ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSERVATION AND AUDITING (OPEN ELECTIVE)

SUBJECT CODE: - 18EE754 MODULE – 2 1st part.

Syllabus

Electrical system: Electricity billing, Electrical load management and maximum demand
control, Maximum demand controllers, Power factor improvement and its benefit, Automatic
power factor controllers, efficient operation of transformers, Energy efficient motors, Soft
starters, Variable speed drives, Selection and location of capacitors, Performance evaluation of
fans and pumps, flow control strategies and energy conservation opportunities in fans and
pumps, electronic ballast, Energy efficient lighting and measures of energy efficiency in
lighting systems.

Electricity Billing:

For medium and large utilizing consumers electricity bill is calculated based on two part tariff
scheme. Where there are twotypes of charges.

1) Fixed charges

2) Energy consumption charges

In the first part consumer has to pay monthly minimum fixed charges for the capacity (or
maximum demand) even though he utilizes electricity or not which is fixed by the supplier.
These charges are known as fixed charges.

In the second part consumer has to pay charges for actual electrical energy utilized during the
billing cycle. These charges increase as the utilization increases. For example first 30 units are
charged for lesser price, if utilization increases more than 30 units the excess units beyond 30
units are charged at much higher price. Consumer has to pay electricity bill on monthly basis.
Capacity or demand is in kilo Watts (kW). The reactive energy (i.e.) kVArh drawn by the
service is also recorded and billed for in some utilities, because this would affect the load on
the utility. Accordingly, utility charges for maximum demand, active energy and reactive power
drawn (as reflected by the power factor) in its billing structure.

The tariff structure generally includes the following components:

a) Maximum demand Charges

These charges relate to maximum demand registered during month/billing period and
corresponding rate of utility.
b) Energy Charges

These charges relate to energy (kilowatt hours) consumed during month / billing period and
corresponding rates, often levied in slabs of use rates. Some utilities now charge on the basis
of apparent energy (kVAh), which is a vector sum of kWh and kVArh.

c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to contain reactive power
drawn from grid.

d) Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the increasing fuel
expenses over a base reference value.

e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.

f) Meter rentals

g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied sometimes on slabbasis or
on actual metering basis.

h) Time Of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also prevalent in tariff
structure provisions of some utilities.

i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand

j) Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the utilities

Analysis of bill data and monitoring its trends helps energy manager to identify ways for
electricity bill reduction through available provisions in tariff framework, apart from energy
budgeting.

The month’s maximum demand will be the highest among such demand values recorded over the
month. The meter registers only if the value exceeds the previous maximum demand value and
thus, even if, average maximum demand is low, the industry / facility has to pay for the
maximum demand charges for the highest value registered during the month, even if it occurs
for just one recording cycle duration i.e., 30 minutes during whole of the month. A typical
demand curve is shown in Figure 1.4.
 Figure 1.4 Demand Curve

UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

It is the physical quantity in which the electrical energy is measured.

A unit is represented in Kilowatt Hour kWh. This is the actual electrical energy consumed.
A kilowatt-hour is 1,000 watts used for one hour.
1 unit of electrical energy is equal to 1 kWh. If an electrical appliance of power 1000 watt is
operated on mains for 1 hour, it will consume 1 unit of electricity.

Electrical Load Management and Maximum Demand Control

Need for Electrical Load Management

As the growth in the electricity usage and diversity of end use segments increasing in the
duration of time has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet the increasing demand. As capacity
addition is costly and also a long time prospect, hence better is the load management at the user
end, this helps to minimize peak demands on the utility infrastructure as well as better
utilization of power plant capacities.
The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff scheme to influence the user to take up
better load management through measures like time of use, tariffs, penalties on exceeding
 allowed maximum demand, night tariff concessions etc. Load management is a powerful
means of efficiency improvement both for end user as well as utility.

Step By Step Approach for Maximum Demand Control

1. Load Curve Generation

The curve between load demand of a

consumer against time is known as a ‘load
curve’. If it is plotted for the 24 hours of a
single day, it is known as an ‘hourly load
curve’ and if daily demands plotted over a
month, it is called daily load curves. A
typical hourly load curve for an engineering
industry is shown in Figure. These types of
curves are useful in predicting patterns of
the minimum load, maximum load off-
Load, determining maximum demand and
energy use.

2. Rescheduling of Loads

Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations, in different shifts can be planned
and implemented to minimize the simultaneous maximum demand. For this purpose, it is
advisable to prepare an operation flow chart and a process chart. Analyzing these charts and
with an integrated approach, it would be possible to reschedule the operations and running
equipment in such a way as to improve the load factor which in turn reduces the maximum
demand.

3. Storage of Products in process material/ process utilities like refrigeration

It is possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity of products/

materials, water, chilled water / hot water, using electricity during off peak periods. Off peak hour
operations also help to save energy due to favorable conditions such as lower ambient temperature
etc.
Example: Ice bank system is used in milk & dairy industry. Ice is made in lean period and used
in peak load period and thus maximum demand is reduced.
 4. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads

When the maximum demand tends to reach preset limit, shedding some of non-essential loads
temporarily can help to reduce maximum demand.. It is possible to install direct demand
monitoring systems, which will switch off non-essential loads when a preset demand is reached.
Simple systems give an alarm, and the loads are shed manually. Sophisticated microprocessor
controlled systems arealso available, which provide a wide variety of control options like:

■ Accurate prediction of demand

■ Graphical display of present load, available load, demand limit
■ Visual and audible alarm
■ Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence
■ Automatic restoration of load
■ Recording and metering

5. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets

When diesel generation sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electric utilities,

it is advisable to connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the peak value. This
would reduce the load demand to a considerable extent and minimize the demand charges.

6. Reactive Power Compensation

The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by using capacitor banks and
maintaining the optimum power factor. Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor
based control systems. These systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to maintain the
desired Power factor of system and optimize maximum demand thereby.

Maximum Demand Controllers

High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in addition to the usual
charge for the number of units consumed. This charge is usually based on the highest amount of
power used during some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month. The maximum
demand charge often represents a large proportion of the total bill and may be based on only
one isolated 30 minute episode of high power use.
Considerable savings can be realized by monitoring power use and turning off or reduc- ing
non-essential loads during such periods of high power use.
Maximum Demand Controller is
a device designed to meet the
need of industries manage the
maximum demand and load
management. Alarm is sounded
when demand approaches a preset
value. Ifcorrective action is not
taken, the controller switches off
non-essential loads in a logical
sequence. This sequence is
predetermined by the user and is
programmed jointly by the user
and the supplier of the device.
The plant equipments selected
for the load management are
stopped and restarted as per the
desired load profile. Load control
scheme is implemented by using
suitable control contactors.
Maximum Demand Controller

Power Factor Improvement and Benefits

In all industrial electrical distribution systems, the major loads are resistive and inductive.
Resistive loads are incandescent lighting and resistance heating. In case of pure resistive loads
the voltage (V), current (I), resistance (R) relations are linearly related, i.e.
V = I x R and Power (kW) = V x I
Typical inductive loads are A.C. Motors, induction furnaces, transformers and ballast-type
lighting. Inductive loads require two kinds of power: a) active (or working) power to perform the
work and b) reactive power to create and maintain electro-magnetic fields.
Active power is measured in kW (Kilo Watts). Reactive power is measured in kVAr (Kilo Volt-
Amperes Reactive).
The vector sum of the active power and reactive power make up the total (or apparent) power used.
This is the power generated by the SEBs for the user to perform a given amount ofwork. Total Power
is measured in kVA (Kilo Volts-Amperes).
 The ratio of kW to kVA is called the power factor, which is always less than or equal to
unity. Theoretically, when electric utilities supply power, if all loads have unity power factor,
maximum power can be transferred for the same distribution system capacity. However, as the
loads are inductive in nature, with the power factor ranging from 0.2 to 0.9, the electrical dis-
tribution network is stressed for capacity at low power factors.

Improving Power Factor

A chemical industry had installed a 1500 kVA transformer. The initial demand of the plant was 1160
kVA with power factor of 0.70. The % loading of transformer was about 78% (1160/1500)%. To
improve the power factor and to avoid the penalty, the unit had added about 410 kVAr in motor
load end. This improved the power factor to 0.89, andreduced the required kVA to 913, which is the
vector sum of kW and kVAr.

After improvement the plant had avoided penalty and the 1500 kVA transformer now loaded
only to 60% of capacity. This will allow the addition of more load in the future to be supplied by
the transformer.

The advantages of PF improvement by capacitor addition

a) Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the total current in the system
from the source end.
b) I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in current.
c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d) kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and lines upto the capac-
itors reduces giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilising the full capac-
ity of your electrical system.

Cost benefits of PF improvement

While costs of PF improvement are in terms of investment needs for capacitor addition the benefits
to be quantified for feasibility analysis are:
a) Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill
b) Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network
c) Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors
 d) A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a low power
factor
e) Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables, switchgears etc for delivering
load is reduced.
Automatic Power Factor Controllers
Various types of automatic power factor controls are available with relay / microprocessor logic.
Two of the most common controls are: Voltage Control and kVAr Control.

Voltage Control
Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence when the switched capacitors are
applied at point where the circuit voltage decreases as circuit load increases. Generally, where
they are applied the voltage should decrease as circuit load increases and the drop in voltage
should be around 4 – 5 % with increasing load.
Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used in substation applications, when
maintaining a particular voltage is of prime importance. This type of control is independent of
load cycle. During light load time and low source voltage, this may give leading PF at the sub-
station.
KILOVAR Control
Kilovar sensitive controls (see Figure 10.2) are used at loca- tions where the voltage level is closely
regulated and not avail- able as a control variable. The capacitors can be switched to respond to a
decreasing power factor as a result of change in system loading. This type of control can also be
used to avoid penalty on low power factor by adding capacitors in steps as the system power factor
begins to lag behind the desired value. Kilovar control requires two inputs - current and voltage
from the incoming feeder, which are fed to the PF correction mecha- nism, either the
microprocessoror the relay.
Automatic Power Factor Control Relay
It controls the power factor of the installation by giving signals to switch on or off power factor
correction capacitors. Relay is the brain of control circuit and needs contactors of appropriate rating
for switching on/off the capacitors.

When the power factor falls below setting, the capacitors are switched on in sequence. The relays
are provided with First in First out (FIFO) and First in Last Out (FILO) sequence. The capacitors
controlled by the relay must be of the same rating and they are switched on/off in linear sequence. To
prevent over correction hunting, a dead band is provided. This setting determines the range of phase
angle over which the relay does not respond; only when the PF goes beyond this range, the relay
acts. When the load is low, the effect of the capacitors is more pronounced and may lead to hunting.
Under current blocking (low current cut out) shuts off the relay, switching off all capacitors one by
one in sequence, when load current is below setting. Special timing sequences ensure that
capacitors are fully discharged before they are switched in. This avoids dangerous over voltage
transient. The solid state indicating lamps (LEDS) display various functions that the operator
should know and also and indicate each capacitor switching stage.

Intelligent Power Factor Controller (IPFC)

This controller determines the rating of capacitance connected in each step during the first hour of
its operation and stores them in memory. Based on this measurement, the IPFC switches on the
most appropriate steps, thus eliminating the hunting problems normally associated with capacitor
switching.

Energy Efficient Motors

Minimising Watts Loss in Motors
Improvements in motor efficiency can be achieved without compromising motor performance at
higher cost - within the limits of existing design and manufacturing technology. any
improvement in motor efficiency must result from reducing the Watts losses. In terms of the
existing state of electric motor technology, a reduction in watts losses can be achieved in various
ways. All of these changes to reduce motor losses are possible with existing motor design and
manufacturing technology. They would, however, require additional materials and/or the
use of higher quality materials and improved manufacturing processes resulting in
 increased motorcost.

Simply Stated: REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENCY

energy-efficient electric motors reduce energy losses through improved design, better materials,
and improved manufacturing techniques. Replacing a motor may be justifiable solely on the
electricity cost savings derived from an energy-efficient replacement. This is true if the motor
runs continuously, power rates are high, the motor is oversized for the application, or its nominal
efficiency has been reduced by damage or previous rewinds.

Technical aspects of Energy EfficientMotors

Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less maintenance. At lower
temperatures, bearing grease lasts longer; required time between re-greasing increases.
Lower temperatures translate to long lasting insulation. Generally, motor life doubles for each
10°C reduction in operating temperature.
Select energy-efficient motors with a 1.15 service factor, and design for operation at 85% of the
rated motor load.

Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power quality can affect the operation of
energy-efficient motors.

Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction motors, slip is a measure of
motor winding losses. The lower the slip, the higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy
efficient motors results in speeds about 1% faster than in standard counterparts.

Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard motors. Facility managers
should be careful when applying efficient motors to high torque applications.

Soft Starter
When starting, AC Induction motor develops more torque than is required at full speed. This
stress is transferred to the mechanical trans- mission system resulting in excessive wear and
premature failure of chains, belts, gears, mechanical seals, etc. Additionally, rapid acceleration
also has a massive impact on electricity supply charges with high inrush currents drawing +600%
of the normal run current. The use of Star Delta only provides a partial solution to the problem.
Should the motor slow down during the transition period, the high peaks can be repeated and
 can even exceed direct on line current Soft starter (see Figure 10.5) provides a reliable and
economical solution to these problems by delivering a controlled release of power to the motor,
thereby providing smooth, stepless acceleration and deceleration. Motor life will be extended as
damage to windings and bearings is reduced.
Soft Start & Soft Stop is built into 3 phase units, providing controlled starting and stopping
with a selection of ramp times and current limit settings to suit all applications.

Advantages of Soft Start

– Less mechanical stress

– Improved power factor.
– Lower maximum demand.
– Less mechanical maintenance

Variable Speed Drives

Speed Control of Induction Motors

Induction motor is the workhorse of the industry. It is cheap rugged and provides high power to
weight ratio. On account of high cost-implications and limitations of D.C. System, induction
motors are preferred for variable speed application, the speed of which can be varied by changing
the supply frequency. The speed can also be varied through a number of other means, including,
varying the input voltage, varying the resistance of the rotor circuit, using multi speed windings,
using Scherbius or Kramer drives, using mechanical means such as gears and pulleys and eddy-
current or fluid coupling, or by using rotary or static voltage and frequency converters.

Variable Frequency Drive

The VFD operates on a simple principle. The rotational speed of an AC induction motor
depends on the number of poles in that stator and the frequency of the applied AC power.
Although the number of poles in an induction motor cannot be altered easily, variable speed can
be achieved through a variation in frequency. The VFD rectifies standard 50 cycle AC line
power to DC, then synthesizes the DC to a variable frequency AC output. Motors connected to
VFD provide variable speed mechanical output with high efficiency. These devices are capable
of up to a 9:1 speed reduction ratio and a 3:1 speed increase
Variable Torque Vs. Constant Torque

Variable speed drives, and the loads that are applied to, can generally be divided into two groups:
constant torque and variable torque. The energy savings potential of variable torque applications
is much greater than that of constant torque applications. Constant torque loads include vibrating
conveyors, punch presses, rock crushers, machine tools, and other applications where the drive
follows a constant V/Hz ratio. Variable torque loads include centrifugal pumps and fans, which
make up the majority of HVAC applications.

Tighter process control with variable speed drives

No other AC motor control method compares to variable speed drives when it comes to accurate
process control. Full-voltage (across the line) starters can only run the motor at full speed, and
soft starts and reduced voltage soft starters can only gradually ramp the motor up to full speed,
and back down to shutdown. Variable speed drives, on the other hand, can be pro- grammed to
run the motor at a precise speed, to stop at a precise position, or to apply a specific amount of
torque.