index=[‘p’,’q’,’r’,’s’,’t’]
print(s)

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Series Attributes: import pandas as pd a 4.0
Certain properties of a Series can be accessed using import numpy as np b 5.0
its attributes as Series.attribute. lst=[4, 5, np.NaN, 7, 8, 9] c NaN
Attribute Purpose idx=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f']
d 7.0
name Used to assign name to Series. s= pd.Series(lst, index=idx) e 8.0
Size Returns size (number of elements) of s.name="MySeries" f 9.0
series print(s) Name: MySeries, dtype:
Shape Returns shape of series as tuple print(s.size) float64
print(s.shape) 6
values Returns data values as ndarray
print(s.hasnans) (6,)
index Returns index labels
print(s.dtype) True
Dtype Returns data type of seiries print(s.empty)
Empty Returns true is series is empty float64
print(s.values) False
otherwise false print(s.index)
Hasnans Returns true if series has NaN values. [ 4. 5. nan 7. 8. 9.]
Index(['a‘,'b‘,'c‘,'d‘,'e‘,'f'],
dtype='object')
Series Methods: import pandas as pd 6
Series methods specific operations on Series (s). lst=[4,5,6,7,8,9] a 4
head( ) Returns top 5 values of series, if no value is given. idx=['a','b','c','d','e','f'] b 5
tail( ) Returns bottom 5 values of series, if no value is given. s= pd.Series(lst, index=idx) c 6
count( ) Returns counting of not-NaN values in series. print(s.count()) -------------
The following Mathematical methods are applicable on numeric print(s.head(3)) e 8
print(s.tail(2)) f 9
series only.
print(s.min()) -------------
min( ) Returns minimum value of the series. print(s.max()) 4
max( ) Returns maximum value of the series. print(s.sum()) 9
sum( ) Returns total of value of the series. print(s.add(5)) 39
add( ) Adds a scalar (constant) value or another series.
a 9
sub( ) Subtracts a scalar (constant) value or another series. b 10
mul( ) Multiplies series with scalar (constant) values or c 11
another series. d 12
div( ) Devides series with scalar (constant) values or another e 13
series. f 14
Mathematical operations on Series: import pandas as pd a 9
Mathematical operations on series can be applied in lst=[4,5,6,7,8] b 10
two ways. idx=['a','b','c','d','e'] c 11
Using operators : +, - ,*, / , //, % etc. s= pd.Series(lst, index=idx) d 12
Using Methods: add(), sub(), mul(), div() etc. #applying arithmetic operation e 13
Mathematical operations can be two types- print(s.add(5)) # OR print(s+5)
Manipulating Series with scalar (constant) import pandas as pd a 14.0
value: s1= pd.Series([4,5,6,7], b 20.0
When a series is manipulated with a constant index=['a','b','c','d']) c 26.0
number then mathematical operation is applied with s2= pd.Series([10,12,15,18,20], d NaN
each element of the series (Vector arithmetic). index=['a','p','b','q','c']) p NaN
Manipulating two Series: #applying arithmetic operation q NaN
When mathematical operation is applied on two print(s1.add(s2)) #OR (s1+s2)
series then operation is performed on matching #applying arithmetic operation a 14.0
index. The NaN value will be produced for non- # 0 will be assumed for non-matching b 20.0
matching/missing value. values # before adding series. c 26.0
d 7.0
Note: We can use fill_value parameter to avoid NaN s1.add(s2, fill_value=0) p 12.0
result for non-matching values.
q 18.0

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Data Frame:
A Data Frame is 2-dimensional heterogeneous data structure arranged in
tabular form containing rows and columns. Each row and column may
have labeled (Text) index as well as Positional (Numeric) Index.
The default numeric index labels starts from zero, if no index is given.
Dimensions of DataFrame are also called Axis. DataFrame is Size and
Data mutable.
Creating Data Frame: A Data Frame in Pandas can be created
Data Frame can be created in the following two main approaches. using DataFrame() function with optional
(Row wise) List-List [ [R1],[R2],[R3],..] parameters for data , row index and
List with nested List-Dictionary [ {..},{..},{..},..] column index.
structure. List-Series [S1,S2,S3,..] <DF Object>= pandas.DataFrame(<2D-
(Column wise) Dictionary-List { [C1],[C2],[C3],..} data set>, index=[<Row indexes>],
Dictionary with Dictionary -Dictionary { {..},{..},{..},..} columns=[<column indexes>])
nested structure. Dictionary -Series { S1,S2,S3,..} Where 2D-dataset may be ndarray or
Data Frame can also be created using ndarray or another Data Frame. nested structure of list of dictionary.
Creating Empty DataFrame: Creating Data Frame using List of Lists (Nested List):
import pandas as pd import pandas as pd
df= pd.DataFrame() lst=[['Amar',60,68,45], ['Akbar',65,65,56], ['Anthony',70,77,65]]
print(df) df= pd.DataFrame(lst,index=[1,2,3], columns=['Name','Phy','Chem','Maths'])
print(df)
Creating Data Frame with list of Dictionary:
import pandas as pd
lst= [ {'Name':'Amar','Phy':60,'Chem':68,'Maths':45}, {'Name':'Akbar','Phy':65,'Chem':65,'Maths':56},
{'Name':'Anthony','Phy':70,'Chem':77,'Maths':65} ]
df= pd.DataFrame(lst, index=[1,2,3])
print(df)
Creating Data Frame with Dictionary of Series
s1=pd.Series(['Amar','Akbar','Anthony'],index=[1,2,3])
s2=pd.Series([60,65,70], index=[1,2,3] )
s3=pd.Series([68,65,77], index=[1,2,3] )
s4=pd.Series([45,56,65], index=[1,2,3] )
dct={'Name':s1,'Phy':s2,'Chem':s3,'Maths':s4} Note: Keys of dictionary become column index
df= pd.DataFrame(dct) and values arranged as per matching keys)
print(df)
Accessing Data Frame:
The values of data frame can be accessed in different ways like
Series. The possible ways are-
 Accessing column(s)
 Accessing Row(s)
 Accessing Row(s) and column(s)
Accessing Columns of DataFrame: print(df[‘Phy’]) OR
Single column: print(df.Phy)
<DataFrame>[<Col Label>] OR <DataFrame>.<Col Label> print(df[[‘Phy’, ‘Maths’]])
Multiple Columns: <DataFrame>[ [Col 1, Col2, Col3..] ] Print(df[[‘Maths’, ‘Phy’]])
Accessing Rows of Data Frame: # from row one onward
Rows can be accessed by giving Index range. print(df[‘one’: ])
<DataFrame>[<Start row label>:<End row label>] print(df[ :‘three’]) # till three row
When start or end label is not provided, default value fist # from row one to three
row and last row will be used. print(df[‘one’: ‘three’])
When labeled index used the START to END will be # Single Row ‘Two’ only
displayed. In case of Positional index (number) then Print(df[‘two’:‘two’])
START to END-1 will be displayed. Print(df[1:3]) # using positional index
Pandas head() and tail() function can also be used. Print(df.head(2))

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Accessing Rows and Columns using Label index: Accessing Rows and columns using Positional
Pandas loc[] is provides subset of selected rows, columns Indexes.
or both using row/column labels. It returns selected iloc[] method to get subset of selected combinations
subset from given Row/Col label from Start to End. of rows, columns or both using positional indexes.
<DF object>.loc[<start row>:<end row>, <start <DF object>.iloc[<start row>:<end row>, <start
column>:<end column>] column>:<end column>]
When start/end row/column is not provided, default Note: iloc() used positional indexes and row/col will
value first row/column and last row/column will be used. be selected from START to END-1.
# all rows and all columns # all rows and all columns
print(df.loc[ : , : ]) print(df.iloc[ : , : ])
# from row ‘one’ to end row and all columns # from row ‘one’ to end row and all columns
print(df.loc['one': , : ]) print(df.iloc[0: , : ])
# till row ‘three’ and all columns # till row ‘two’ and all columns
print(df.loc[ :'three', : ]) print(df.iloc[ :2 , : ])
# all rows and from ‘Phy’ column to end # all rows and from ‘Phy’ column to end
print(df.loc[ : ,'Phy': ]) print(df.iloc[ : ,1: ])
# all rows and from ‘phy’ to ‘Maths’ column # all rows and from ‘phy’ to ‘Chem’ column
print(df.loc[ : ,'Phy':'Maths']) print(df.iloc[ : ,1:3])
# from Row ‘Two’ to ‘three’ and ‘Phy’ to ‘Chem’ col #from Row ‘two’ to ‘two’ and ‘Phy’ to ‘Chem’
print(df.loc['two':'three','Phy':'Chem']) print(df.iloc[1:2,1:3])
Accessing Individual Value: # accessing value of individual cell
There are three methods to access individual value. print(df.Maths['three'])
<DFobject>.<Column>[<row label or row position>] print(df.Maths['three'])
<DFobject>.at[<row label>, <column label>] print(df.Maths[2])
<DFobject>.iat[<row position>, <column position>] print(df.at['two','Chem'])
print(df.iat[1,1])
Accessing Items using condition # applying condition on ‘Phy’ Column
You can also filter and analyze data by displaying print(df['Phy']>60)
True/False based on given condition. # filtering data on condition
The condition may have relational operators like print(df[ df['Phy']>60 ])
>,>=,<,<=,!=,= etc. # applying condition on range
print(df.loc['one':'two','Phy': ]>60)
print(df.loc[df[‘Chem’]>60,[‘CS’])
print(df.loc[df[‘Chem’]>60,[‘CS’,’Maths’])
Accessing Items based on Boolean Indexing: dct={'Name':['Amar','Akbar','Anthony','Manpreet'],
Boolean indexing as name suggests, having 'Phy':[60,65,70,67], 'Chem':[34,55,32,46],
Boolean values (True/False or 1/0) as row 'Maths':[45,56,65,75]}
index/label to access the rows based on True or df=pd.DataFrame(dct, index=[True,False,True,False])
False criteria. For this we have to create/change print(df)
row labels as True or False. # accessing rows based on Boolean value of rows.
print(df.loc[True])
print(df.loc[False])
Modifying Data Frame: #modifying value of existing column ‘Maths’
Modifying values of Existing Column: df[‘Maths’]=50
Single Column: #modifying value of ‘Phy’ to ‘Chem’ column
<DF object>[<Column Label>]=<new value(s)> df.loc[:,’Phy’: ‘Chem’]= 45
Multiple Column #Adding new column ‘Eng’ with 65 marks
<DF Object>.loc[: , Column 1: column 2]=<new value(s)> df[‘Eng’]=65
If given column already exists in the Data Frame then existing # Adding new column ‘IP’ with new marks
values will be changed otherwise a new column will be added in df[‘IP’]=[45,54,67]
the Data Frame.
Adding New Column: df[‘IP’]=[45,54,67]
<DF object>[<Column Label>]=<new value(s)> df[‘Total’]=
We can also use expressions while creating new columns. df[‘Phy’]+df[‘Chem’]+df[‘Maths’]
Adding new Row: # Adding new row ‘five’ with different marks
<DF Object>.loc[<Row index> ]=<new value(s)> df.loc[‘five’]=[‘Manpreet’,45,54,67]

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Modifying values of Rows: df.loc[‘one’]=50
<DF Object>.loc[<Row 1> : <Row 2> ]=<new value(s)> #modifying value of ‘two’ to ‘three’ row
Rows of Data Frame can be modified by selecting and assigning df.loc[‘two’:’three’,:]=60
new values. If given row already exists then existing values will #Adding new row ‘four’ with 65 marks
be changed otherwise a new row will be added. df.loc[‘four’,:]=65
Modifying single value at specified position: df.Chem['two']=10
<DFobject>.<Column>[<row label or position>]=<new value> df.Chem[0]=20
<DFobject>.at[<row label>, <column label>]=<new value> df.at['two',‘Phy’]=30
df.iat[2,1]=40
Deleting Rows and Columns of Data Frame: # Deleting a column ‘Maths’
Rows or column of DataFrame can be deleted by two methods- del df['Maths']
del <DF object>[<column label>] # to delete a single column # Deleting a row ‘two’
df=df.drop(['two'])
<DF Object>.drop([<Row labels/Column labels>], axis=0/1)
#deleting multiple column
Where axis=1 for column deletion and axis=0 for row deletion. df=df.drop(['Phy','Chem'], axis=1)
Using drop() method, you have to assign modified Data Frame on # deleting multiple rows
same or different object, since drop() deletes on copied object. df=df.drop(['one','four'], axis=0)
Renaming row and column labels: # Renaming Row labels
Row and column indexes can be rename as- df=df.rename(index={'P':'one','Q':'two','R':'three','S':'four'})
<DF Object>.rename( index={name-dict}, # Renaming column labels
columns={column-dict} ) df=df.rename(columns={'A':'Name','B':'Phy','C':'Chem',
'D':'Maths'} )
Data Frame Attributes:
Once Data Frame has been created, you can access certain properties of Data Frame through predefined
attributes.
You can access series attributes as <DF>.<attribute>

Attributes Purpose
index Returns list of row indexes /labels of Data Frame.
columns Returns list of column indexes/labels of Data Frame.
values Returns data values of Data Frame as ndarray.
size Returns the size (number of data items) of DataFrame.
shape Returns shape (dimensionality) of Data Frame as tuple
axes Returns list of both axes (row and columns labels)
dtype Returns column wise data type of Data Frame.
empty Returns true if Data Frame is empty otherwise false.
T Transpose index and columns.
import pandas as pd
dct={'Phy':[60,65,70], 'Chem':[34,55,32], 'Maths':[45,56,65]}
df=pd.DataFrame(dct, index=['Amar','Akbar','Anthony'])
print(df)
print(df.index)
print(df.columns)
print(df.values)
print(df.size)
print(df.shape)
print(df.dtypes)
print(df.empty)
print(df.T)
Data Frame Methods:
Apart from mathematical methods add(), sub(), mul() , div() etc., Pandas offers other methods too, which can be
used for different operations on the Data Frame.

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 Methods Purpose print(df.count()) #OR
head( ) Returns top 5 rows of Data Frame, if no value is given. print(df.count(axis=0))
tail( ) Returns bottom 5 rows, if no value is given. print(df.count(axis=1))
len(DF) Return numbers of rows in the Data Frame. print(df['Phy'].count())
The following functions can be applied in Row-wise/Column wise by print(df.sum()) #OR
print(df.sum(axis=0))
specifying axis or whole data frame.(axis=1 for Row-wise and axis=0 for
print(df.sum(axis=1))
column wise). If axis is not given then 0 will be assumed.
print(df['Phy'].sum())
count() Returns counting of not-NaN values in Data Frame.
print(df.max()) #OR
min( ) Returns minimum value of the DataFrame/Row/column. print(df.max(axis=0))
max( ) Returns max value of the Data Frame/ Rows/ columns. print(df.max(axis=1))
sum( ) Returns total of value of the Data Frame/Rows/Columns. print(df['Phy'].max())
Mathematical Operations on DataFrame:
Pandas offers add(), sub(), mul(), div() functions to manipulate a data frame with scalar values or another data
frame. Arithmetic operators (+,-,*,/,//,% etc) can also be used.
Manipulating DataFrame with scalar (Vector Operation): All elements will be manipulated with values.
import pandas as pd
dct={'Name':['Amar','Akbar','Anthony','Manpreet'],
'Phy':[60,65,70,67], 'Chem':[34,55,32,46],
'Maths':[45,56,65,75]}
df=pd.DataFrame(dct,index=['One','Two','Three','Four'])
print(df)
#Mathematical Operation on a column
df['Chem']=df['Chem']-5
df['Maths']=df['Maths'].add(5)
print(df)
Importing & Exporting Data Frame:
The data of Data Frame can be saved as a file on storage media, so that it can be utilized by other applications.
The Data Frame can be saved in different formats but CSV type is simple and commonly used.
The Comma Separated Value (CSV) is a simple plain text format which can be created in any Text Editor (Note
Pad), Spreadsheet (MS Excel) etc., where all values are separated by comma (,).
Pandas offers the following two methods to import and export data from/to CSV file.
read_csv(): reads/imports data from CSV file to Data Frame.
to_csv(): Creates/exports data of Data Frame to CSV file.
Importing (Reading) data from CSV file: Example:
<DF>=pandas.read_csv(<“path-filename”>, sep=<“Separator ”>, import pandas as pd
skiprows=<n>, nrows=<n> ) df=pd.read_csv("e:\\data.csv")
<“path-filename”>: specifies the filename with path. Path name must be print(df)
separated by \\. Ex: “c:\\Data\\address.csv”
sep=<“Separator ”>: specifies the delimiter character. Default is comma.
skiprows=<n>: specifies the number of lines to be skipped while reading.
nrows=<n>: specifies the number of lines to be read from CSV file.

Exporting (Writing) Data to CSV file: import pandas as pd

<DF>.to_csv(<“path-filename”>, sep=<“Sep char”> ) dct={'Name':['Amar','Akbar','Anthony','Manpreet'],
<“path-filename”>: specifies the filename with path Phy':[60,65,70,67],'Chem':[34,55,32,46],
(location) to be created. Ex: “c:\\Data\\address.csv” 'Maths':[45,56,65,75]}
sep=<“Separator char”>: specifies the delimiter character df=pd.DataFrame(dct, index=[1,2,3,4])
to separate data values. Default is comma(,). print(df)
Row labels & column labels are also written in CSV file. df.to_csv("e:\\address.csv")

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Data Visualization: The Matplotlib library of Python, is used for
Data visualization means graphical or pictorial representation creating various types of 2D- plots in Python.
of the data using some pictorial tools like graph, chart, etc. The pyplot module of Matplotlib library can be
Visualization helps to effectively communicate information to imported in the Python program to plot graphs.
users. For example Traffic symbols, Atlas or map book etc. are import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
pictorial representation of facts which are more easy to Where plt is name given to pyplot object. You
understand than text. can give any valid identifier/name.
Pyplot methods for plotting graphs: PyPlots also offers some additional functions to
The following methods are used to plot a chart. customize plots.
Chart Method Description Method Purpose
Line chart plot() Visualize data as a series of grid() Configures Gridlines in the graph/plot.
data point (markers) legend() Displays legend of the axis.
connected by line. savefig() Saves the plot as image/pdf file types.
Bar chart bar()/ Visualize data with bars show() Displays the plot/graph.
barh() with height/ length title() Defines the title for the plot/graph.
proportional to value. xlabel() Sets the label for x-axis.
Histogram hist() Visualize the number of ylabel() Sets the label for y-axis.
data (frequency) that lie xticks() Sets the tick location and label on x-axis
within range of values. yticks() Sets the tick location and label on y-axis

Creating Line Chart:

Pyplot’s plot() function is used to generate line chart for given values for x-axis and y-axis. Data for X and Y axis
may be list, series, column of DataFrame.
<pyplot obj>.plot([X-Value,]<Y-Value> [,Line/Marker-color code] [,linewidth=<n>]
[,linestyle=<style code>] [,marker=<marker style>][,markersize=<n>]
[,markeredgecolor=<colorcode>] [,label=<text>])
X-Value : Dataset for X-Axis. Default value is [0..N-1], if not given values for X-Axis.
(Dataset may be 1-D Array, List, Series or Column of DataFrame.)
Y-Value : Dataset for Y-Axis. Number of values for X-Axis and Y-Axis should be equal.
Line/Marker-Color: Defines color code for line and Marker symbol.
Linewidth=<n>: A number indicating thickness of line. Color Code: r (Red), g (Green), b (blue), k
Linestyle=<style> : Line style may be solid, dashed, dashdot or (Black) etc.
dotted etc. Line Style: Solid (-), Dashed line (--),
Marker=<style> : Defines Marker style code. dotted (:) etc.
Markersize=<n> : Defines size of marker in number. Marker style: Point(.), Circle (o), Plus (+),
Markeredgecolor=<color code> : Defines color for marker edge. Cross (x), diamond (d) etc.
Label=<text>: Defines label text for legend.
# creating simplest line chart using List of values # Multi line graph Week and average temp graph
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
xdata=[1,2,3,4,5] w=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]
ydata=[2,6,4,8,3] t=[28,34,36,30,32,38,34,32]
plt.plot(xdata,ydata) h=[30,32,34,28,30,35,33,30]
# Displaying Graph plt.plot(w,t,'r')
plt.show() plt.plot(w,h,'b')
# Displaying Graph
plt.show()

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# line plot with customization
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
w=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]
t=[28,34,36,30,32,38,34,32]
h=[30,32,34,28,30,35,33,30]
plt.plot(w,t,'r', linewidth=4, marker='o',
markersize=10, label="Temp")
plt.plot(w,h,'b',linestyle=‘:’,marker='x',
label="Humidity")
# setting graph
plt.xlabel("Week")
plt.ylabel("Temp & Humidity")
plt.title("Temp & Humidity over Time")
plt.legend(loc="upper left")
plt.show()
Creating Bar Chart:
Bar chart is a graphical display of data through colored bars of different height/length. It can be drawn
horizontally or vertically. Pyplot’s barh() function can be used to plot horizontal bar graph.
<pyplot obj>.bar(<X-Val>,<Y-Val> [,width =<size(s)>][color=<colorcode(s)>] [label=<text>]
X-Value : Dataset for X-Axis. Dataset may be 1-D Array, List, Series or Column of DataFrame.
Y-Value : Dataset for Y-Axis. Number of values for X-Axis and Y-Axis should be equal.
width=<size(s)> : Defines width of bars in number. You can also define a list of sizes for each bar, if required.
color=<color code(s)>: Defines color for bars. You can also define a list of separate color code for each bar
Label=<text>: Defines label text for legend.
# creating simple bar graph using Lists # bar chart with varying colors
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
x=[2016,2017,2018,2019,2020] year=[2018,2019,2020,2021]
y=[55,46,30,50,40] pas=[28,34,36,30]
plt.bar(x,y) plt.bar(year,pas, color=['r','k','b','g’])
plt.show() plt.show()

# Horizontal bar chart # bar chart with multiple bar

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
year=[2018,2019,2020,2021] import numpy as np
pas=[28,34,36,30] x=np.array([1,2,3,4])
plt.barh(year,pas, color=‘b') male=[28,34,36,30]
plt.show() female=[20,30,30,25]
plt.bar(x, male, width=0.3, color='b')
plt.bar(x+0.3, female, width=0.3,color='r')
plt.show()

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Creating Histogram:
A histogram is graphical visualization of the distribution of numerical Data in terms of frequency count. It
represents frequencies as bars based on non-overlapping ranges called bins.
Bins can be considered as consecutive, non-overlapping intervals of ranges. If can be a number or range with
lower and upper limit.
For example, if bin is 5 then it shows that all data to classified and counted in 5 equal bins or groups.
But if it is given as list of numbers, then it shows ranges. bins=[0,4,8,12,16] shows 0-3,4-7,8-11,12-16 ranges. By
default, it uses 10 bins with auto calculated ranges. However, number of bins or ranges can be given as per need.
Using hist() function we can plot and customize histogram like bins or ranges, histogram types and orientation etc.
<pyplot obj>.hist(<Data-Values> [, bins =<Number/list of numbers>] [histtype=<type>]
[cumulative=<True/False>] [orientation=<‘horizontal’|’vertical’>]
Data-Value : Dataset for the chart. Dataset may be 1-D Array, List, Series or Column of DataFrame.
bins=<number(s)> : Defines the number or bins (in number) and range if given as list of numbers.
histtype=<type>: Defines the type of plot. Type may be bar, barstacked, step and stepfilled. Default is bar type.
The barstacked is used for multiple data sets in which one is stacked on top of other.
cumulative=<T/F>: Creates cumulative graph if True. Default is false.
orientation=<‘horizontal’|’vertical’>: Defines orientation of plot as horizontal bars or vertical bars.
# Hitogram with 5 bins for age of students # Hitogram with 4 ranges and defined x-ticks
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
data=[2,4,5,6,2,6,8,10,12,12,11, data=[2,4,5,6,2,6,8,10,12,12,11,
10,4,3,2,5,7,9,11,12,13,14, 10,4,3,2,5,7, 9,11,12,13,14,
15,14,10,9,7,9] 15,14,10,9,7,9]
plt.hist(data,bins=5) plt.hist(data,bins=[0,4,8,12,16])
plt.show() plt.xticks([0,4,8,12,16])
plt.show()

# Horizontal Hitogram # Cumulative Hitogram for age of students

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
data=[2,4,5,6,2,6,8,10,12,12,11, data=[2,4,5,6,2,6,8,10,12,12,11,
10,4,3,2,5,7, 9,11,12,13,14, 10,4,3,2,5,7,9,11,12,13,14,
15,14,10,9,7,9] 15,14,10,9,7,9]
plt.hist(data,bins=[0,4,8,12,16], plt.hist(data, cumulative='True')
orientation=‘horizontal’) plt.show()
plt.show()

Saving Plot: plt.savefig ('myline.pdf')

To save any plot use savefig(<file name>) plt.savefig ('myline.svg')
File type may be .png, ,jpg, .svg or .pdf. plt.savefig ('myline.png')

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UNIT-2 [25 Marks] 1M 2M 3M 4M 5M Total
Database Query using SQL 6 4 6 4 5 25 M

What is Database?
A database is an organized collection of interrelated data stored together to serve applications. It work like a
container which may contains various database objects.
Most of the databases store data in the form of Relations (also called Tables). Such Databases are known as
Relational Database: A Software used to store and manage Relational database is called RDBMS (Relational
Database Management System).
Example of RDBMS software: Oracle, MySQL, MS SQL Server, SyBase and Ingress etc.
Advantages of using Database:
 Database reduces Redundancy: Removes duplicity of data because data are kept at one place.
 Database controls Inconsistency: Data updation maintains consistency and unambiguity.
 Database facilitates Sharing of Data: The data stored in the database can be shared among several users.
 Database ensures Security: Data are protected against disclosure to unauthorized users.
 Database maintains Integrity: DBMS enforces integrity rules to insure the validity or correctness of data.
Relational Data Model:
Data model describes ‘How data is organized or stored’ in the database. A Database can be categorized in various
models as per organization of records like Relational Data Model, Network Data Model, Hierarchical Data Model
and Object Oriented Data Model.
Relational Data Model: In Relational model, data is organized in the form of Relation or Table consisting rows and
columns. This model is mostly used by RDBMS software.
Relation: A Relation or Table is Two-Dimensional structure containing in Rows and Columns. It has the following
properties-
 Column homogeneous- All values in a column are of same data type.
 Unique columns- Each column assigned a unique name and must have atomic (indivisible) value.
 Unique rows- All rows of a relation are distinct i.e. no two identical records can exist in the Relation (Table).
Tuple/Entity/ Record: A Row of a table is called Tuple or Record.
Attribute/ Field: A column of a table is called Attribute or Field.
Domain: It is collection (set) of possible values from which the value for a column is derived.
Degree: Number of columns (attributes) in a table.
Cardinality: Number of Records in a table.
Concept of Keys:
A table may have several columns and some column or combination of columns which can identifies a record in
the table uniquely. Such column(s) are called Key of the Table. Keys can be categorized in following types.
Primary Key: A column or group of Column, which uniquely identify a Record/Tuple in a Table is called Primary
Key. The Primary key cannot have null or duplicate values. A table can have only ONE primary key. Example:
Vehicle Number, Enrolment number, Admission No, Roll No,PNR Number , Aadhaar , PAN No. etc.
Candidate Key: A Table may have multiple keys having candidature to work as primary key. Collection of all such
key-columns is called candidate keys. Note that Primary key is one of the candidate key.
Alternate Key: All candidate key other than Primary key are called Alternate key (Secondary Key) because they
can be used as an alternative to Primary key.
Foreign Key: is a non-key attribute, which establish a relation with another table. Mostly it is common column in
two tables and works as primary key of another table.
Consider the following tables and their columns:
EMPLOYEE (EmpNo, Name, Designation, City, AadharNo, DeptNo)
DEPARTMENT (DeptNo, Dname, HODName)
Candidate Keys of EMPLOYEE Table : (EmpNo, AadharNo)
Primary Key of EMPLOYEE Table- EmpNo & Primary Key of DEPARTMENT Table- DeptNo
Foreign Key of EMPLOYEE Table- DeptNo. (because it is common to both table and is primary key in Department
Table)
MySQL:
MySQL is an open source Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) software based on SQL. The main
features of MySQL are –
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  Open Source & Free: It is Open Source and available free of cost.
 Portability: It can be installed and run on any types of Hardware and OS like Linux, MS Windows or Mac etc.
 Security: It offers security and authorization feature to keep database secure.
 Connectivity: The MySQL database can be connected with Programming Languages like Python, Java etc.
 Query Language: It uses SQL (Structured Query Language), which is standardized by ANSI.
Types of SQL (MySQL) Commands:
SQL commands may categorised into two category as their usage:
DDL (Data Definition Language): Commands to define structure of data i.e. Database and Table.
DML (Data Manipulation Language): Commands to process records stored in the table.
DDL Commands (Works with Table/Database) DML Commands (Works with Records)
CREATE Creates Database and Tables SELECT Displays records from the table.
ALTER Modifies structure of Table INSERT Insert records in the table
DROP Deletes Database and Table DELETE Deletes records from the table
UPDATE Modifies values of existing records.
Apart from these commands, MySql the following miscellaneous commands –
SHOW DATABASES: Displays list of Databases available.
SHOW TABLES: Displays list of tables stored in currently opened database.
USE <Database Name>: Opens a database for working. Example : USE EMPLOYEE
DESCRIBE <Table>: Display structure of table. Example – DESCRIBE Student
Data Types in MySQL:
A column of the Table stores same type of values as defined while creating a table. Commonly used MySQL data
types for a column are-
INTEGER (Size)/INT (size) : Stores numbers without decimal upto given size.
DECIMAL (M, D)/NUMERIC (M, D)/FLOAT (M,D) : Numbers with decimal points upto M size and D decimal places.
Ex: Decimal (8,2) will store like 123456.78
CHAR (size): Stores string/text upto given size. Maximum size is 255 and default is 1, if size not given.
VARCHAR (size): Stores variable size string upto given size. Maximum size is 65535.
DATE: Stores date string in YYYY-MM-DD format.
TIME: Store time string in HH:MM:SS format.
Note: All values must be enclosed in single or double quotes except Integer and Decimal numbers.
Working with DDL Commands
Creating Database and Table:
CREATE DATABASE <Data base Name>
CREATE TABLE < Table Name> (<Col name1><data type>[(size)] [Constraints],….);
Constraints:
Constraints are the rules, condition or checks applicable to a column or table which ensures the integrity or
validity of data. The commonly used constraints are-
Constraints Purpose
NOT NULL Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
UNIQUE Ensures that all values in a column are different.
DEFAULT Provides a default value for a column, when nothing is given.
CHECK Ensures that all values in a column should satisfy certain condition.
PRIMARY KEY Defines Primary Key of the Table that can identify a row uniquely.
FOREIGN KEY Defines Foreign key which makes a relation with any other table to ensure Referential
Integrity of the data.
Note: Constraints are optional. A table may have multiple Unique constraints but only one Primary Key.
Creating Database and table. Creating table with constraints.
CREATE DATABASE SCHOOL; CREATE TABLE Student
USE SCHOOL; (StCode char(3) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
CREATE TABLE Employee Stname char(20) NOT NULL,
(Code char(3), StAdd varchar(40),
EmpName char(20), AdmNo char(5) UNIQUE,
City varchar(40), StSex char(1) DEFAULT ‘M’,
Pay Numeric(8,2)); StAge integer CHECK (StAge>=5) );

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Modifying Structure of Table: Adding new column -
We can alter (modify) the structure of existing ALTER TABLE Student ADD (TelNo Integer);
table by the using ALTER TABLE Command. With ALTER TABLE Student ADD (Code int(3) Primary Key);
ALTER TABLE Command, we can- Modifying Existing Column :
 Add a new Column or Constraints ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY Name VARCHAR(40);
 Modifying existing column (data type, size etc.) Deleting Column:
ALTER TABLE Student DROP TelNo;
 Delete an existing column or Constraints
Renaming Column Name:
 Rename Column Name
ALTER TABLE EMP CHANGE ENAME EMPNAME
ALTER TABLE <Table Name> CHAR(40); OR
ADD | MODIFY | DROP | CHANGE <Column ALTER TABLE EMP RENAME ENAME EMPNAME;
Definition(s)>
Deleting Database and Table: DROP DATABASE School;
DROP DATABASE <Data base Name> DROP TABLE Student;
DROP TABLE <Table Name>
Working with DML commands
Inserting Records: Suppose a Table STUDENT (Code, Name, Fname, DOB, Class)
You can insert record in the table by using by using is created. The following command will insert a record.
the following DML command. INSERT INTO Student VALUES
INSERT INTO <Table Name> [<Column list>] (‘s1’,’Amar’, ‘Dhirendra Kumar’,’1985-10-25’, 12);
VALUES <list of values>
INSERT INTO Student VALUES
Note:
 Values to be given as per order of columns. (‘s2’,’Shaan’, NULL,’1972-5-25’, 10);
 ‘Null’ can be used in place of unknown values. INSERT INTO Student (StID, FName, Name, Class)
 You can define order of column with table name VALUES (‘s3’,’Amitabh’, ’Abhishek’, 12);
as per order of values to be inserted.
Deleting Records: DELETE FROM Student ; (All record will be deleted)
DELETE FROM <Table Name> DELETE FROM Student WHERE City=‘Mumbai’ ;
[WHERE <Condition>] DELETE FROM Student WHERE Class >=11 ;
Modifying Records: UPDATE Student SET Class =10 ;
UPDATE <Table> SET <Column> = <Expression> UPDATE Student SET Class=10 WHERE class=9 ;
[WHERE <Condition>] UPDATE Emp SET Sal = Sal+(Sal*10/100)
WHERE Sal <=10000;
UPDATE Emp SET City = ‘Dehradun’ WHERE CITY IS NULL;
Displaying Records:
The SELECT command used to make a request (query) to retrieve stored records from the table.
SELECT < [Distinct | ALL] * | column name(s)> FROM <table(s)> [WHERE <condition> ]
[ORDER BY <column(s)> [ASC | DESC] ] [GROUP BY <column(s)> [HAVING <condition>] ] ;
A condition defined with WHERE clause may have the following Relational and Logical operators:
=, > , < , >=, <=, <>, IS , LIKE, IN, BETWEEN, OR , AND , NOT (!)
Note:
 IS operators is used to compare NULL value (Never use = (equal) with Null.
 BETWEEN operator defines a range of values as lower and upper range (both are inclusive)
 LIKE Operator used to define a condition based on a pattern of string.
Pattern is a search string having the following wild cards-
Percent (% ) - Represents a substring in any length
Under score ( _) - (Represents a single character at used position.)
Example.
● ‘A%’ : Any string starting with ‘A’ character. ● ‘_ _A’ : Any 3 character string ending with ‘A’.
● ‘_B%’ : Any string having second character ‘B’ ● ‘_ _ _’ represents any 3 letter string.
Making Simple Queries Using SELECT Clause:
Displaying all records with columns Using Column Aliases -
SELECT * FROM Student ; SELECT Name, DOB AS ‘Date of Birth’ FROM Student;
Displaying all records with selected columns. Making Expressions:
SELECT Name, City FROM Student ; SELECT 4*3 ;
Displaying unique values in a column SELECT Name, Sal*12 FROM EMP;
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Student ; SELECT Name, Sal*12 AS ‘Annual Salary’ FROM EMP;
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Displaying Selected Records- WHERE Searching NULL Values – IS Operator
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE City=‘Mumbai’; SELECT * FROM Student
SELECT Name, City from Student WHERE City IS NULL ;
WHERE City <> ‘Mumbai’ AND Class>10; SELECT * FROM Student
SELECT * FROM Emp WHERE Sal >10000 OR Job =‘Manager’; WHERE City IS NOT NULL;
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE NOT Grade=‘A’;
Specifying Range of Values – BETWEEN Operator Specifying List of values– IN Operator
SELECT * FROM Emp WHERE Sal BETWEEN 5000 SELECT * FROM Emp
AND 10000; WHERE Sal IN (5000, 10000) ;
[Same as SELECT * FROM Emp WHERE Sal >= 5000 [Same as SELECT * FROM Emp WHERE Sal = 5000 OR
AND Sal<=10000 ;] Sal =10000 ; ]
SELECT * FROM Emp WHERE NOT Sal BETWEEN SELECT * FROM Student WHERE City IN (‘Mumbai’,
5000 AND 10000 ; ‘Delhi’,’Kanpur’) ;
Specifying Pattern of string- Ordering result of query – Order By Clause:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name LIKE ‘A%’; SELECT * FROM Student Order By City;
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name LIKE ‘%Singh%’; SELECT * FROM Student Order By City DESC;
SELECT Name, City FROM Student WHERE Class>=9 SELECT * FROM Student
AND Name LIKE ‘%Kumar%’ ; WHERE City=”Prayagraj” Order By Name;
Functions in MySQL:
A function is a special types of command in MySQL that performs some operation on table and returns a single
value as a result. MySQL functions may be divided in the following categories-
 Math or Numeric Functions ( works on numeric columns and numeric data)
 Text or String Functions (works on string data or text columns)
 Date & Time Function (works on date and time data or columns)
 Aggregate Functions (works on numeric/Text columns vertically and also called Multi Row function)
Numeric Functions: SELECT MOD(5,2) ;  1
MOD(N,M) Returns remainder of N divide by M SELECT POW(5,2) ;  25
POWER(N,M) Returns N to the power M( N ) M SELECT ROUND(‘212.567’,1 ) ;  212.6
POW(N,M) Select ROUND(15.193,1);  15.2
ROUND (N [,M]) Returns a number rounded off up to M Select ROUND(15.193);  15
place. If M is -1, it rounds nearest 10. Select ROUND (355.35,-1)  360
If M is not given, the N is rounded to the Select ROUND (124.35,-1)  120
nearest Integer. Select ROUND (355.35,-2)  400
TRUNCATE(N,M) Returns number after truncating M SELECT TRUNCATE(‘212.567’,1 ) ; 212.5
decimal places. SELECT ROUND(PAY,2) FROM EMP;
SQRT (N) Returns square root of N SELECT TRUNCATE(PRICE*QTY,2) FROM ITEMS;
String Functions: SELECT LENGTH(‘abcd’ ) ;  4
LENGTH(str) Returns the length of given string SELECT LENGTH(Name) FROM Student;
LOWER(str)/ Returns given string in lower case. SELECT LOWER(‘ABcD’ ) ;  abcd
LCASE(str) SELECT LOWER(Name) FROM Student;
UPPER(str)/ Returns given String in upper case SELECT UPPER(‘abcD’ ) ;  ABCD
UCASE(str) SELECT UPPER(Name) FROM Student;
LTRIM(str) Removes Leading/Trailing/both SELECT LTRIM(‘ abcd’ ) ;  abcd
RTRIM(str) spaces from given string. SELECT LTRIM(Name) FROM Student;
TRIM(str) SELECT RTRIM(‘abcd ’ );  abcd
LEFT(str, N) Returns the (N) characters from SELECT TRIM(‘ abcd ’ ) ;  abcd
RIGHT(str,N) left/right from the given string. SELECT SUBSTR(‘MY COMPUTER’, 4,3’ )  COM
SUBSTR(str,P,[N]) Returns the substring for given SELECT LEFT(‘MYSQL’, 2 )  MY
MID (str,P,N) position (P) and (N) characters. If N SELECT LEFT( Name, 4) FROM Student;
is (-ve) then backward position SELECT RIGHT(‘MYSQL’, 3 )  SQL
counted. SELECT MID(‘COMPUTER’, 4,3 )  PUT
INSTR(str1,str2) Returns the index of first SELECT MID (Name, 4,3) FROM Student;
occurrence of str2 in str1. SELECT SUBSTR(‘ABCDEFG’ , -5, 4) ;  CDEF
SELECT SUBSTR(‘ABCDEFG’ , 3) ;  CDEFG
SELECT INSTR(‘CORPORATE’, ‘OR’);  2

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Date & Time Functions: SELECT CURDATE() ;  2024-10-31
CURDATE() Returns the current date in YYYY- SELECT CURDATE()+10;  2024-11-10
CURRENT_DATE() MM-DD format. SELECT NOW() ;
NOW() Returns the current date & Time as SELECT DATE(‘2008-12-31 01:02:03’) ;
YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS  2008-12-32
DATE() Returns the date part of a date- SELECT YEAR(‘2008-12-31’) ;  2008
time expression. SELECT YAER(DOB) FROM Student;
SELECT MONTH(‘2008-12-31’) ;  12
DAY(), MONTH() Returns the Day/Month/Year from
SELECT * From Emp Where MONTH( DOB)=10;
YEAR() given date or date type column.
SELECT * FROM Student Where DAY( DOB)=15;
DAYNAME() Returns the name of the weekday SELECT DAYOFWEEK(‘2008-12-31’) ; 1
DAYOFMONTH() Returns the day of month (1-31). SELECT DAYOFYAER(‘2010-02-05’) ; 36
DAYOFWEEK() Returns the day of week (1-7).
DAYOFYEAR() Returns the day of year (1-366).
Aggregate Functions: SELECT SUM (Sal) FROM Emp;
SUM() Returns the sum of given column. SELECT SUM(Sal) FROM Emo WHERE
MIN() Returns the minimum value in the column. City=‘Guwahati’;
MAX() Returns the maximum value in the column. SELECT MAX (Sal) FROM Emp;
AVG() Returns the Average value of the given column. SELECT MAX(Sal) FROM Emp WHERE
City=‘Jaipur’;
COUNT() Returns the total number of NOT NULL values in
SELECT AVG (Sal) FROM Emp;
the column/ number of records.
SELECT COUNT (Name) FROM Emp;
Note: SELECT COUNT (*) FROM Emp;
 Aggregate functions works on whole column (vertically) SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Emp
and ignores NULL values. WHERE City=‘Jaipur’;
 Never use Aggregate functions with WHERE clause. Note: Count(*) gives number of records.
Grouping Records - GROUP BY Clause Select Sum (Sal) from EMP where
Some time it is required to apply a Select query on a group of City=‘Kanpur’;
records instead of whole table. Select Min (Sal) from EMP Group By City;
GROUP BY <column> [HAVING <Condition>] clause with Select Select Job, Sum(Sal) from EMP Group By Job;
command makes groups. A group column is chosen which have Select AVG(Sal) from EMP Group By City;
non-distinct (repeating) values like City, Job etc. Select Count(*) from EMP Group By City;
Condition may be applied on Groups with HAVING. Generally, Select Job, Sum(Pay) from EMP Group By Job
the Aggregate Functions are applied on groups. HAVING Avg(Pay)>=7000;
Tips: A query question containing “wise” or “for each” Select Job, Sum(Pay) from EMP Group By Job
indicates the use of Group By clause with Select. HAVING Count(*)>=5;
Joining two tables (Join Query):
Sometimes it is required to access information from two or more tables, which requires the Joining of tables. A
query in which two or tables are required to join is called Join Query. The following major types of Join can be
implemented on tables –
Cross Join: Each record of Table-11 is joined with each record of Table-2. It is also called Cartesian product. If
Table-1 has 3 columns and 5 records, and Table-2 has 4 columns and 6 records then 5x6=30 records with 3+4=7
columns will be generated as result.
Natural Join: Tables are joined on the equality of common column and common column will be displayed once.
Equi-Join: It is mostly similar to Natural Join where two tables are joined on the equal value of given column but
record contains all column from both tables.
The commonly used method of Joining table is-
SELECT < Column(s)> FROM <Table1, Table 2 > WHERE <Joining Condition> [Order By ..] [Group By ..]
You may add more conditions using AND/OR/NOT operators, if required.
Join condition mostly usage Common Column of both tables and written as-
Table1.Common col=Table2.Common col (You can also use alias (short name) of tables in Join condition.)
Ex. Find out the name of Employees working in Production Deptt.
Select Ename From EMP, DEPT Where Emp.DeptNo=Dept.DeptNo AND Dname=‘Production’;
Ex. Find out the name of Employees working in same city from where they belongs (hometown).
Select Ename From EMP, DEPT Where Emp.DeptNo=Dept.DeptNo And City=Location;
Ex. Find out the name of students enrolled in B.Tech Course.
Select Ename From STUDENT AS S, COURSE AS C Where S.CourseID=C.CourseID and Cname=‘B.Tech’;
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UNIT-3 [10 Marks] 1M 2M 3M 4M 5M Total
Introduction to Computer Networks 3 2 - - 5 10 M

A computer network is a collection of two or more computing devices which are interconnected to share data and
other resources. The Computer network facilitates transfer or exchange of information in the form of text, image,
and audio, video through wired or wireless transmission medium.
A computer Network may include-
 Hosts or Nodes: Devices receives or sends data like computers, laptops, mobiles etc.
 Network devices: Devices manages transfer of data like Switch, Router and Modem etc.
 Transmission Media (wired or wireless): Media which carries data signals like wire or Bluetooth etc.
 Protocol: Set of rules which control the communication.
Advantages of Computer Network:
 Sharing Resources: Network facilitates sharing of hardware and software resources like sharing of data,
programs and printer etc. among users irrespective of their physical location.
 Improved Communication: Computer network enables fast, reliable and secure communication between
users like Sending e-mail, SMS and MMS etc.
 Reduced Communication cost: Sharing resources also reduces its communication cost. Internet and Mobile
network playing very important role in sending and receiving text, image, audio and video data at low cost.
Types of Computer Network:
A network may vary in size, complexity and coverage area. On the basis of coverage of geographical area, data
transfer speed and complexity, a computer network may be classified as:
 LAN (Local Area Network) : LAN connects devices placed in limited geographical area like a single room, a
floor, buildings or campus. LAN usage wires (Ethernet cables) or wireless (Wi-Fi) to connect devices and offers
high speed data transfer rates usually varies from 10-100 Mbps.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): The MAN may connects several LANs and covers a larger geographical
area like a city or a town. Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet services are examples of MAN.
This kind of network may be extended up to 100 km.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): The WAN covers large geographical area like countries and continents. A WAN is
formed by connecting several LANs and MANs. The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of
computers, smart phones and millions of LANs from different continents.
 PAN (Personal Area Network): The PANs are small network which connects devices in small proximity up to 10
meters using wired USB connectivity or wireless system like Bluetooth, Infrared , Wi-Fi etc. PAN facilitates
transfer of files like songs, videos, images etc. from one computer, mobile to other.
PAN LAN MAN WAN
Covered Area Approx. 10 mt. Room, Building, May cover a city Country or
complex or campus continents.
Media used Data cable, Ethernet , Coaxial Optical fiber, Radio Microwave and
Infrared/Bluetooth. cable, Wifi etc. wave, Microwave satellite etc.
Network Cable, Dongle LAN card,Hub, MODEM, Router, MODEM, Router,
Devices used Switch, Repeater Gateway Gateway
Transmission Media:
A Transmission medium is a medium of data transfer over a network. The selection of media depends on the cost,
data transfer speed, bandwidth and distance.
Transmission Medium is divided into two major categories:
(A) Wired (Guided) Media:
 Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair or Ethernet cable is most common media which consists of four insulated
pairs of wires twisted around each other. It is low-cost, flexible and easy to install cables and can transfer
data upto 100 mts distance. It uses RJ-45 Connector for connecting devices.
 Co-Axial Cable: This cable consists a solid insulated wire surrounded by wire mesh separated by foil or
insulator. Co-axial Cable or Coax, is mostly used in Cable TV transmission and can carry data upto 500 mts.
 Optical Fiber: An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, and transparent strand of glass or plastic that carry light
signals instead of electric current. Signal are transmitted in the form of light emitted from source using
Light Emitting Diode (LED) or LASER beam. Optical fibers offers secure and high speed transmission upto a
long distance.
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(B) Wireless (Unguided) Media:
 Infrared Wave: It used for short-range (approx. 5 mt) communication using wireless signals. It is mostly
used in Remote operated devices like TV, Toys, Cordless phones etc.
 Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a wireless technology for creating personal networks operating within a range of
10 meters.
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): Wi-Fi communication is similar to Bluetooth in operation, but it covers a large
coverage (50-200 mts.)
 Radio waves: Radio wave is used to make broadcast network like FM Radio within city. Radio wave
propagates in Omni direction (surrounding) and can penetrate solid walls/buildings etc.
 Microwaves: Microwave are high energy electromagnetic waves propagates in line of sight direction. It is
high speed wave and can cover distance upto 100 km.
 Satellite: Satellite works like a Trans-Receiver Antenna in the space, which receives, regenerates and
redirects signals using Microwave. Services like DTH, VSAT, GPS and Satellite phones etc. are offered by
the satellite.
Network Devices:
Networking devices are equipment that receive or transmit data or signal and make communication channel.
Some common Networking devices are-
 Network Interface Card (NIC): A NIC (Network Interface Card) or LAN Card enables computer to connect with
a network using a RJ-45 port. Each LAN card possess a unique 6 Byte Physical (static) address known as Media
Access Control (MAC) Address, which is used to identifies a device uniquely over the network. WLAN
(Wireless) card is also used for connecting PC/Laptops with Wireless Network.
 Hub: A Hub is a device which connects multiple computers together to form a Local Area Network (LAN). Hub
makes Broadcast type Network and do not manage traffic over the network channel. Nowadays Hub is
obsolete technology and Switch is used in place of Hubs.
 Switch: Switch is similar to Hub that also connects several nodes to form a Network. But Switch is faster than
hub due to better traffic management and control over Network. Switch can also be used to combine various
small network segments to form a big Network.
 Repeater: A Repeater is a device that regenerates the received signals and re-transmits to its destination. In
case of twisted pair cable (Ethernet), signals become weak after 100 meters. So, Repeaters are required at
each 90- 100 meters to maintain signal strength. A Hub or Switch also works as a repeater.
 Router: Router is an inter-networking device which connects multiple Networks to form a big Network. The
basic role of Routers is to determine the best possible route (shortest path) for the data packets to be
transmitted. In a large network (WAN), multiple routers work to facilitate speedy delivery of data packets.
 Gateway: A Gateway device connects dissimilar networks having different protocols. Gateway is also called
protocol converter, since it converts data packets from one protocol to other while connecting two dissimilar
networks. Usually it is implemented by software within a router device.
 MODEM: A MODEM (MOdulator-DEModulator) device connects Telephone line to the Computer. It converts
Digital signal into Analog (Modulation) and Analog to Digital (Demodulation). This conversion is required
because Telephone lines can’t carry digital data. Generally it is used to connect a PC with Telephone lines to
access Internet or make voice call using PC.
Network Topologies:
The layout of interconnection of computers and devices in a network is called Topology.
The selection of topology for a network, depends on Cost of media, Flexibility to add more devices and Reliability
of network (Fault detection in case of Network failure). Some commonly used Topologies are-
Bus Topology:
In the bus topology, all devices are connected to a main or backbone cable. It is simple and oldest topology used
in the early days of computer networking.
Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, all nodes are connected to a main cable making a closed loop (ring). All data packet travel in the
ring in the same direction and passes through each node.
Tree Topology:
Tree topology combines multiple star topology networks together onto a bus (Bus-Star approach). In its simplest
form all connecting devices (hub or switch) are connected to the bus network to make "root" of the network tree.
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Mesh Topology:
In Mesh topology, all devices are directly connected to each other, forming a mesh-like structure. Mesh topology
is most expensive and complex to implement and manage.

Introduction to Internet:
 Internet is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks, that are linked by various wired, wireless, and optical networking technologies.
 The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP) to serve billion users worldwide.
 The modern Internet is an extension of ARPANet (Advanced Research Project Agency Network), created in
1969 by the American Department of Defense.
 The Internet carries variety of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext
documents of the World Wide Web (WWW), communicational infrastructure to support e-mail, chat and
transfer of Text, Images, Audio, Video etc.
Application of Internet:
 World Wide Web (WWW):
Word Wide Web (WWW) or Web is a collection of inter-linked hypertext pages accessed through Web
Browser program using internet. A web page may contains information in form of text, images, audio,
video or Animation. The resources on the web can be shared or accessed through the Internet. The Web
pages (HTML pages) are stored on web server and transferred via the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
using a software application called a web browser.
Tim Berners Lee, a British computer scientist invented the revolutionary World Wide Web in 1990 by
defining three fundamental technologies i.e. HTML, WWW and URL.
 HTML: Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a language which is used to design Web Pages. A web page
is designed using HTML tags like <HEAD>,<BODY> etc. to define the web page layout and organized
contents which to be displayed by the web browser. Webpages are stored as .html or .htm files.
 URL (Uniform Resource Locator) : URL is a unique address of web resources located on the web. It
provides the location and mechanism (protocol) to access the web resource. URL is also called a web
address. A URL contains protocol, subdomain, Domain and name of webpage along with path/directory.

Protocol- Protocols may be http, https, ftp and telnet etc.

Subdomain- Subdomain may be www, blog, and mail etc.
Domain- Domain contains name of website and 3 characters Top level domain (TLD) like .com, .edu, .org,
.net etc. Sometimes country domain (2 letters) also used like .uk, .in, .nz etc.
Path and Web page- last segment of URL may contains location/path and webpage name.
 E-Mail:
Email (electronic mail) is the ways of sending and receiving message(s) using the Internet. The message
can be either text onto the email application or an attached file (text, image, audio, video, etc.). E-mail
address like [email protected] identifies the sender and recipients. Now days Web-based e-mail services are
available at free of cost through various service providers like Google-Gmail, Yahoo- Yahoo mail,
Microsoft-Hotmail & Outlook etc. E-mail service providers may provide extra facilities like filtering spam,
search emails by sender or contents and organizing contacts and email ids, sending email to cc, bcc (blind
carbon copy) recipients etc.
An Email application uses SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol) and
POP(Post Office Protocol) etc. to handle mails over network.
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  Instant Messaging (Chat):
Instant Messaging (IM) or Chatting over the Internet means communicating to people at different
geographic locations in real time through text message(s). It is similar to e-mail, except that message is
sent immediately to recipient. It facilitates user to type and send messages to make conversation.
Applications such as WhatsApp, Slack, Skype, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook Messenger etc., are examples
of instant messengers. Some applications support sending audio and video along with text chat.
 Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP):
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), allows make voice call over the Internet. VoIP offers voice
transmission over a computer network (IP) rather than through regular telephone network. It is also
known as Internet Telephony. Examples of Voip are Whatsapp, Skype, Google Chat etc.
 Video calls and Video Conferencing :
Video Conferencing allows two or more people to make two-way video and audio transmissions. In Video
conferencing, group of people at multiple locations may participate rather than individuals. H.239 is
commonly used protocol for Video conferencing. Google Meet, Microsoft Team, Skype, Zoom or
WhatsApp are most commonly used applications for video conferencing or meeting.
Website:
In general, a website is an organized collection of interlinked web pages related through hyperlinks, stored on a
web server to provide information or service to its visitor.
All the pages of a website are stored under one domain name and have a common theme or template. For
example, the website of CBSE will have all the pages related to syllabus, Circulars, Events, resource materials etc.,
under one domain name and having a common design theme.
A website can be accessed by providing the address of the website (URL) in the browser. The main page of
website (Home/Index page) will be open when it is opened on the browser.
Web Page:
A web page is a HTML document on the WWW that can be viewed through web browser. To make web pages
more attractive, various styling CSS (Cascaded Style Sheet) and formatting are applied on a web page. Further,
program codes (scripts) may also be used to make webpage interactive and define different actions and behavior.
JavaScript, PHP and Python are commonly used script language.
A web page is usually a part of a website and may contain information in the forms of texts, images, audio and
video etc. Depending on the functionality and features, a web page may be classified as-
Static Web Page:
A static webpage is one who’s content always remains static, i.e., does not change for person, location or device.
Static web pages are generally written in HTML or CSS and have the extension .htm or .html.
Dynamic Web Page:
A dynamic web page is one in which the content of the web page can be different for different users according to
language, location or device. The dynamic are more complex in design and take more time to load than static web
pages. Dynamic web pages can be created using script languages such as JavaScript, PHP, ASP.NET, Python etc.
Web pages displaying the date, time, weather report, multi-lingual pages or auto resizing webpage as per screen
size of the client device are Dynamic web page.
Static V/s Dynamic Web Page
Static Webpage Dynamic Web page
The static web pages display the same content The dynamic Web page changes its appearance or
each time, irrespective of location or device. contents according to user, location or device.
It takes less time to display on browser at client Dynamic web pages take more time while displaying on
end. browser.
These are simple in layout and style and no Mostly database is used at server-end to store contents
Database is used. and style information.
Mostly designed through HTML and stored as Designed in Script language like Java Script, ASP.Net,
.htm or .html format PHP etc. and stored as .php,.asp etc.
Web Server:
A web server stores and delivers the contents of a website to web clients (browser) when requested.
A web server as a computer, stores Web server Application software and a website's contents (HTML pages,
images, CSS style sheets, and Script files).
Web server as a software, is a specialized program that understands URLs and requests from browsers, and
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responds to those requests.
Each web server is assigned a unique domain name, so that it can be accessed from anywhere using Internet. The
web browser from the client computer sends a HTTP request for a page and web server then accepts request,
interprets, searches and responds (HTTP response) against request of the web browser. The requested web page
is then displayed in the browser of the client. If the requested web page is not found, web server generates “Error:
404 Not found” as a response.
Web Hosting:
Web hosting is a service that enables you to publish website on the Internet. Once a website is created, it should
be placed on web server for global access.
For webhosting, we need storage/space on a web server where all the files (webpage) and necessary data can be
stored. Mostly Web Server services (CPU, RAM, and storage etc.) are taken on rent basis from the cloud service
providers and web developer hosts website on server by uploading the files constituting the website (HTML, CSS,
JavaScript, images, databases, etc.). These services are usually paid and resources can be increased or decreased
as per requirement.
All web servers are assigned a unique numeric address called IP address when connected to the Internet. This IP
address needs to be mapped to domain name (Website name/URL) of the website using DNS (Domain Name
Service). The domain name can be registered (purchased) through an authorized agency i.e. Registrar Domain
Names.
Web Browser:
A Web browser is a software application that helps us to view the web page(s) from web server to any client
device. Some commonly used web browsers are Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, etc. A
web browser essentially displays the HTML documents which may include text, images, audio, video and
hyperlinks that help to navigate from one web page to another.
The modern browsers allow a wide range of visual effects, use encryption for advanced security and also have
cookies that can store the browser settings and data.
Every web browser offers certain settings that define the manner in which the browser will behave. These settings
may be related to privacy, search engine preferences, download options, auto fill and autocomplete feature,
theme and much more. Each browser application allows customization of its settings through setting options.
Add-ons and Plug-ins:
Add-ons and plug-ins are the tools that help to extend the functionality of the web browser.
An add-on is also called extension in some browsers and is used to add a particular functionality to the browser
like playing sound or graphics is an example of an add-on. Mostly these Add-ons are provided as Extensions
through a library provided by the Web Browser which can be installed from the browsers setting options.
A plug-in is a complete program or third-party software which offers some extra functionality to users. For
example, Flash players and Java are plug-ins etc. A Flash player is required to play a video in the browser. A plug-in
is a software that is installed on the host computer and can be used by the browser for multiple functionalities
and can even be used by other applications as well.
Cookies:
A cookie is a small text file, which is transferred by the webserver to the browser while surfing a website. The
information stored in cookies are related to user, pages were visited, choices and menu(s) settings on a particular
website. It helps in customizing the web pages like language, auto-login information, preferences and sometimes
remembering the shopping preference and displaying advertisements of interest, etc.
Cookies are usually harmless and they can’t access information from the hard disk or transmit virus or malware.
However, cookies may be privacy threats. Sometimes viruses can also be tricked as cookies and cause harm to a
computer system. Cookies can be disable by changing the Privacy and Security settings of the browser.

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UNIT-4 [10 Marks] 1M 2M 3M 4M 5M Total
Societal Impacts 3 4 3 - - 10 M

Digital Footprint:
Digital footprint is the trail of information that people leave online or in any communicating devices.
Digital footprint incudes all activities carried over digital devices and Internet like websites we visit, emails and
messages we send, and any information we submit online, posts on social media, online purchases, software and
apps used, music, video downloaded or uploaded etc.
All our online activities leave a data trace on the Internet as well as on the computing device that we use. This can
be used to trace the user, their location, device and other usage details.
There are two kinds of digital footprints we leave behind.
 Active Footprints
Active digital footprints includes information that we intentionally submit online. This may include emails we
write, or responses or posts we make on different websites or mobile Apps, etc.
 Passive Footprints
The digital data trail we leave online unintentionally is called passive digital footprints. This includes the data
generated when we visit a website, use a mobile App, browse Internet, etc.
Net and Communication etiquettes:
Now days our society is turning as Digital Society. Digital society reflects the growing trend of using digital
technologies in all spheres of human activities. Anyone who uses digital technology along with Internet is a digital
citizen or a Netizen.
Being a good netizen, all of us need to be aware of some ethics, morals and values to be maintained during online.
A responsible netizen must abide by the following etiquettes-
Net etiquettes :
Net Etiquettes or Netiquettes is code of good behavior on the Internet. It may include-
 No copyright violation: We should not use copyrighted materials without the permission of the
Be Ethical

creator or owner. While downloading and using text, image, audio, video from the internet, we
must mention courtesy or credit to original author or owner.
 Share expertise: Share only true and unambiguous information and knowledge on Internet so
that others can access to get benefitted from it.
 Respect privacy: We should respect the right to privacy and the freedom of expression of
others. Our personal communication may include images, documents, files, etc., that may be
Be Respectful

private to both. We should not share such images, documents, files, etc. without consent of
owner.
 Respect diversity: In a group or public forum, we should respect the diversity of the people in
terms of knowledge, experience, culture, Religion and other aspects. Avoid comments and
passing remarks on others in social media platforms.
 Don’t feed troll: Writing comments with the aim of getting a reactions from others is commonly
Be Responsible

referred to as “trolling”. Since trolls thrive on attention, the best way to discourage trolls is not
to pay any attention on such comments.
 Avoid cyber bullying: Any insulting or degrading behavior like posting of rumors, giving threats
online, posting the other’s personal information, sexual harassment or comments aimed to
publicly ridicule a person is called cyber bullying. Cyber Bullying is a punishable offence and our
actions can be traced using our digital footprints.
 Secure password: We should have strong and frequently changed password. Never share
personal credentials with others to avoid misuse of account.
Be Secure

 Know who you befriend: Be careful while being friend to unknown people as their intentions
possibly could be malicious and unsafe.
 Beware of fake information: We should apply our knowledge and experience to validate Fake
news, messages and posts. Never forward fake posts.
Communication Etiquettes:
Digital communication includes email, texting, instant messaging, talking on the cell phone, audio or video
conferencing, posting on forums, social networking sites, etc. We should follow the following etiquettes while
making communication-

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Be Precise:
Always respect other’s precious time and data usage. So while writing emails, messages etc. be concise in
contents and share large sized files as attachment to avoid data usage for download. However necessary large
files may be shared through cloud storage like Google Drive, OneDrive, Dropbox etc.
Be Polite:
We should be polite and non-aggressive in our communication. So avoid being abusive even if we don’t agree with
others’ point of view.
Be Credible:
We should be cautious while making a comment, replying or writing an email or post. Such acts decide our
credibility and reflect our digital personality.
Data Protection:
Data protection refers to the practices, safeguards, and rules to protect your personal information and ensure
that you remain in control of it. Personal data refers information relating to your private life like biometric
information, health and financial information, or other personal documents, images or audios or videos etc.
How to protect our private Data?
 Be careful while sharing information on Internet.
 Browse websites privately and ensure that the URL contain HTTPS and a pad lock sign.
 Ensure safe and trusted sites while entering sensitive information.
 Never save passwords while working on public computer.
 Avoid entering sensitive information onto a public computer and erase history and traces of your work
from public computers, if used.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR):
Intellectual Property refers to the literary and artistic works, inventions, designs and symbols, names and logos
etc. The ownership of such property lies with the creator, or the holder of the intellectual property.
The owners of Intellectual Property holds certain exclusive legal rights through which he/she can use their
property without any disturbance and can prevent the misuse of their property. Like other tangible property,
owner of IPR can earn recognition or financial benefit by using their creation or invention. So, violation of
intellectual property right is punishable offence.
In India, Intellectual Property is governed under the Patents Act, 1970; Trademarks Act, 1999; Copyright Act, 1957;
Designs Act, 2001 etc.
Intellectual Property is also legally protected through copyrights, patents, trademarks etc. commonly known as
Intellectual Property Right (IPR).
Copyrights:
 Copyright gives legal rights to creators for their original works like writing, photograph, audio recordings,
video, sculptures, architectural works, Software and other creative works like literary and artistic work.
 The copyrights include right to copy (reproduce), share, display, distribute etc. It prevents others from
copying, using or selling the work.
 Copyrights are automatically granted to creators and authors. Copyright law gives the copyright holder a set
of rights that they alone can avail legally. Copyright is valid for life time of the author and 60 years after
his/her death.
Patent:
 A patent is usually granted for inventions, innovations and process etc.
 Patent owner gets an exclusive right to prevent others from using, selling, or distributing the protected
invention and gives full control to the patentee to decide whether or how the invention can be used by
others.
 The inventor needs to apply (file) for patenting the invention. A patent protects an invention for 20 years.
Trademark:
 Trademark includes any visual symbol, word, name, design, slogan, label, etc., that distinguishes the brand or
commercial enterprise, from others.
 Trademark prevents others from using a confusingly similar mark, including words or phrases. For example,
no company other than Nestle can use the Nescafe brand name to sell coffee.
 The owner of a trademark may take legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require
formal registration of a trademark for product or services for 10 years, if not renewed.

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Plagiarism:
Plagiarism is stealing someone else’s intellectual work, idea or thoughts and representing its own.
Plagiarism is an unethical practice of using other’s work without giving credit to its original author or source.
Sometimes considered as an act of fraud. Some common example of plagiarism are-
 Copying someone’s work and presenting its own.
 Act of stealing or copying literary work and not giving the credit to its author or original creator.
 Copying software programs written by other programmers and claiming them as your own.
The following points may be used to avoid plagiarism.
 Always use your own idea and words. Never claim other’s work and idea as your own.
 Always give reference of sources or website, if material is taken from elsewhere.
 Always give acknowledgement and credit to author or creator, if his/her material is used.
 Quotations or phrases should be used as it is with citation of author.
Difference between Plagiarism and Copyright:
Plagiarism Copyright
Plagiarism is using someone else's work or ideas Copyright infringement includes the unauthorized or
without giving proper credit. unlicensed copying of a work.
Plagiarism is a violation of academic norms and Copyright violation is crime and punishable illegal
unethical practice but normally not illegal. offence in terms of law.
Plagiarism applies when ideas are copied Copyright violation occurs only when a specific
content like sequence of words or image is copied.
Licensing and copyright:
A license is a type of contract or agreement between user and creator or copyright owner to describe the terms
under which user is allowed to use the copyrighted material.
Generally licensing term is related to computer software when developer/author of the software share their
works with others under license, and allows others to use and even modify the content. Since, software are also
intellectual work and are subject to copyright, so software are used under certain usage guidelines and
restrictions imposed by developer or software company. These usage guidelines are called License.
The Licensing is different from copyright in the following ways-
Licensing Copyright
License is an agreement between user and content Copyright is legal right which describes the use and
developer which describes the usage rights and access of contents without transferring ownership of
restrictions on its application. the contents.
It describes the terms under which people are Copyright is the legal term used to declare and prove
allowed to use the copyrighted material. who owns the intellectual property.

Free and Open Source Software (FOSS):

In general, open source refers to any program whose source code is made available for use or modification by
others i.e. Source code is open for all. Open source software is usually developed as a public collaboration and
made freely available to all without any restrictions.
Open Source Software (OSS) which are freely available to all for self-use, study, distribute to others and
modification or improvement in the software are called Free and Open Source Software (FOSS).
Example: OpenOffice, Linux, Java, PHP, MySQL, Python etc. are commonly used Open Source Software.
Cybercrime and Cyber laws:
Cybercrime refers to any crime wherein the computer is either a tool or a target or both.
Some example of Cyber Crime are-
 Posting offensive messages on Social Networking Portals.
 Hacking of Computer or Cracking Security systems.
 Unethical Financial transactions and Fraud through Internet
 Harassment through e-mails and messages.
 Creation & propagation of Virus, Worms or Trojans etc.
 Cyber terrorism.
Like traditional crime such as theft, fraud, forgery, defamation and mischief, Cybercrime are also treated as
criminal activities and are subject of punishment. The Information Technology Act 2000 (IT Act) in India provides
protection against cybercrime and also known as Cyber Law.
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Hacking:
Hacking is the act of unauthorized access to a computer, computer network or any digital system.
A hacker gains unauthorized access to computers or networks in order to steal sensitive data with the intent to
damage or bring down systems. Hackers as technical expert of the hardware and software, and use their skill for
illegal and malicious purposes or personal gain.
An Ethical hackers explore any vulnerability or loophole in the system with positive intent and reports to the
owner for improvement.
Phishing:
Phishing is an act of acquiring sensitive and private information such as User name, passwords, Credit card
number, bank account details etc. using a trap-mail or voice call in which user himself discloses their private
details. The most common phishing method is through a fake or forged email in which user is asked to provide
confidential information and the user presumes that it is being asked by authentic source and gives all details in
good faith.
Phishing attempts through phone calls or text messages are also common these days. So never disclose your
private and confidential data to anyone without knowing its authenticity.
Cyber Bullying:
Cyberbullying is a form of harassment using electronic means or social media. Harmful bullying behavior can
include posting rumors, threats, vulgar remarks, revealing victims' personal information etc.
Victims of cyberbullying may experience lower self-esteem and various negative emotional responses, including
being scared, frustrated, angry, or depressed. Cyber Bullying is different from Troll in which a person (troll) posts
inflammatory, insincere, digressive, or off-topic messages in an online community with the intent of
provoking readers into displaying emotional responses, or manipulating others' perception.
Overview of Indian IT Act:
The Information Technology Act 2000 (IT Act) in India provides legal framework against cybercrime and e-
commerce activities. The Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act) was notified on 17 October 2000. The original
Act contained 94 sections, divided into 13 chapters and 4 schedules.
The IT Act is applicable to all parts of the country. Persons of other countries can also be indicted under this Act, if
the crime involves a computer or network located in India.
The IT Act has been amended to cope with new challenges on 23rd December 2008 (IT Act 2008) and notified on
October 27, 2009. IT Act–2008, is a new version of IT Act 2000.
E-waste: hazards and management:
 E-waste (Electronic waste) includes electric or electronic gadgets and devices that are no longer in use. E-
waste includes discarded or unusable electrical-electronic devices like computers, laptop, tablets, mobile
phones, television sets, and other electronic home appliances.
 E-waste is one of the fastest growing environmental hazards in the world. It is major cause of degradation of
environment and pollution.
 When e-waste is carelessly thrown or dumped in landfills or grounds, certain chemicals and metals used in
electronic products cause air, water and soil pollution. Harmful chemicals and poisonous gases mixed up in
groundwater, soil, and air and therefore affect animals and human life through crop’s yields, drinking water
and breathing.
 If e-waste is not disposed of in proper manner, it can be extremely harmful to humans, plants, animals and
the environment. Therefore, it is very important that e-waste is disposed of in such a manner that it causes
minimum damage to the environment and society.
Managing e-Waste:
We can minimize the impact of E-waste by efficient disposal of e-waste. The best policy for e-waste
management is reduce, reuse and recycle.
Reduce: Try to reduce the generation of e-waste by maximum use of devices till its useful life through proper
maintenance.
Reuse: The working equipment may be donated or sold to someone who is still willing to use it.
Recycle: Recycling is the process of conversion of e-waste into something that can be used again and again in
some or the other manner.

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 Disposal of e-Waste:
 Donate your old usable and working devices to needy people, who can use it.
 Old and obsolete devices may be returned manufacture or seller to purchase new one (Buy Back).
 Non-repairable devices may be given to Recycling Agencies for proper disposal or re-cycling.
 Non-functional devices may be donated to Service Centers, so that they can utilize some functional parts
while repairing others.
 Do not through electronic product in open area or sell to street garbage collectors because they have no
proper disposal system.
Awareness about health concerns related to the usage of technology:
Today’s life cannot be imagined without using technologies like Mobile, Internet and other IT tools. The modern
technologies have effected every domain of human life like communication, education and health. Technology has
transformed our lives, and for most of us, life may not be easy without using gadgets and technologies.
But Excessive usage of digital devices has a negative impact on our physical as well as psychological well-being.
Some common impacts are-
 Decreasing use of our own memory.
 Decreased use mental and physical activity.
 More Device dependency.
 Addicted to screens, social media, games etc.
 Poor physical health: Eye strain, Muscle Problems, Sleep disorder, gaining weight etc.
 Social and emotional issues: Isolation, Depression, anti-social behaviour etc.
Proper use of technologies and devices:
 Use devices in proper posture. Prefer an ergonomic furniture and follow natural sitting style.
 Limit your time and set boundaries of using technologies. Never be addicted to Internet and Social media.
 Follow 20-20-20 rule i.e. take a 20-second break from the screen every 20 minutes and look at something
20 feet away to minimize eye strain.
 Take regular breaks from technology to reduce stress and improve mental clarity.
 Take help of others when needed and avoid excess use of technology and dependency on gadgets.

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