Handbook

Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics

Chapter I. Introduction to Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics..........................................2

I.1 Definition and generality
I.2 Stress Effects
I.3 Fatigue Failure
I.4 Factors that affect fatigue life time
I.5 High cycle fatigue
I.6 Stress terms
I.7 Strength terms
I.8 Strain (deformation) terms
I.9 Stress-strain relations
I.10 Crack Analogy
I.11 Modes of fracture

Chapter II. Curves and laws of Fatigue...........................................................................10

II.1 S-N curves (Wöhler)
II.2 Goodman diagram
II.3 Miner's law (cumulative damage)
II.4 Paris law
II.5 Low cycle fatigue

Chapter III. Different Types of Fatigue .........................................................................18

III.1 Geometry and fatigue
III.2 Factor safety
III.3 Fatigue of composite materials
III.4 Corrosion fatigue
III.5 Damage (D)
III.6 Thermo Mechanical Fatigue (TMF)
III.7 Experimental Analysis of Fatigue

Chapter IV Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) ..............................................29

IV.1 Energetic Theory Griffith (G)
IV.2 Irwin modification
IV.3 Compliance calibration
IV.4 Stress Intensity Factor (SIF)
IV.5 Fracture toughness (Kc)
IV.6 Relationship between (G) and (K)
IV.7 Crack Tip Plasticity (Rp)
IV.8 Stress for various fracture modes

Chapter V Elastic Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM) ................................................45

V.1 J-integral (J)
V.2 Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)

Homework and Assignment .............................................................................................52

References ..........................................................................................................................58

1
 Chapter I. Introduction to Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics

I.1 Definition and generality

Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with cyclic stressing or straining (variable loading) to
of a material. A structures or components subjected to variable loading get to fatigue, which
leads to their premature failure under specific conditions. Fatigue is a process in which
damage accumulates due to the repetitive application of loads that may be well below the
yield stress.
Fracture Mechanics is the study of cracks (defects) with a view to understanding and
predicting the cracks propagation phenomena. Such propagation may be either stable
relatively slow and safe or unstable catastrophic.
Let us first reiterate some familiar topics from Strength of Materials to set the scene for
fatigue and Fracture Mechanics concepts.

Fig.I.1 Effect of cyclic stressing

The mechanisms involved in fracture or fatigue failure are complex, and is influenced by
material and structural features that span 12 orders of magnitude in length scale.

Fig.I.2 Demonstration of Crack Propagation Due to Fatigue

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Cracks can be initiated by several different causes, the three that will be discussed here are
nucleating slip planes, notches. and internal flaws. This is extremely important since these
cracks will ultimately lead to failure of the material if not detected and recognized. The
figure below shown the various ways in which cracks are initiated and the stages that occur
after they start, the material shown is loaded in tension with a cyclic stress in the y direction.

Fig.I.3 Crack initiation

Ductiles vs Brittles - their relative behaviour under the conventional, slow tensile test.

𝛔 Brittle
Ductile

𝛆
Fig.I.4 brittle and ductile materials.

3
 -Faste fracture

Crack Propagation

Crack initiation

Fig.I.5 Fatigue of Ductile

I.2 Stress Effects

Wohler diagram (S-N) is generated using a fully reversed stress cycle. However, actual
loading applications usually involve a mean stress on which the oscillatory stress is super
imposed, as shown in Figure 6. The following definitions are used to define a stress cycle
with both alternating and mean stress.

𝜎𝑎 Δ𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
+

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
Time
cycle 𝜎𝑚
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

Time
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
- Stress Ratio 𝑅 = 𝜎
𝑚𝑎𝑥

Fig.I.6 Typical Cyclic Loading Parameters

- Stress range is the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress in a
cycle:
Δ𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

- Stress amplitude is one-half the stress range:

Δ𝜎 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑎 = =
2 2

- Mean stress is the algebraic mean of the the maximum and minimum stress in the cycle:
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑚 =
2
- Amplitude ratio A:

4
 𝜎𝑎 1 − 𝑅
𝐴= =
𝜎𝑚 1 + 𝑅

- Stress ratio R:
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅=
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
If the mean stress is tensile and equal to the stress amplitude, R is equal to 0.
For reversed loading conditions, R is equal to -1. And for static loading, R is equal to 1.
A stress cycle of R = 0.1 is often used in aircraft component testing, and corresponds to a
tension-tension cycle in which the minimum stress is equal to 0.1 times the maximum stress.

I.3 Fatigue Failure

the failure had occurred only after the stresses have been repeated a very large number of
times. Thus three stages are involved in fatigue failure namely:
- Crack initiation
-Areas of localized stress concentrations such as fillets, notches
-Crack also generally originate from a geometrical discontinuity
-As a result of the local stress concentrations at these locations, during plastic straining slip
occurs and (dislocation movements) results in gliding of planes one over the other.
-As a consequence, intrusion and extrusion occurs creating a notch like discontinuity in the
material.
- Crack propagation
This further increases the stress levels and the process continues, the cross sectional area
resisting the applied stress decreases when the size of the crack increases
- Final fracture
As the area becomes too insufficient to resist the induced stresses any further a fast fracture
results in the structure.

I.4 Factors that affect fatigue life time

 Cyclic stress state: Depending on the complexity of the geometry and the loading,

 Geometry: Notches and variation in cross

 Surface quality: Surface roughness

 Material Type: Fatigue life varies widely for different materials, e.g. composites and

polymers differ markedly from metals.

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 Residual stresses: Welding, cutting, casting, and other manufacturing processes involving

heat or deformation can produce high levels of tensile residual stress, which decreases the
fatigue strength.
 Size and distribution of internal defects: Casting defects and shrinkage voids can

significantly reduce fatigue strength.

 Air or Vacuum: Depending upon the level of humidity and temperature,

 Direction of loading: For non-isotropic materials, fatigue strength depends on the

direction of the principal stress.

 Grain size: the presence of surface defects or scratches

 Environment: erosion, corrosion,

 Temperature: Extreme high or low temperatures can decrease fatigue strength.

I.5 High cycle fatigue

This apples to most commonly used machine ports and this can be analysed by idealising
the S-N Curve, the situation that require more than 104 cycles to failure where stress is lower
than yield stress.

I.6 Stress terms

A material being loaded in

1 2 3

Fig.I.7 Stress terms 1) compression, 2) tension, 3) shear.

- Compressive stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that acts to reduce the
length of the material in the axis of the applied load,
- Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the material
in the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling the material.

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- Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing forces
acting along parallel lines of action through the material

I.7 Strength terms

- Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a material. In
some materials, like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to identify, thus it is
usually defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain.
- Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in the
manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure (rupture as the result of
crack propagation, or sliding along a weak plane - see shear strength).
- Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to
tensile failure.
- Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under cyclic
loading.
- Impact strength, is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and
is expressed in terms of energy.

I.8 Strain (deformation) terms

- Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied
- Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the
deformation change among the material field..
- Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element bends under a
load.

I.9 Stress strain relations

- Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is released.
The slope of this line is known as Young's Modulus, The linear-elastic region is either below
the yield point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stress-strain plot it is defined
to be between 0 and 0.2% strain.

- Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined as

unrecoverable strain.

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Stress σ=F/A
F
Ultimate Fractur
e
Yield Non-linear area
σ=f(ε)

Linear area
σ=Eε
F
Strain ε=Δl/L

Fig.I.8 Basic static response of a specimen under tension

I.10 Crack Analogy

If ideal loading is wholly elastic then the load may be increased, slowly and with complete
safety, until it reaches the critical LEFM load, (see figure 9 below), governed by elastic
instability, where upon catastrophe is immediate. If ideal loading is wholly plastic on the
other hand then the material's yield strength limits the load that can be applied. Failure in
practice is governed by elastic-plastic interaction indicated by the dashed locus of the plot.
Additionally in the case of a crack the failure locus may be reached by various paths - for
example the load may remain constant while the crack length increases in a controlled
manner, until eventually a critical length is reached and the crack front advances
catastrophically.

𝝈 Yield limit 𝝈

LEFM
𝛔𝐜 stability
𝒂
limit 𝝈

CRACK

𝐚
Fig.9 Crack analogy

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We can summarise what Fracture Mechanics does:
- Presupposes the existence of cracks in the material
- microscopic ( grain cleavage or rough surface for example ), or
- large ( casting or weld defects for example )
- due to manufacture, to corrosion, to fatigue, etc
- Correlates three parameters quantitatively
- load - the background stress, 's', for example
- geometry - the crack size, 'a' ( and to a lesser extent, shape )
- material- its resistance to cracking, its fracture toughness, Kc, measured by special tests
- Predicts, amongst other things
- degree of safety, or imminence of catastrophic ( brittle ) fracture
- crack growth rate whilst advancing in a controlled manner
- structures life which remains.
I.11 Modes of fracture
There are three basic modes of crack tip deformation

Mode I Mode II Mode III

(Tension, Opening) (In-Plane Shear, Sliding) (Out-Of-Plane Shear, Tearing)

Fig.I.10 Modes of Fracture

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 Chapter II. Curves and laws of fatigue

II.1 S-N curves

Engineers had developed empirical means of quantifying the fatigue process and designing
against it. Perhaps the most important concept is the S-N diagram, such as those shown in
Fig., in which a constant cyclic stress amplitude S is applied to a specimen and the number
of loading cycles N until the specimen fails is determined. Millions of cycles might be
required to cause failure at lower loading levels, so the abscissa in usually plotted
logarithmically.

𝝈𝒂
Low cycle fatigue Hight cycle fatigue

𝝈𝒆
Endurance limit ×
Fatigue limit

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑵

Fig.II.1 Wöhler curve

In some materials, notably ferrous alloys, the S − N curve flattens out eventually, so that
below a certain endurance limit σe failure does not occur no matter how long the loads are
cycled. the endurance limit the value of alternating stress at which fatigue fracture never
occurs.

II.2 Goodman diagram

A highly large number of tests are needed to provide a S - N curve for the simple case of
fully reversed loading. There are various stratagem to finesse this problem, a frequently one
being the Goodman diagram. illustrated in Figure II.2. Here, a curve is built with the mean
stress along the abscissa and the ordinate alternating stress, and a straight or lifeline is drawn
from σe on the σalt axis to the ultimate tensile stress σf on the σm axis.

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 𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝝈𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝝈𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝝈𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
Fig.II.2 The Goodman diagram.

Then for any given mean stress, the endurance limit can be read directly as the ordinate of
the lifeline at that value of σ m. Alternatively, if the design application dictates a given ratio
of σe to σalt, a line is drawn from the origin with a slope equal to that ratio R. Its intersection
with the lifeline then gives the effective endurance limit for that combination of σ f and σm.

𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝝈𝒂 ⬚

𝝈𝒆
Gerber line

Goodman line

Soderberg line

σm
𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒖 Mean stress
Compressive stress
Tensile stress

Fig.II.3 Plots of Gerber, Goodman and Soderberg lines,

(variable stress against mean stress). .
Goodman devoted a linear variation:
𝜎𝑚 𝜎
( ) + ( 𝑦) = 1 Goodman line
𝜎𝑢 𝜎𝑒

Gerber devoted a parabolic correlation:

11
 𝜎𝑚 2 𝜎
( ) + ( 𝑦) = 1 Gerber line
𝜎𝑢 𝜎 𝑒

Soderberg devoted a linear variation based on tensile yield strength σ Y:

𝜎 𝑦 𝜎
( 𝜎𝑚) + ( 𝜎 ) = 1 Soderberg line
𝑦 𝑒

II.3 Miner's law (cumulative damage)

When the cyclic load level varies during the fatigue process (variable stress), a cumulative
damage model is often hypothesized. To shown, take the fatigue life to be N1 cycles at a
stress level σ1 and N2 at stress level σ2. If damage is assumed to accumulate at a constant
rate during damage on and a number of cycles n1 is applied at stress σ1, where n1 < N1 as
shown in Figure II.4. , then the fraction quantified of damage D = n1/N1.
𝝈

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑵𝟏

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒏𝟏

Fig.14 Damage and fractional lifetime concept. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑵

3
(𝟏)
𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒄 𝝈𝒂
2 (𝟑)
𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒄 𝝈𝒂

1 (𝟐)
𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒄 𝝈𝒂

𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟓𝟎

𝟏𝟓𝟎
−1

𝑶𝒏𝒆
−2
𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
−3

Fig.II.5 Spectrum of variable loading using constant stress

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For determine how many additional cycles n2 the specimen will survive at stress σ2, an
additional fraction of fatigue life will be available such that the sum of the two fractions
damage equals one:
𝑛1 𝑛2
+ =1
𝑁1 𝑁2

Notice: that absolute cycles used and not log cycles. Solving for the remaining cycles
allowable at :
𝑛1
𝑛2 = 𝑁2 (1 − )
𝑁1

Miner's Law proposed the generalization of this approach, and can be written as:
𝑛𝑗
∑ =1
𝑁𝑗

Where: nj : number of cycles applied at a load corresponding to a Nj fatigue life.

II.4 Paris law

In the 1960, Fatigue life prediction for cracks was made when Paris postulated That ranks of
the stress intensity factor might characterize velocity of crack growth under fatigue loading
in the same way that critical K, or fast fracture. He tested a several alloys and plots that
curve of crack growth rate as function range of stress intensity factor, in the results he
obtained on log-log scales straight lines. This is presented that:

Fig.II.6 Paris creates model to predict fatigue crack growth in terms of a log-log plot of
crack growth rate against stress intensity factor range(1961)

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 The appearance of the experience plot implied to:

𝐝𝐚/𝐝𝐍 𝐈 𝐈𝐈 𝐈𝐈𝐈

Paris Law

𝑑𝑎
= 𝐶𝛥𝐾 𝑚
𝑑𝑁

∆𝐊

∆𝐊 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐨𝐥𝐝 ∆𝐊 𝐜 toughness

Fig.II.7 Crack growth rate as a function of the stress intensity factor range.

The plot is commonly divided into three regions,

(I and III) two nonlinear regions
(II) an approximately linear region.
Taking the slope m and y-intercept C for Region II a predictive model for the crack growth
rate as a function of the stress intensity factor range can be developed as:
𝑑𝑎
log ( ) = 𝑚 log(ΔK) + logC
𝑑𝑁

Remove the log function and rearranging terms, Paris model:

𝑑𝑎
= 𝐶𝛥𝐾 𝑚
𝑑𝑁

where: a is the crack length and N is the number of load cycles C and m are material
constants, and Delta K is the range of the stress intensity factor

In Figure II.7 , some variables of interest include:

 ΔKth, the threshold stress intensity factor range, below this value, no crack growth will occur
independent of the current crack length
 Kc, the critical mode I stress intensity factor, above this value crack growth is unstable
 C and m are material properties which are determined by fatigue experiments

14
 where da/dN is the fatigue crack growth rate per cycle, ΔK = Kmax − Kmin is the stress
intensity factor range during the cycle, and A and m are parameters that depend the material,
environment, frequency, temperature and stress ratio.
Defining the crack intensity factor as
K = σY√πa
: is a uniform tensile stress perpendicular to the crack plane
Y : Configuration factor, is a dimensionless parameter that depends on the geometry.
the range of the stress intensity factor follows as:
ΔK = ΔσY√πa,
where is the range of cyclic stress amplitude.
The remaining cycles can be found by substituting this equation in the Paris law
𝑑𝑎 m
= 𝐶𝛥𝐾 𝑚 = 𝐶(YΔσ√πa)
𝑑𝑁

Separation of the variables a and N and substitution for the range of stress intensity by the
equivalent equation in terms of stress and crack size gives:
𝑁𝑓 𝑎𝑐 𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑎 1 𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑁 = ∫ m = m∫ 𝑎− 2 𝑑𝑎
0 𝑎𝑖 𝐶(YΔσ√πa) 𝐶(YΔσ√πa) 𝑎𝑖
,

The relationship can be integrated for the crack size aN based on an initial crack size ai as
2
2 − 𝑚 2−𝑚
m
𝑎𝑁 = 𝑎𝑖 + [(𝑁 − 𝑁𝑖 )𝐶(Δσ√πa) ( )]
2

where N and Ni are the cycle numbers corresponding to aN and a i.

Some limitations for the Paris model:

 Does not consider the stress ratio R (i.e. Δσ = σmax-σmin = 100-20 = 200-120, when we
would expect da/dN to be proportional to σmax)
 Does not explicitly consider ΔKth
 Valid only in Region II of Figure

NASA provides a model which is valid in Regions I-III and considers the threshold and
maximum applied stress, but requires additional material properties p and q to be identifies
from experiments.

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 Δ𝐾 𝑃
𝑑𝑎 (1 − 𝑡ℎ )
= 𝐶Δ𝐾 𝑚 Δ𝐾
𝑑𝑁 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑞
(1 − )
𝐾𝑐

Tab.II.1 Numerical parameters in the Paris equation

alloy m A
Steel 3 10-11
Aluminium 3 10-12
Nickel 3.3 4 x 10-12
Titanium 5 10-11

II.5 Low cycle fatigue

A fatigue failure mostly begins at a local discontinuity and when the stress at the
discontinuity exceeds elastic limit there is plastic strain. The cyclic plastic strain is
responsible for crack propagation and fracture.
Experiments have been carried out with reversed loading and the true stress strain hysteresis
loops are shown in figure 19. For this purpose we consider a typical plot of strain amplitude
versus number of stress reversals to fail for steel.

Fig.II.8 A typical stress-strain plot with a number of stress reversals.

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Considering that the total strain amplitude can be given as Δε = Δεp+ Δεe
Δσ is the stress range. Δεp and Δεe are the plastic and elastic strain ranges, the total strain
range being Δε.
A relationship between strain and a number of stress reversals can be given as:
σf
Δε = (N)a + εf (N)b
E

where σf and εf are the true stress and strain corresponding to fracture in one cycle and a, b
are systems constants.

17
 Chapter III. Different Type of Fatigue

III.1 Geometry and fatigue

Not surprisingly, a part's geometry has an impact on its mechanical performance. The
geometry of a part can lead to stress to concentrations. Mechanical engineers, especially,
should beware of stress concentrations when they design any part, no matter how small. No
matter how strong or tough the material that the part is made of, a poorly shaped design can
have catastrophic consequences. Figures III.1 and III.2 show two machined pieces. Figure
III.1 has a sharp end that create a stress concentration. Figure III.2 uses a fillet instead,
minimizing additional stresses on the part.

Fig.III.1 A poor design that will create a stress concentration

Fillet

Fig.III.2 Good design will minimize stress concentrations

III.2 Factor safety

Factor of safety is used to express the safety of a design's mechanical strength as a ratio
between the applied stresses on the materials in the design, and the materials' yield or tensile
strength.
Factor of Safety FS= σu / σa
σu = The ultimate or yield strength of the material.
σa = The stress that is applied to a material.
Usually when designing a part, a material's σu is replaced with the material's yield strength,
not tensile strength. This makes good common sense. The value of the factor of safety is also
dependent on the application. Fighter jets may have a factor of safety of 1.1, but industrial
machinery may have a factor of safety of 3 or higher.

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III.3 Fatigue of composite materials
Composites have two components, a matrix phase and a dispersion phase. The matrix is the
material that surrounds the the fibers, or dispersion phase. The result is a composite material
that can handle greater tensile stresses than ordinary concrete can handle alone. A composite
works by taking an applied stress and distributing it on the matrix and predominately, on its
reinforcements. The result of putting strong fibers into a weak polymer can be a very strong
and lightweight material. The fundamentals of composite design are based on the materials
that are being used for the matrix, and the fibers, the fibers' lengths compared to their
diameters, and how the fibers are arranged in the matrix.

III.3.1 Fiber Length

There is a critical length, lc, that the fibers must have to strengthen a material to their
maximum potential. The critical length is given in equation.
σf d
The minimum fiber length for a continuous fiber composite lc ( )
τ c

lc= critical length

σf= tensile strength of the fiber
d = diameter of the fiber
σc = shear strength of the bond between the matrix and the fiber
Assuming that the actually length of the fiber is at least 15 times greater than the lc value;
the fiber is said to be "continuous"; Otherwise the composite is "discontinous."

Tab.III.1 Materials Commonly Used in the Dispersion Phase of Composites

Whiskers
Material Tensile Strength ( MPa *103 )
Graphite 20
Silicon carbide 20
Silicon nitride 14
Aluminum oxide 14-28
Fibers
Material Tensile Strength ( MPa *103 )
Aramid (Kevlar-49) 3.5
E-Glass 3.5
Carbon 1.5-5.5
Alumnina oxide 2.1
Silicon carbide 3.9

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 Metallic Wires
Material Tensile Strength ( MPa *103 )
High carbon steel 4.1
Molybdenum 1.4
Tungsten 4.3

Tab.III.2 Polymeric Materials Commonly Used in the Matrix Phase of Composites

Matrix Materials
Material Tensile Strength ( MPa )
Epoxy 35-85
Polymide 120
Ploysulfone 75
The difference between a whisker, a fiber, and a rod, is diameter to length ratio. A wire has
a relatively large thickness, probably large enough so that you could pull out a ruler and
measure its diameter. A fiber is much thinner, and a whisker even more so. In addition,
whiskers are single crystals and by virtue of their extraordinarily small volume are almost
defect free.

III.3.2 Fiber Alignment and Performance:

Probably the most important consideration that goes into composite design it aliment of its
reinforcing fibers. The fibers is many composites are arranged in one direction; the fibers
are aligned unilaterally. Figure III.3 is a graphical way of representing the strength of a
unilateral composite as a function of the direction of an applied stress. As you can clearly
see, the strength of a composite drops dramatically when the stress is applied off the
alignment of the fibers.

Fig.III.3 Composite performance in relation to stress alignment

20
As a future designer you must remember that composite materials will only give you good
performance if the fibers are aligned to meet the applied stress. There are ways of aligning
the fibers in patterns to compensate for this drawback, but they will not be covered in this
report.

III.3.3 Strength Equations for Discontinuous Composites

The tensile strength of a discontinuous composite material with fibers of length greater than
and less than lc, respectively.
lτc
(TS)c = ( ) V + (TS)′m (1 − Vf )
d f
The tensile strength of a discontinous fiber composite with fiber length greater than lc.
lc
(TS)c = (TS)f Vf (1 − ) + (TS)′m (1 − Vf )
2l

The tensile strength of a discontinous fiber composite with fiber length less than lc.
Vf = volume fraction of the fiber in the composite
(TS)c = tensile strength of the composite
(TS)f = tensile strength of the composite
(TS)'m = tensile strength of the matrix
lc = critical fiber length
d = diameter of the fiber
σc = shear strength of the bond between the matrix and the fiber

III.4 Corrosion fatigue

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a phenomenon which occurs under conditions of constant
applied stress for particular combinations of alloy/ material and environment. It is usually
sensitive to temperature as well as environmental species and concentration. Mechanisms of
SCC are complex and, fractographically, may show either intergranular cracking or
cleavage. The static stress may be either applied by external loads or, as is often the case,
arise from residual stresses associated with welding or cold working. Classic examples of
SCC are brass in an ammonia containing environment (so-called 'season cracking' which
was noted in brass cartridge cases stored next to stables during the monsoon season in India),
chloride-induced SCC in austenitic stainless steels and aluminium alloys, some ceramics,
glasses and polymers in moist air, and steels in caustic, hydrogen containing or hydrogen
sulphide environments.

21
The area of interest in this theory card is the characterisation of crack growth under SCC
conditions by the fracture mechanics parameter K. Interest in the application of fracture
mechanics to SCC testing arose because it was realised that a number of alloy-environment
combinations which appeared immune to SCC when tested as smooth specimens, were very
susceptible to this phenomenon in the presence of a crack or crack-like defect. Hence fracture
mechanics tests are used to characterise crack velocity in SCC and find the threshold for
stress corrosion crack growth, which is termed K1SCC. As the applied load is constant in SCC,
it is more useful to talk about crack velocity and plot these against applied stress intensity
level to give what are termed v-K curves.

Fig.III.4 v-K curve is shown below for the case of inorganic glass in a moist air
environment (50% relative humidity and a temperature of 25°C) and, as is the case for
fatigue crack growth,

Three distinct regions can often be observed which reflect the operation of different
influences in the mechanisms of cracking.
In the first region the crack velocity increases sharply with increase in applied K as the value
of K controls the environmental reaction rate at the crack tip. In the second, more horizontal
region, the rate controlling step is environmental transport to the crack tip, which is
independent of applied K. In region 3, cracking is again mechanically controlled and K is
tending towards the value of the fracture toughness. The steep slope of the curve in region 1
allows a threshold for crack growth K1SCC to be defined, below which growth is essentially

22
non-existent. In the curve above, K1SCC is approximately 2 MPa m½ as the crack velocity is
less than 10-12 m/s. The extent of the regions is variable, and region 1 often dominates the
life. As the curve in this region is linear on a log-log plot, it has a simple equation which is
easy to integrate to obtain a life estimate. The equation of a straight line is:
log 𝑣 = 𝑛 log 𝐾 + 𝐷

𝑣 = 𝐷𝐾 𝑛

It is often useful to use the K1SCC data and recast the equation as:
𝑛
𝑣 K
=( )
𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐾1𝑆𝐶𝐶

Separating the variables and integrating this between K limits is straightforward

𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝐾
𝑣= = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐾 𝑑𝑡
K2
And K = σY√πa, i.e 𝑎 =
𝑌 2𝜎 2 𝜋

2K 𝑑𝐾
𝑣=( )
𝑌 2 𝜎 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑡
The lower limit on the integration would be the K value corresponding to the combination
of initial defect size and applied stress, while the upper limit could be either the fracture
toughness KC or an upper limit on the extent of region 1. Typically therefore, separating
the variables gives:
𝑡𝑓 𝐾𝑐
2𝐾𝑑𝐾
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝐷𝐾 𝑛
𝑌 2 𝜎 2 𝜋𝑣
0 𝐾𝑖

𝑡𝑓 𝐾𝑐
2𝐾𝑑𝐾
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑌 2 𝜎 2 𝜋𝐷𝐾 𝑛
0 𝐾𝑖

𝐾𝑐
2 2 𝐾𝐶2−𝑛 − 𝐾𝑖2−𝑛
𝑡𝑓 = 2 2 ∫ 𝐾1−𝑛 = 2 2 [ ]
𝑌 𝜎 𝜋𝐷 𝑌 𝜎 𝜋𝐷 2−𝑛
𝐾𝑖

Note that if the integrand has n = 2, the expression for tf will contain natural log (ln) terms.

III.5 Damage
Damage mechanics is the study of material damage based on the introduction of damage
variables and their evolution under the applied loading conditions.

III.5.1 Representation of Damage

23
Damage mechanics aims to quantitatively represent the accrual of mechanical deterioration
of a material component subjected to certain loading. This is done by introducing a damage
variable defined as follows. Consider a representative volume element (RVE) of material
surrounding a point M in the material and an area element dS through it. Let dS D be the
amount of area inside dS occupied by material discontinuities characterizing damage such
as cracks or voids of various types. The damage at the point is then determined by the
numerical value of the damage variable D defined as:
𝑑𝑆𝐷
𝐷=
𝑑𝑆

Obviously, the damage variable D is a number de [0; 1].

D = 0 describes undamaged material and
D = 1 represents the ruptured component.
For uniaxial loading, the damage variable of the whole specimen represents the effective
surface density of micro-defects
𝑆𝐷
𝐷=
𝑆

where S is the cross sectional area of the specimen and S D is the amount of area occupied
by discontinuities.
E0(1 - D) = E
In fracture processes, the critical value of the damage variable associated with fracture
crack initiation under applied stress σ is given approximately by
𝜎
𝐷𝑐 ≈ 1 −
𝜎𝑢

where here σu is the ultimate tensile strength of the material.

III.5.2 Measurement of Damage

The following methods have been used to measure damage:
_ Variations in the modulus of elasticity under loading-unloading cycles.
_ Variations in the rate of propagation of ultrasonic waves.
_ Variations in plasticity characteristics under monotonic or cyclic loading.
_ Variations in creep/ viscoplastic characteristics.
_ Variations in electrical resistance.
From the definition of D it is appears that its value can be determined by direct measurement
de crack areas.

24
Uniformly distributed damage can also be determined from very precise measurements of
the effective elastic modulus of the damaged material observed during loading-unloading
cycles. The damage in this case is given by
𝐸̅
𝐷 = 1−
𝐸

Micro hardness measurements can be used in combination with the yield criterion for
damaged material to determine the damage. If H* is the hardness of the undamaged material
and H the measured hardness, the damage is calculated as
𝐻
𝐷 =1−
𝐻∗

III.5.3 Damage Laws

Under cyclic loading conditions, damage occurs by gradual nucleation and growth of cracks
in the material. If Nf is the number of cycles to failure, a commonly made, simple assumption
is that the damage is proportional to the number of applied cycles, i.e.
𝑁
𝐷=
𝑁𝐹

III.6 Thermo Mechanical Fatigue (TMF)

Thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) with or without superimposed creep is the primary life-
limiting factor for engineering components in many high-temperature applications.
tot= th+ mech= (T-T0)+ mech

where th is the thermal strain, T0 is the reference temperature where the test was begun, T
is the test temperature, and is the coefficient of thermal expansion.

III.6.1 General linear accumulation damage models

A general model for high-temperature fatigue, including thermal mechanical fatigue. This
model incorporates damage accumulation due to fatigue, environment (oxidation), and
creep processes. Damages per cycle from fatigue, environmental attack (oxidation), and
creep are summed to obtain a total damage per cycle
Dtot = Dfat + Dox + Dcreep
Assuming that linear damage is equal to one at failure, the equation may be rewritten in
terms of the life, Nf, where damage is taken as equal to 1/Nf,

25
 1 1 1 1
= fat + ox + creep
Nf Nf Nf Nf
- Fatigue-Damage Term
Fatigue damage is represented by fatigue mechanisms, which nominally occur at ambient
or low temperatures. The fatigue life term, Nffat, is represented by the strain-life relation
Δεm d
= C(2Nffat )
2
where m is the mechanical strain range, and C and d are material constants determined
from low-temperature isothermal tests.
- Environmental-Damage (Oxidation) Term: The oxidation damage is based on crack
nucleation and growth through an oxide layer.
- Creep-Damage Term: The creep-damage term is a function of temperature, effective
stress, and hydrostatic stress components,

III.6.2 Damage-rate models

Among these models is the formulation proposed by Miller and colleagues, who use a
physically measurable quantity, such as crack length, as specific definitions of damage.
The TMF life-prediction model is based on the concept of microcrack propagation and
explicitly accounts for damage due to fatigue, creep, and oxidation.
The general form of the equation is
da da 1 1
= + +
DN DNfat DNox DNcreep
where a is the crack length, and N is the cycle number.

III.7 Experimental Analysis of Fatigue

Two fatigue zones are evident when investigating a fracture surface due to fatigue, the
fatigue zone and the rupture zone. The fatigue zone is the area of the crack propagation. The
area of final failure is called the rupture or instantaneous zone. In investigation of a failed
specimen, the rupture zone yields the ductility of the material, the type of loading, and the
direction of loading. The relative size of the rupture zone compared with the fatigue zone
relates the degree of overstress applied to the structure. The amount of overstressing can be
determined from the fatigue zone as follows: highly overstressed if the area of the fatigue
zone is very small compared with the area of the rupture zone; medium overstress if the size
or area of both zones are nearly equal; low overstress if the area of rupture zone is very small.
Figure III.5 describes these relations between the fatigue and rupture zones.

26
27
 Fig.III.5 Schematics of fatigue failures Surfaces

The fatigue zone can be described as follows: a smooth rubbed, and velvety appearance, the
presence of waves known as "clam-shells" or "oyster-shells", "stop marks" and "beach
marks," and the herringbone pattern or granular trace which shows the origin of the crack.
In general, stop marks indicate the variations in the rate of crack propagation due to
variations in stress amplitude in a cyclic application varying with time. Figure III.6 is a
schematic representation of the fatigue zone.

Fig.III.6 Typical fatigue zone with identifying marks.

28
 Chapter IV. Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanic (LEFM)

IV.1 Energetic Theory Griffith

The Griffiths equation describes the relationship between applied nominal stress and crack
length at fracture, i.e. when it becomes energetically favourable for a crack to grow. Griffith
was concerned with the energetics of fracture, and considered the energy changes associated
with incremental crack extension.
For a loaded brittle body undergoing incremental crack extension, the only contributors to
energy changes are the energy of the new fracture surfaces (two surfaces per crack tip) and
the change in potential energy in the body. The surface energy term (S) represents energy
absorbed in crack growth, while the some stored strain energy (U) is released as the crack
extends (due to unloading of regions adjacent to the new fracture surfaces). Surface energy
has a constant value per unit area (or unit length for a unit thickness of body) and is therefore
a linear function of (crack length), while the stored strain energy released in crack growth is
a function of (crack length)2, and is hence parabolic. These changes are indicated in the
figure below:

Energy

Surface Energy

Total Energy

Crack Length
size a

Strain Energy

Fig.IV.1 Energy against crack size

29
The next step in the development of Griffith's argument was consideration of the rates of
energy change with crack extension, because the critical condition corresponds to the
maximum point in the total energy curve, i.e. dW/da = 0, where a = a*. For crack lengths
greater than this value (under a given applied stress), the body is going to a lower energy
state, which is favourable, and hence fast fracture occurs. dW/da = 0 occurs when dS/da =
dU/da. The sketch below shows these energy rates, or differentials with respect to a.

Energy 𝐝𝐔
Release 𝐆=
𝐝𝒂
Rates

𝐆𝐂𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜
𝐝𝑺
𝐑=
𝐝𝒂

Crack size

Fig.IV.2 Energy release rate against crack size

R is the resistance to crack growth (= dS/da) and G is the strain energy release rate (= dU/da).
When fracture occurs, R = G and we can define Gcrit as the critical value of strain energy
release, and equate this to R. Hence Gcrit represents the fracture toughness of the
material. In plane stress the Griffith equation is:
1
𝐺𝐶 𝐸 2
𝜎𝑓 = [ ]
𝜋𝑎

where, to get the fracture stress in MPa (the standard SI engineering unit), the critical strain
energy release rate is in N/m, E is in N/m2, and a is in m. This provides an answer in N/m2
(Pa), which needs to be divided by 106 to get the standard engineering unit of MPa. In plane
strain:
1
GC E′ 2 E
σf = [ ] where E′ =
πa (1 − v 2 )

1
𝐺𝐶 𝐸 2 𝐺𝐶 𝐸
𝜎𝑓 = [ ] This can be rearranged to give: 𝑎𝑐 =
2
(1 − 𝑣 )𝜋𝑎 (1 − 𝑣 2 )𝜋𝜎𝑓2

30
IV.2 Irwin modification

Irwin's strategy was to partition the energy into two parts:

- the stored elastic strain energy which is released as a crack grows.
- the dissipated energy which includes plastic dissipation and the surface energy (and
any other dissipative forces that may be at work). The dissipated energy provides the
thermodynamic resistance to fracture. Then the total energy dissipated is
𝐺 = 2𝛾 + 𝐺𝑝

where γ is the surface energy and Gp is the plastic dissipation (and dissipation from other
sources) per unit area of crack growth.
The modified version of Griffith's energy criterion can then be written as

𝐸𝐺
𝜎𝑓 √𝑎 = √
𝜋

For brittle materials such as glass, the surface energy term dominates and 𝐺 ≈ 2𝛾 = 2 𝐽⁄𝑚2 .
For ductile materials such as steel, the plastic dissipation term dominates, 𝐺 ≈ 𝐺𝑝 =
1000 𝐽⁄𝑚 2.

For polymers close to the glass transition temperature, we have intermediate values of
𝐺 ≈ 2 − 1000 𝐽⁄𝑚 2.

IV.3 Compliance calibration

A number of means are available by which the material property Gc can be measured. One
of these is known as compliance calibration, which employs the concept of compliance as a
ratio of deformation to applied load: C = δ/P.

𝛛𝐂
𝛛𝒂

𝒂𝒄 𝒂

Fig.IV.3 Compliance as a function of crack length.

31
The total strain energy U can be written in term s of this compliance as:
1 1
𝑈 = 𝑃𝛿 = 𝐶𝑃 2
2 2

The compliance of a suitable specimen, for instance a cantilevered beam, could be measured
experimentally as a function of the length a of a crack that is grown into the specimen. The
strain energy release rate can then be determined by differentiating the curve of compliance
versus length:
𝜕𝑈 1 2 𝜕𝐶
𝒢= = 𝑃
𝜕𝑎 2 𝜕𝑎

The critical value of G, Gc, is then found by measuring the critical load Pc needed to fracture
a specimen containing a crack of length ac, and using the slope of the compliance curve at
this same value of a:
1 𝜕𝐶
𝒢𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐2 |
2 𝜕𝑎 𝑎=𝑎𝑐

Example
𝑷

a
𝛅

Fig.IV.4 DCB fracture specimen.

For a double-cantilever beam (DCB) specimen such as that shown in figure, beam theory
gives the deflection as
𝛿 𝑃𝑎3
=
2 3𝐸𝐼

where I = bh3/12. The elastic compliance is then

𝛿 2𝑎3
𝐶= =
𝑃 3𝐸𝐼

If the crack is observed to jump forward when P = Pc, Eqn. 3 can be used to compute the
critical strain energy release rate as
1 2𝑎 2 12𝑃𝑐2 𝑎2
𝒢𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐2 .
2 3𝐸𝐼 𝑏2 ℎ 3 𝐸

32
IV.4 Stress Intensity Factor
The stress intensity factor is defined from the elastic stress field equations for a stressed
element near the tip of a sharp crack under biaxial (or uniaxial) loading in an infinite
body. The situation is illustrated below:
Crack tips produce a 1⁄√r singularity. The stress fields near a crack tip of an isotropic linear
elastic material can be expressed as a product of 1⁄√r and a function of with a scaling
factor K:
𝒀 𝝈𝒙
𝝉𝒚𝒙

𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒙

𝝉𝒙𝒚 𝝉𝒙𝒚

𝝉𝒚𝒙
𝒓 𝝈𝒚

𝑶 𝑿

Fig.IV.5 Stress at crack-tip

(𝐼) 𝐾𝐼 (𝐼)
lim 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝜃)
𝛾→0 √2𝜋𝑟

(𝐼𝐼) 𝐾𝐼𝐼 (𝐼𝐼)

lim 𝜎 = 𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝜃)
𝛾→0 𝑖𝑗 √2𝜋𝑟

(𝐼𝐼𝐼) 𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 (𝐼𝐼𝐼)

lim 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝜃)
𝛾→0 √2𝜋𝑟

where the superscripts and subscripts I, II, and III denote the three different modes that
different loadings may be applied to a crack.
A crack of length 2a extends right through an infinite elastic flat plate of small thickness b.
The plate is loaded by a background stress, σ, normal to the crack. From equilibrium,
compatibility and the linear elastic constitutive law, the stresses in an element located at ( r,
θ ) close to the crack tip, may be shown to be :

𝜎𝑥 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃⁄2 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃⁄2

𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁄2
[ 𝜎𝑦 ] = 𝐾0 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃⁄2 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃⁄2 + 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠; K 0 = σ√πa
𝜎𝑥𝑦 √2𝜋𝑟
𝜃 𝜃
[ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁄2 𝑐𝑜𝑠3 ⁄2 ]

33
The following points should be noted:
The stress field arises from the crack itself and not directly from the background stress. If
the element were well removed from the crack tip vicinity then the background stress would
dominate, ie. σy --> σ ; σx , τxy --> 0.
The direct and shear stresses on the red element are given, to a first order approximation, by:
𝑎 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎√ cos (1 − sin − sin ) + 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
2𝑟 2 2 2

𝑎 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎√ cos (1 + sin − sin ) + 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
2𝑟 2 2 2

𝑎 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜎√ sin cos cos + 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
2𝑟 2 2 2

Only these first terms in the series expansion have the 1/r½ dependency, which causes a
stress singularity at the crack tip (i.e. the stresses go to infinity as r goes to zero). Thus in
the near-tip region, which is where fracture processes occur, the stress field is dominated by
the singularity. Along the critical plane for cracking ahead of the crack tip (where the angle
is zero), the equations reduce to the simple form of:
𝑎 𝜋𝑎
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎√ = 𝜎√
𝑟 𝜋𝑟

The numerator in these equations essentially gives a measure of the magnitude, or intensity,
of the near-tip elastic stress field. Irwin defined the numerator as the stress intensity factor,
K, and postulated that fracture would occur at critical values of K. Both numerator and
denominator are multiplied by pi for expediency in showing that K and G (the critical strain
energy release rate) are related. Thus critical values of K meet both the critical stress and
the 'energetically favorable' criteria for crack growth. Generally speaking, finite geometry
and crack shape correction factors have to be included in the expression for stress intensity
factor, i.e.
K = Yσ√πa

where Y can be a relatively involved compliance-based function. This expression can be

used to find the stress intensity factor corresponding to any combination of remote stress and
crack length, but critical values of K at which fast fracture occurs are denoted K1C when
conditions of plane strain apply, and KC otherwise.

Y values of various crack geometries

34
 where Y is a correction factor which is a function of loading, geometry, and boundary
conditions, σ is the applied stress, and a is a characteristic crack length. Consider three
cracked geometries, a center crack in an infinite plate (A), an edge crack in an infinite
plate (B), and an edge crack in a finite plate (C).
𝐅 𝐅 𝐅
𝐀 𝐀 𝐀

𝟐𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪

𝐅 𝐅 𝐅
𝐀 𝐀 𝐀
A-Central crack, BEdge crack, CEdge crack,

infinite plate: Y 1 infinite plate: Y 1.12 finite plate: Y = 1 + 0.256λ −

1.152λ2 + 12.2λ3 , λ = a⁄W
Fig.IV.6 Geometrical correction factors for simple cracked specimens.

For other geometries values of Y can be obtained from stress intensity factor handbooks
or numerical methods such as finite element methods.

Through thikness crack Edge crack

𝝈
𝝈
𝑲 = 𝝈𝒂𝒑𝒑 √𝝅𝒂 𝑲 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝝈𝒂𝒑𝒑 √𝝅𝒂
(𝒂) 𝟐𝒂
(𝒃)

𝝈 𝒂 𝝈

35
 Corner crack
𝝈 Semi circular crack 𝝈
𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝝈𝒂𝒑𝒑 √𝝅𝒂 𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝝈𝒂𝒑𝒑 √𝝅𝒂

(𝒄) 𝟐𝒂 (𝒅)

𝝈 𝒂 𝝈

𝝈 Semi elliptical crack

𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝝈𝒂𝒑𝒑 √𝝅𝒂

(𝒆) 𝟐𝒂

Fig.IV.7 Geometrical correction factors for cracked specimens models.

IV.5 Fracture toughness

The material's fracture toughness ( Kc ) can be recognised as just the critical maximum stress
intensity factor ( K ) which the material can withstand without catastrophic crack
propagation. An additional subscript 'I' refers to the most common tensile mode I loading.
The distinction between stress intensity:
KI is a crack characterising parameter and fracture toughness.
KIc is a material parameter should be clearly understood.

Fig.IV.8 Behaviour of Specimen under load.

36
n: safety factor
There are two common forms of fracture toughness experimental specimen, the 'compact
tensile specimen' ( CTS); and the 'single edge notch' ( SEN). In both of these a crack is
started by machining a chevron notch in a specimen of standard proportions ( thickness b
= w/2 ), then fatiguing the specimen to obtain a sharp crack front. The load - tension or
bending respectively - is then applied and increased until catastrophe occurs. In principle,
the maximum load in conjunction with the geometrical configuration factor (Y)
corresponding to the final crack size enables the fracture toughness to be calculated. Testing
in practice is not quite so straight forward as this might indicate.

Fig.IV.9 CTS and SEN Specimens Test.

Validation of KIC value

There are actually four different types of fracture toughness, K C, KIC, KIIC, and KIIIC. KC is used to
measure a material's fracture toughness in a sample that has a thickness that is less than some critical
value, B. When the material's thickness is less than B, and stress is applied, the material is in a state
called plane stress. The value of B is given in equation Te-1. A material's thickness is related to its
fracture toughness graphically in figure shows a material's KC value in relation to the material's width.
The minimum thickness of material before plane strain behavior occurs.

2
𝐾𝐼𝑐
𝐵 ≥ 2.5 ( )
𝜎𝑦

B = minimum thickness to distinguish between KC and K1C

KC = fracture toughness, when the sample has a thickness less than B
sy = yield stress of material

37
 Fracture toughness Kc

𝑲𝑰𝒄

Plane stress Plane strain

behavior behavior

Thickness B
Fig.IV.10 Fracture Toughness as a function of material thickness
The fracture toughness of a material with a thickness less than B.
K c = Yσ√πa
KC = fracture toughness, when the sample has a thickness less than B
Y = constant related to the sample's geometry
a = crack length (surface crack), one half crack length (internal crack)
s = stress applied to the material
KIC, KIIC, and KIIIC all represent a material's fracture toughness when a sample of material
has a thickness greater than B. If a stress is applied to a sample with a thickness greater than
B, it is in a state called plane strain. The differences between K IC, KIIC, and KIIIC, however,
do not depend on the thickness of the material. Instead, KIC, KIIC, and KIIIC are the fracture
toughness of a material under the three different modes of fracture, mode I, mode II, and
mode III, respectively. The different modes of fracture I, II, and III are all graphically
expressed in figures shows how KIC can be calculated knowing the material's parameters.
Tab.IV.1 KIC values for Engineering Materials
Material K1C MPa (m)1/2
Metals
Aluminum alloy 36
Steel alloy 50
Titanium alloy 44-66
Aluminum oxide 14-28
Ceramic

38
 Aluminum oxide 3-5.3
Soda-lime-glass 0.7-0.8
Concrete 0.2-1.4
Polymers
Polymethyl methacrylate 1
Polystyene 0.8-1.1

IV.6 Relationship between G and K

The strain energy release rate ( ) for a crack under mode I loading is related to the stress
intensity factor by:
𝐾2
(𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝒢= 𝐸
𝐾2 2
{ 𝐸 (1 − v ) (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)

For pure mode II loading, we have similar relations

1 − v2 1
𝐺 = 𝐾𝐼𝐼2 ( ) or 𝐺 = 𝐾𝐼𝐼2 ( )
E E

For pure mode III loading,

2
1
𝐺 = 𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 ( )
2μ
where is the shear modulus. For general loading in plane strain, the relationship between
the strain energy and the stress intensity factors for the three modes is
1 − v2 1 − v2 1
𝐺 = 𝐾𝐼2 ( ) + 𝐺 = 𝐾𝐼𝐼2 ( 2
) + 𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 ( )
E E 2μ

G–criterion
The G-criterion is a fracture criterion that relates the critical stress intensity factor (or
fracture toughness) to the stress intensity factors for the three modes. This failure criterion
is written as
2
E′ 2
𝐾𝐼𝑐 = 𝐾𝐼2 + 𝐾𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐾
2μ 𝐼𝐼𝐼
where 𝐾𝐼𝑐 is the mode I fracture toughness, E ′ = E⁄(1 − v 2 )for plane strain and E ′ = Efor
plane stress. The critical stress intensity factor for plane stress is often written as𝐾𝑐 .

39
IV.7 Crack Tip Plasticity
We can understand the concept of crack tip plastic zones and the plasticity correction to
crack length quite readily. From the definition of the stress intensity, based on the elastic
stress field near a crack tip, i.e.:
𝑎 𝐾
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 √ 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑓(𝜃)
2𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

where𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 is applied stress (calculated as though no crack is present r, 𝜃 are polar

coordinates of stressed region near the crack tip
we can see that, as r tends towards zero, the crack tip stresses become singular. This implies
that a yielded region will exist in the material ahead of the crack for all reasonable stress
values. The shape and size of the plastic zone can be determined, to a first order, from the
simple models first proposed by Irwin. Consider a material with a simple elastic-perfectly
plastic response (i.e. no strain hardening occurs). A first estimate of the plastic zone size
ahead of the crack tip (Rp), along the plane of the crack, can be obtained by substituting the
yield strength into the above equation (see figure below):

𝐘𝐒

𝐑𝐏

Fig.IV.11 Plastic zone in crack-tip

The plastic zone size is obtained as:
1 𝐾 2
𝑅𝑝 = ( )
2𝜋 𝜎𝑌𝑆

An approximate idea of the shape can be obtained by substituting the near-tip stresses into a
yield criterion, e.g. the von Mises shear strain energy criterion, and allowing the angle of the
stressed element to vary.

40
Importantly, Irwin observed that the presence of significant crack tip plasticity caused the
specimen to behave as though it contained a crack of greater length than was actually the
case. That is, the compliance of the specimen became greater as plasticity developed at the
crack tip. This observation led him to propose a 'plastic zone correction' to crack length,
based on a more accurate model of crack tip plastic zone size.
The first model above has truncated the elastic stress field in the near-tip region, where
yielding occurs. Irwin calculated a more accurate estimate of plastic zone size, taking the
necessary re-distribution of crack tip stresses (which accompanies yielding) into
account. This leads to a larger plastic zone size as indicated in the figure below.

𝐑𝐏

𝐀𝐞𝐟𝐟

Fig.IV.11 Plastic zone in crack-tip growth

Areas B and C are equal, and the effective crack length is A eff. A simple analysis indicates
that rp = 2Rp with Aeff = a + Rp. Thus Irwin proposed that Rp represents a plasticity correction
to crack length which should be applied when crack tip plasticity is relatively extensive, e.g.
under plane strain conditions. Under such cases the stress intensity factor is corrected
iteratively through taking account of the effective crack length. The procedure first calculates
K using the actual crack length, then finds R p using this value of K. Aeff is then found and
the K value re-calculated. This iteration can be continued further if necessary.

Plastic zone Plastic zone

41
 Fig.IV.11 Plastic zone in plan stress and strain

IV.8 Stress for various fracture modes

Stress and displacement fields near a crack tip of a linear elastic isotropic material are listed
separately for all three modes: Mode I, Mode II, Mode III.
Please note that we use the Greek letter to denote the shear modulus, usually written as G,
for fear that one might be mistake it for the strain release rate, G. Also, the small differences
in formulas for plane stress and plane strain are handled by K, where
3−𝜈
(𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
{
𝜅 = 1+ν
3 − 4𝜈 (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)

For linear elastic materials, the principle of superposition applies. A mixed-mode problem
can be treated as a the summation of each mode.

(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) (𝐼) (𝐼𝐼) (𝐼𝐼𝐼)

𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 + 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗

Mode I

𝐾𝐼 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = cos ( ) [1 − sin ( ) sin ( )]
√2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2

𝐾𝐼 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = cos ( ) [1 + sin ( ) sin ( )]
√2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2

42
 0 (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝜎𝑧𝑧 = { (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
𝑣(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )

𝐾𝐼 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = cos ( ) sin ( ) cos ( )
√2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2

𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0

𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0

𝐾𝐼 𝑟 𝜃 𝜃
𝑢𝑥 = √ cos ( ) [𝜅 − 1 + 2 sin2 ( )]
2𝜇 2𝜋 2 2

𝐾𝐼 𝑟 𝜃 𝜃
𝑢𝑦 = √ sin ( ) [𝜅 + 1 − 2 cos2 ( )]
2𝜇 2𝜋 2 2

𝑢𝑧 = 0

Mode II

𝐾𝐼𝐼 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = − sin ( ) [2 − cos ( ) cos ( )]
√2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2

𝐾𝐼𝐼 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑦𝑦 = sin ( ) cos ( ) cos ( )
√2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2

0 (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝜎𝑧𝑧 = { (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
𝑣(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )

𝐾𝐼𝐼 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = cos ( ) [1 − sin ( ) sin ( )]
√2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2

𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0

𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0

𝐾𝐼𝐼 𝑟 𝜃 𝜃
𝑢𝑥 = √ sin ( ) [𝜅 + 1 + 2 cos2 ( )]
2𝜇 2𝜋 2 2

𝐾𝐼𝐼 𝑟 𝜃 𝜃
𝑢𝑦 = − √ cos ( ) [𝜅 − 1 − 2 sin2 ( )]
2𝜇 2𝜋 2 2

𝑢𝑧 = 0

Mode III

𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 0

43
𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 0

𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0

𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜃
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = cos ( )
√2𝜋𝑟 2

𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜃
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = − sin ( )
√2𝜋𝑟 2

𝑢𝑥 = 0

𝑢𝑦 = 0

𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑟 𝜃
𝑢𝑧 = √ sin ( )
𝜇 2𝜋 2

44
 Chapter V. Elastic Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) applies when the nonlinear deformation of the
material is confined to a small region near the crack tip. For brittle materials, it accurately
establishes the criteria for catastrophic failure. However, severe limitations arise when large
regions of the material are subject to plastic deformation before a crack propagates. Elastic
Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM) is proposed to analyze the relatively large plastic zones.
Elastic Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM) assumes isotropic and elastic-plastic materials.
Based on the assumption, the strain energy fields or opening displacement near the crack
tips are calculated. When the energy or opening exceeds the critical value, the crack will
grow.
Please note that although the term elastic-plastic is used in this approach, the material is
merely nonlinear-elastic. In others words, the unloading curve of the so called elastic-plastic
material in EPFM follows the original loading curve, instead of a parallel line to the linear
loading part which is normally the case for true elastic-plastic materials.

There are two major branches in EPFM: Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)
suggested by Wells, popular in Europe, and the J Integral proposed by Rice, widely used in
the United States. However, Shih provided evidence that a unique relationship between J
and CTOD exists for a given material. Thus, these two parameters are both valid in
characterizing crack tip toughness for elastic-plastic materials.
The basic EPFM analysis can be summarized as follows:

1. Calculate the J integral or crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) as a function of

the loading and the geometry.

2.
The critical J integral Jc or the critical CTOD can be determined empirically.

45
 3. The J integral J should NOT exceed Jc, or, the CTOD should not exceed the critial

CTOD .

IV.1 J-integral Rice

Consider a nonlinear elastic body containing a crack,

crack
𝐎 𝐗
𝒅𝒔

𝒏
𝚪

Fig.V.1 J integral

the J integral is defined as

𝜕𝑢𝑗
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑤𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠
Γ 𝜕𝑥
ε
where w = ∫0 ij σij d εij is the strain energy density, Ti = σij nj is the traction vector, is an

arbitrary contour around the tip of the crack, n is the unit vector normal to ; , , and u
are the stress, strain, and displacement field, respectively.
Rice, J. R., 1968, showed that the J integral is a path-independent line integral and it
represents the strain energy release rate of nonlinear elastic materials:
𝑑Π
𝐽=
𝑑𝐴
where Π = U − Wis the potential energy, the strain energy U stored in the body minus the
work W done by external forces and A is the crack area.
The dimension of J is
𝐹 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐷𝑖𝑚[𝐽] = 2
𝐿=
𝐿 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

46
V.1.1 J versus G and K
For linear elastic materials, the J integral J is in fact the strain energy release rate, 𝒢, and
both are related to the stress intensity factor K in the following fashion:
𝐾2
(𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐽=𝒢 = 𝐸
2
𝐾 2
{ 𝐸 (1 − v ) (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)

V.1.2 Crack in an Arbitrary Body

A general formula for determining the J integral of a crack in an arbitrary body is described
in this section.

𝒅𝒔
𝛈
𝛏
𝒏

𝐨′

Crack
𝚪
𝛗
𝑶
𝑿

Fig.V.2 J integral for arbitrary component

For a nonlinear elastic body containing a crack along axis, the J integral, from the
definition, is
𝜕𝑢
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑤𝑑𝜂 − 𝑇 𝑑𝑠
Γ 𝜕𝜉
or alternatively, J can be rewritten in a matrix form,
𝜕𝑢𝑛
𝜕𝜉
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑤𝑑𝜂 − ∫ {𝜎𝑛 𝜏𝑛 } 𝑑𝑠
Γ Γ
𝜕𝑣𝑛
[ 𝜕𝜂 ]

47
where
1 2 1 + 2𝑣 2
𝑊= (𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 ) + (𝜏𝑥𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 )
2𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎
𝜏𝑛 = (𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎)
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢 cos 𝑎 + 𝑣 sin 𝑎
𝑣𝑛 = −𝑢 sin 𝑎 + 𝑣 cos 𝑎

𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑣(𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 ) for plane strain and 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0for plane stress.
The J intergral can be expanded in terms of the global x-y coordinates as after change of
variables:

𝐽 = ∫ 𝑊(− sin 𝜑 𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝜑 𝑑𝑦) − ∫ 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜑 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜑 𝑑𝑦

−𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜑 𝑑𝑥 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜑 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑦 cos 𝜑 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜑 𝑑𝑦
+(𝜎𝑥𝑥 sin 𝜑 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 𝜑)𝑑𝑢 − (𝜎𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜑 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜑)𝑑𝑣

IV.2 Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)

There are two common definitions of the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD):

1. The opening displacement of the original crack tip.

2. The displacement at the intersection of a 90° vertex with the crack flanks.

Crack 𝛅

These two definitions are equivalent if the crack blunts in a semicircle.

48
IV.2.1 CTOD in Specimen
The crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) of a crack at the edge of a three-point bending
specimen is shown below:

𝒘=𝒂+𝒃

Center of Hinge

ρb

𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑫⬚ a
𝛅

𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑫𝒎

(∆)

Fig.V.3 CTOD in three-point bending specimen

where CTODm is the measured crack tip opening displacement, usually near the edge of
the specimen for ease of access, CTOD is the real crack tip opening displacement, a is the
length of the crack, and b is the width of the rest of the specimen. Please note that the
figure is for illustration purpose only and not to scale. From simple geometry of two
similar triangles:
𝜌𝑏
𝐶𝑇𝑂𝐷 = 𝐶𝑇𝑂𝐷𝑚
𝑎 + 𝜌𝑏

49
 𝜌𝑏
≡𝛿= ∆
𝑎 + 𝜌𝑏

where is a dimensionless rotational factor used to locate the center of the hinge.
For simplicity, let's assume that the center of the hinge locates at the center of b, i.e., ~
1/2. The CTOD then becomes
𝑏
𝛿≈ ∆
2𝑎 + 𝑏

The above hinge model may not be accurate when the displacement is mostly elastic. A
more accurate approach is to separate the CTOD into an elastic part and a plastic part:

𝛿 = 𝛿𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 + 𝛿𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝐾𝐼2 𝜌𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏
= + ∆
𝑚𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝐸 𝑎 + 𝜌𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏

where 𝜎𝑦𝑠 is the small scale yielding stress and m is a dimensionless constant that depends
on the material properties and the stress states.

IV.2.2 Relationship between J and CTOD

Consider a linear elastic body containing a crack, the J integral and the crack tip opening
displacement (CTOD) have the following relationship
𝐾2
𝐽= = 𝑚𝜎𝑣𝑠 𝛿
𝐸
where 𝜎𝑣𝑠 and m are defined in the previous section. For plane stress and nonhardening
materials, m = 1. Hence, for a through crack in an infinite plate subjected to a remote
tensile stress (Mode I), the crack tip opening displacement 𝛿 is

𝐾𝐼2 𝜋𝑎𝜎 2 𝐺 𝐽
𝛿= = = =
𝐸𝜎𝑦 𝐸𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦

Shih, C. F., 1981, took a step further and showed that a unique relationship exists between
J and CTOD beyond the validity limits of LEFM. He introduced the 90° intercept
definition of CTOD, as illustrated below.

50
 𝐘

Crack 𝛅 𝐫 ∗ 𝐮𝐲
𝐮𝐱 𝐎 𝐗

The displacement field is

𝑛
𝑎𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝐸𝐽 𝑛+1
𝑢𝑖 = ( ) ̃ 𝑖 (𝜃, 𝑛)
𝑟𝑢
𝐸 𝑎𝜎2𝑦𝑠 𝐼𝑛 𝑟

The CTOD is evaluated from ux and uy at r = r* and 𝜃 = 𝜋:

𝛿
= 𝑢𝑦 (𝑟 ∗ , 𝜋) = 𝑟 ∗ − 𝑢𝑥 (𝑟 ∗ , 𝜋)
2
Since
1
𝑎𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝑛 𝑛+1 𝐽
∗ ) {𝑢̃𝑥 (𝜋, 𝑛) + 𝑢̃𝑦 (𝜋, 𝑛)} 𝑛
𝑟 =(
𝐸 𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝐼𝑛

The CTOD becomes

1
𝑎𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝑛
𝑑𝑛 2𝑢̃ (𝜋, 𝑛) { 𝐸 [𝑢̃𝑥 (𝜋, 𝑛) + 𝑢̃𝑦 (𝜋, 𝑛)]}
𝛿= 𝐽= 𝐽
𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝐼𝑛 𝜎𝑦𝑠

51
 Homework and Assignment

Course question Fatigue:

1) List the three stages of a fatigue failure and briefly describe them.
2) What is the difference between a static fatigue failure and a cyclic fatigue failure?
3) Explain the difference between `High cycle fatigue’ and `Low cycle fatigue’.
4) Briefly sketch schematic fatigue crack growth behavior on the axes. Be sure to include
the near-threshold, Paris, and near-tearing regimes. Label these regions, as well as the axes.
Course question Fracture:
1) Briefly indicate at least three modes of fracture mechanics.
2) What is the basic assumption of LEFM?
3) What is Stress Intensity Factor?
4) Increasing load ratio R while keeping ΔK constant leads to:
a) increased
b) decreased
c) unchanged

HW.01/ FATIGUE (Goodman diagram / Miner’s law)

Problem 01
A steel (G10350) has an ultimate tensile strength of 758 Mpa. and a fatigue endurance limit
of 344 Mpa. The load is such that the alternating stress is 0.4 of the mean stress.
Using the Goodman method with a safety factor of 1.5.
Find the magnitude of alternating stress σa that gives safe operation.

Problem 02
A material has an S-N curve that is linear from a value equal to the fracture stress σ f at one
cycle (logN = 0), falling to a value of σf /3 at logN = 7.
The material has been subjected to n1 = 1500 load
cycles at a level S = 0.6 σf .
Estimate how many cycles n2 the material can
withstand if the stress amplitude is now raised to S =
0.9 σf?
HW.02/ FATIGUE (Paris’s law)

52
Problem 01
Consider a flat plate of some metal alloy that is to be exposed to repeated tensile
compressive cycling in which the mean stress is 25 MPa.
If: ao = 0.25 mm, ac = 5.0 mm, m = 4.0, A = 5 * 10-15, Y = 2.0, and Nf =3.2 * 105 cycles .
Estimate the maximum tensile stress to yield the fatigue life prescribed.

Problem 02
A structure contains a critical component made of steel. After fabrication of the structure, a
welding defect (a0= 6.3 mm) deep is discovered in this steel plate. The flaw is essentially
an edge crack under tension loading. The component is subject to a fluctuating load which
causes a stress variation from 127 MPa to 280 MPa.

Material properties for steel are: yield stress = 869 MPa, K1C = 156 MPa m1/2 geometry
correction factor Y = 1. 12, and the Paris law is: C= 1.63 10 -10, m=2.52.

1. Calculate the critical defect size a c for fast fracture.

2. Calculate the fatigue life Nf of this component based on attaining a critical defect
size for fast fracture.
3. Accurately construct the curve showing crack length against number of applied
load cycles a[m] = f(N), choose 4 points (0.015, 0.025, 0.04, 0.06).

HW. 03 / FATIGUE (Factor of Safety and Composite Materials)

53
Problem 01
A high strength piece of cabling is made from a special alloy, called Ronkrizite. (s t = 3500
MPa, sy =2000 MPa). The fiber's diameter is 0.01 m. The load that will be applied to the
cabling is 105 N.
What is the factor of safety?

Problem 02
Stresses on the fuselage of a high performance aircraft have been calculated with an FEA
program to be approximately 50 MPa. Initially designers have been thinking about using a
new composite material called Boloney-ium. Boloney-ium is made from an epoxy resin (s t
= 80 MPa ) and extremely short polymer fibers, called Kanderite, (st = 2000 MPa). The fibers
will make up 30% of the matrix and have an average length and diameter of 0.25 mm and
10-6 m respectively. The shear strength between the fibers and the matrix is very high,
approximately 100 MPa.
Will the new composite be able to withstand the applied stress?

HW. 04 / FRACTURE (Energetic)

Problem 1
A sheet of glass measuring 2 m by 200 mm by 2 mm contains a central slit parallel to the
200 mm side. The sheet is restrained at one end and loaded in tension with a mass of 500
kg.
What is the maximum allowable length of slit before fracture occurs?
Assume the following material property values: E = 60 GPa, surface energy is 0.5 J/m2,
Poisson's ratio = 0.25 and the fracture stress of sound glass is 170 MPa.

Problem 2
If the fracture stress of a large sheet of maraging steel , which contains a central crack of
length 40 mm, is 480 MPa,
calculate the fracture stress of a similar sheet containing a crack of length 100 mm.

Problem 3
A thin sheet of maraging steel has a tensile strength of 1950 MPa. Calculate the percentage
reduction in strength due to the presence of a crack in the sheet, which is 4 mm long and
orientated perpendicular to the stressed direction.

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For this steel, E can be taken as 200 GPa, the energy of fracture surface as 2 J/m2, and the
work of plastic deformation of each crack tip is 2x104 J/m2.

Problem 4
A rectangular perspex plate 600 mm by 300 mm by 6 mm thick is scribed into two equal
squares by a knife, leaving a uniform cut of depth 0.3 mm.
What is the bending moment required to break the plate if the perspex has a work to
fracture of 500 J/m2?
Note that E = 2.5 GPa for perspex.

HW.05 / FRACTURE (Stress Intensity Factor (SIF))

Problem 01
A 60 kg masse is attached to a sheet of glass which is 300 cm long by 10 cm wide and
0.127 cm thick.
The glass sheet contains a central crack with a length of 1.62 cm that is orientated parallel
to the ground and perpendicular to the longest side of the glass sheet.
The fracture toughness of the glass is known to be 0.83 MPa m½.
Is the fast fracture occur?
The stress intensity factor for a through-thickness crack is given by:
K = Yσ√πa

where:
a a 2 a 3
Y = 1 + 0.256 ( ) − 1.152 ( ) + 12.2 ( )
W W W

Problem 02
A large sheet containing a 50 mm long crack fractures when loaded to 500 MPa.
Determine the fracture load of a similar sheet with a 100 mm crack.
Problem 03
The long rectangular bar is made from a material whose fracture toughness is 60 MPa√m.
During routine maintenance, a 20 mm deep edge crack is found.

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Assuming LEFM, is it safe to return the bar to service without repair?

HW.06/ FRACTURE (Fracture Toughness Kc)

Problem 01
An aluminum alloy component that is loaded to 248 MPa.
The plain strain fracture toughness of the alloy is 24 MPa.m1/2.
Assume that the value of Y is 1.35.
Calculate the maximum internal crack length allowable.

Problem 02
Plates of a ceramic material called boron carbide are being used to absorb neutrons in a
nuclear reactor. Boron carbide has a KIC of approximately 5 MPa(m)1/2 and a high yield
strength of 500 MPa. The compressive stresses being applied to the boron carbide plates,
only 10-3 m thin, are about 6 MPa; Y = 1.1.
What is the critical crack length in the boron carbide plates?

Problem 03
The CTS testpiece is from a 1.3 GPa steel.
If the failure load is 08 kN, what fracture toughness is indicated ?
Is the result valid ?
Note that width and crack size are reckoned from the load's line of action.

5.23 + α(5.16α − 5.88)

Y=
1 − 1.07α

Problem 04
The bar of 100 x 20 mm rectangular cross-section is
loaded by a force of 250 kN as shown. Determine the
critical crack length if the toughness is 50 MPa√m.

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Problem 07
The toughness of a 600 MPa yield structural steel is estimated to be 130 MPa√m.
What size and mass of SEN bend test specimen is necessary ?
And what capacity of testing machine would be required ?
Assume fracture at α = 0.4.

HW.07 / FRACTURE (Crack-Tip Plasticity)

Problem 01
For a through-thickness crack in an infinite plate, the tensile stress distribution ahead of the
crack tip is accurately described by the equation:
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚
𝜎= 1
𝑎2 2
(1 − 2 )
x
where x is distance along the crack from its centre-line, as shown in the diagram below.
In terms of the stress intensity factor, the stress very near to the crack tip can be approximated
as:
𝐾
𝜎=
√2𝜋𝑟
where r is distance ahead of the crack tip.
- What is the difference between the stress predictions of these two equations at a distance
r = 0.02a ahead of the crack tip?

Problem 02
A thin plate of steel contains a central through-thickness crack of length 18 mm, which is
subjected to a stress of 300 MPa applied perpendicularly to the flaw plane. The 0.2% flow
stress of the material is 1300 MPa.
- Calculate the plastic zone size and the effective stress intensity level at the crack tip, making
reasonable assumptions about the state of stress.
- If, after heat treatment, the flow stress of the steel dropped to 370 MPa, what would the
plastic zone size be under the applied stress of 340 MPa, and what conclusions would you
draw about the use of LEFM?

57
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