Module -III

Data Collection and Analysis: Introduction, Need for Data Collection, Methods of
Data Collection, Principles for Accessing Research Data, Data Processing, Data
Analysis, Presentation of Data, Error Analysis, Scientific Models. Scientific
Methodology - Introduction Rules and Principles of Scientific Method, Hypothesis,
Testing of Hypothesis, Basic concepts, Procedure, Important parametric tests: z-test, t-
test, χ2-square test, F test.

Data Collection and Analysis

In research methodology, "data collection and analysis" refers to the systematic

process of gathering and interpreting information to address research questions or
objectives. Data collection involves the gathering of relevant data from various
sources, such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, or existing datasets.
Researchers employ appropriate methods and tools to ensure the accuracy, reliability,
and validity of the collected data.

Once the data is collected, it undergoes analysis, which involves organizing,

interpreting, and summarizing the information to derive meaningful insights. Data
analysis techniques vary depending on the nature of the data and the research
objectives. Common methods include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics,
qualitative analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, and coding.

The primary goal of data collection and analysis is to extract valuable insights,
patterns, and relationships from the data to address research questions or hypotheses
effectively. It allows researchers to draw conclusions, make inferences, and support
their findings with empirical evidence. Moreover, data collection and analysis are
iterative processes, often requiring multiple iterations to refine research questions,
gather additional data, or adjust analysis techniques based on emerging insights.
Overall, effective data collection and analysis are critical components of the research
process, guiding researchers in generating reliable and valid conclusions.
Need for Data Collection

Data collection is essential because it provides the raw material needed for research,
analysis, decision-making, and problem-solving. Without data, we would lack the
information necessary to understand trends, make informed decisions, or develop
effective strategies. Whether it's in scientific research, business operations, or social
studies, data collection allows us to gather evidence, identify patterns, and draw
meaningful conclusions. It helps us address questions, test hypotheses, and validate
theories. In essence, data collection is the foundation upon which much of our
knowledge and understanding is built.

Methods of Data Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and
research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection
to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz.,
primary and secondary. The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for
the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. The secondary data, on the
other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher would have to
decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and
accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The
methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be
originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work
is merely that of compilation.

1. COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in experimental
research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys,
whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data
either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in
one form or another or through personal interviews. This, in other words, means
 that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys
and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
(i) observation method
(ii) interview method
(iii) through questionnaires
(iv) through schedules
(v) other methods which include
(a) warranty cards;
(b) distributor audits;
(c) pantry audits;
(d) consumer panels;
(e) using mechanical devices;
(f) through projective techniques;
(g) depth interviews
(h) content analysis.

OBSERVATION METHOD

Observation is a helpful way for researchers to watch and record behavior without
relying on people's answers. They plan carefully and make sure their observations are
accurate. There are two types: structured, where everything is planned, and
unstructured, which is more flexible. Sometimes, researchers join the group they're
studying (participant observation), while other times, they watch from a distance (non-
participant observation). Both ways have their pros and cons. Controlled observation
follows strict plans, while uncontrolled observation is more casual. Overall,
observation can give valuable insights, but it can also be expensive and limited.
Interview Method

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli

and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

(a) Personal interviews: The personal interview method involves direct interaction
between an interviewer and respondents, either in person or indirectly through
cross-examination. Structured interviews follow a set format, while unstructured
interviews allow for flexibility in questioning. Clinical interviews delve into
underlying feelings or motivations, while non-directive interviews encourage
respondents to freely discuss a topic with minimal questioning. This method
offers advantages such as obtaining in-depth information, flexibility in
questioning, and the ability to control who answers. However, it is costly,
susceptible to bias, time-consuming, and may introduce errors. Successful
interviews require careful selection, training, and briefing of interviewers, along
with creating a friendly atmosphere, asking intelligent questions, and recording
responses accurately while maintaining impartiality and focus. Regular checks
ensure adherence to guidelines and address any issues promptly.

(b) Telephone interviews: Telephone surveys are a quick and cost-effective way to
gather information by calling people on the phone. They're good because they're
flexible, fast, and have higher response rates. You can easily reach people who have
phones and record their answers without making them uncomfortable. But, there are
limits. People only have a short time to answer, and not everyone has a phone, so
your survey might not cover everyone. Plus, it's hard to ask detailed questions, and
there's a chance the person asking the questions might influence the answers.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

The questionnaire method is used for big surveys by different groups. People get a set
of questions by mail, and they answer and send it back. It's cheap and unbiased, but
sometimes people don't send it back, and it's slow. Also, it needs educated and willing
people. Before sending it out, it's smart to check the questions with a small test first.
There are three main parts to note about making a questionnaire:

1. General form: It can be structured or unstructured. Structured ones have set

questions for everyone, while unstructured ones let the interviewer decide based on
responses.

2. Question sequence: The order of questions is important to make sure people

understand and answer well. Start with easy questions, avoid tough ones first, and put
tricky ones later.

3. Question wording: Questions should be easy to understand and not influence

answers. Each question should focus on one idea, and use clear language. It's good to
have a mix of multiple choice and open-ended questions. Making a good questionnaire
takes practice and attention to detail.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

This method is like using questionnaires, but with a twist. Instead of people filling out
forms themselves, trained folks called enumerators ask the questions in person. They
record the answers on a form called a schedule. Sometimes, people being asked the
questions fill out the form with the help of the enumerators. Enumerators explain the
purpose of the questions and help if needed. Choosing the right enumerators is crucial
—they need to be smart, honest, and patient. This method is great for big surveys, like
population censuses, but it can be expensive. It's often used by governments or large
organizations.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES

Questionnaires and schedules are both used to collect data, but they have some
differences:

1. Collection Method: Questionnaires are sent by mail and filled by respondents, while
schedules are filled by research workers.
2. Cost: Questionnaires are cheaper, while schedules cost more due to hiring
enumerators.

3. Response Rate: Questionnaires often have higher non-response rates.

4. Identity: Respondent identity is unclear in questionnaires but known in schedules.

5. Speed: Schedules are faster as enumerators collect data directly.

6. Personal Contact: Schedules involve direct contact, while questionnaires are sent
and returned by post.

7. Literacy: Questionnaires require literacy, while schedules can be used with illiterate
respondents.

8. Sample Distribution: Questionnaires allow wider distribution.

9. Accuracy: Schedules yield more accurate information due to enumerator

clarification.

10. Success Factors: Questionnaire success relies on quality, while schedule success
depends on enumerators.

11. Appearance: Questionnaires need to be visually appealing.

12. Observation: Schedules can be combined with observation method.

SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Let us consider some other methods of data collection, particularly used by big
business houses in modern times.

1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards come with products like appliances or electronics.
They ask for your name, address, and product details. You fill out the card and mail it
back to the dealer.

2. Distributor or store audits: Salespeople visit shops often to check stock levels.
This helps estimate market size and trends. They study sales patterns and promotion
effects. No direct questioning is involved.
3. Pantry audits: Pantry audits estimate consumption by checking pantry items,
noting amounts and prices. This reveals buying habits and preferences. Investigators
might ask about product choices. While it's convenient and may not need repeat visits,
it might not fully show preferences influenced by promotions.

4. Consumer panels: Consumer panels track buying habits and share data. There are
two types: transitory and continuing, for short-term or long-term data. They often use
mail surveys. But ensuring representativeness and avoiding biases is challenging.

5. Use of mechanical devices: Businesses employ diverse tools to grasp consumer

behaviour: eye cameras monitor gaze, pupillometric cameras measure interest via
pupil dilation, and psychogalvanometers gauge body excitement. Motion picture
cameras track store movements, and audiometers monitor TV preferences.
Psychologists utilize projective techniques like word association and inkblot
interpretation to unveil motives and attitudes. Play techniques and sociometry uncover
social dynamics. These methods empower businesses and researchers to comprehend
consumer preferences and behaviours more deeply.

6. Depth interviews: Depth interviews are in-depth explorations of people's inner

thoughts and motivations, often used in motivational research. They uncover
unconscious desires and feelings, requiring skilled interviewers and time. These
interviews can be projective, using indirect questions, or non-projective, directly
focusing on attitudes and behaviours. Both types provide valuable insights into
people's psychological and social dynamics.

7. Content-analysis: Content analysis studies the content of written or spoken

materials, like books and newspapers. It used to focus on counting specific features but
now aims to understand the overall message. Bernard Berelson is known for this
approach, which is similar to comparing a quick chat to a detailed interview. This
method helps grasp the essence of verbal materials. For example, when reviewing
research articles, it can involve simple tasks like counting elements or more complex
analyses like assessing the media's attitude towards education.