348 CHAPTER 9 DEF LECTIONS USING ENERGY METHODS

of virtual work as a method of virtual displacements. In this case virtual

displacements are imposed on the structure while the structure is
subjected to real loadings. This method can be used to determine a force
on or in a structure,* so that the equation of virtual work is then
expressed as an equilibrium requirement.

9.4 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses

We can use the method of virtual work to determine the displacement
of a truss joint when the truss is subjected to an external loading,
temperature change, or fabrication errors. Each of these situations will
now be discussed.
B
1 External Loading. For the purpose of explanation let us consider
the vertical displacement ¢ of joint B of the truss in Fig. 9–7a. Here a
Apply virtual unit load to B
typical element of the truss would be one of its members having a length
(a)
L, Fig. 9–7b. If the applied loadings P1 and P2 cause a linear elastic
material response, then this element deforms an amount ¢L = NL>AE,
P1
where N is the normal or axial force in the member, caused by the loads.
P2 Applying Eq. 9–13, the virtual-work equation for the truss is therefore
L

1#¢ = a
nNL
(9–15)
AE
B

Apply real loads P1, P2 where

(b) 1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated
direction of ¢.
Fig. 9–7 n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the
external virtual unit load.
¢ = external joint displacement caused by the real loads on the truss.
N = internal normal force in a truss member caused by the real loads.
L = length of a member.
9
A = cross-sectional area of a member.
E = modulus of elasticity of a member.
The formulation of this equation follows naturally from the development
in Sec. 9–3. Here the external virtual unit load creates internal virtual
forces n in each of the truss members. The real loads then cause the truss
joint to be displaced ¢ in the same direction as the virtual unit load, and
each member is displaced NL>AE in the same direction as its respective
n force. Consequently, the external virtual work 1 # ¢ equals the internal
virtual work or the internal (virtual) strain energy stored in all the truss
members, that is, ©nNL>AE.

*It was used in this manner in Sec. 6–3 with reference to the Müller-Breslau principle.
 9.4 METHOD OF VIRTUAL WORK: TRUSSES 349

Temperature. In some cases, truss members may change their

length due to temperature. If a is the coefficient of thermal expansion
for a member and ¢T is the change in its temperature, the change in
length of a member is ¢L = a ¢T L. Hence, we can determine the
displacement of a selected truss joint due to this temperature change
from Eq. 9–13, written as

1 # ¢ = ©na ¢T L (9–16)

where
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated
direction of ¢.
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the
external virtual unit load.
¢ = external joint displacement caused by the temperature change.
a = coefficient of thermal expansion of member.
¢T = change in temperature of member.
L = length of member.

Fabrication Errors and Camber. Occasionally, errors in fabricating

the lengths of the members of a truss may occur. Also, in some cases truss
members must be made slightly longer or shorter in order to give the
truss a camber. Camber is often built into a bridge truss so that the
bottom cord will curve upward by an amount equivalent to the downward
deflection of the cord when subjected to the bridge’s full dead weight. If a
truss member is shorter or longer than intended, the displacement of a
truss joint from its expected position can be determined from direct
application of Eq. 9–13, written as

1 # ¢ = ©n ¢L (9–17)

where
9
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated
direction of ¢.
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the
external virtual unit load.
¢ = external joint displacement caused by the fabrication errors.
¢L = difference in length of the member from its intended size as
caused by a fabrication error.
A combination of the right sides of Eqs. 9–15 through 9–17 will be
necessary if both external loads act on the truss and some of the members
undergo a thermal change or have been fabricated with the wrong
dimensions.
 350 CHAPTER 9 DEF LECTIONS USING ENERGY METHODS

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure may be used to determine a specific

displacement of any joint on a truss using the method of virtual
work.

Virtual Forces n
• Place the unit load on the truss at the joint where the desired
displacement is to be determined. The load should be in the
same direction as the specified displacement, e.g., horizontal or
vertical.
• With the unit load so placed, and all the real loads removed from
the truss, use the method of joints or the method of sections and
calculate the internal n force in each truss member. Assume that
tensile forces are positive and compressive forces are negative.

Real Forces N
• Use the method of sections or the method of joints to determine
the N force in each member. These forces are caused only by
the real loads acting on the truss. Again, assume tensile forces are
positive and compressive forces are negative.

Virtual-Work Equation
• Apply the equation of virtual work, to determine the desired
displacement. It is important to retain the algebraic sign for each
of the corresponding n and N forces when substituting these
terms into the equation.
• If the resultant sum ©nNL>AE is positive, the displacement ¢ is
in the same direction as the unit load. If a negative value results,
¢ is opposite to the unit load.
• When applying 1 # ¢ = ©na ¢TL, realize that if any of the
9 members undergoes an increase in temperature, ¢T will be
positive, whereas a decrease in temperature results in a negative
value for ¢T.
• For 1 # ¢ = ©n ¢L, when a fabrication error increases the length of
a member, ¢L is positive, whereas a decrease in length is negative.
• When applying any formula, attention should be paid to the units
of each numerical quantity. In particular, the virtual unit load can
be assigned any arbitrary unit (lb, kip, N, etc.), since the n forces
will have these same units, and as a result the units for both the
virtual unit load and the n forces will cancel from both sides of the
equation.
 9.4 METHOD OF VIRTUAL WORK: TRUSSES 351

EXAMPLE 9.1
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the steel truss shown
in Fig. 9–8a. The cross-sectional area of each member is A = 0.5 in2
and E = 2911032 ksi.

F E

10 ft

B C D
A
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
4k 4k
(a)
SOLUTION
Virtual Forces n. Only a vertical 1-k load is placed at joint C, and 0.333 k
the force in each member is calculated using the method of joints. The

0.333 k
results are shown in Fig. 9–8b. Positive numbers indicate tensile forces

k
1

0.
47
k

94
and negative numbers indicate compressive forces. 1 1k

0.
47

3
0.

k
Real Forces N. The real forces in the members are calculated using
0.333 k 0.667 k 0.667 k
the method of joints. The results are shown in Fig. 9–8c.
0.333 k 0.667 k
1k
Virtual-Work Equation. Arranging the data in tabular form, we have
virtual forces n

Member n (k) N (k) L ( ft) nNL (k 2 # ft) (b)

AB 0.333 4 10 13.33
BC 0.667 4 10 26.67
CD 0.667 4 10 26.67
DE -0.943 -5.66 14.14 75.42 4k
FE -0.333 -4 10 13.33
k 5.
EB -0.471 0 14.14 0 66 4k 66
5. 0 4k k
BF 0.333 4 10 13.33
AF -0.471 -5.66 14.14 37.71
9
CE 1 4 10 40 4k 4k 4k
©246.47 4k 4k 4k 4k

246.47 k2 # ft
= a
real forces N
1 k # ¢C
nNL
Thus =
v
AE AE (c)

Converting the units of member length to inches and substituting the Fig. 9–8
numerical values for A and E, we have
1246.47 k2 # ft2112 in.>ft2
1 k # ¢ Cv =
10.5 in2212911032 k>in22

¢ Cv = 0.204 in. Ans.

 352 CHAPTER 9 DEF LECTIONS USING ENERGY METHODS

EXAMPLE 9.2
The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in
Fig. 9–9a is A = 400 mm2 and E = 200 GPa. (a) Determine the
vertical displacement of joint C if a 4-kN force is applied to the truss
at C. (b) If no loads act on the truss, what would be the vertical
displacement of joint C if member AB were 5 mm too short?

C
4 kN
3m
A
B

4m 4m

(a)

Fig. 9–9

SOLUTION
Part (a)
Virtual Forces n. Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be
determined, a virtual force of 1 kN is applied at C in the vertical
direction.The units of this force are the same as those of the real loading.
The support reactions at A and B are calculated and the n force in
each member is determined by the method of joints as shown on the
free-body diagrams of joints A and B, Fig. 9–9b.

1 kN

9 C
N 0.8
33k 33
kN 0.833 kN 0.833 kN
0.8 5 3 3 5
A B 4 4
A 0.667 kN 0.667 kN B
0.667 kN

0.5 kN 0.5 kN 0.5 kN virtual forces n 0.5 kN

(b)

Real Forces N. The joint analysis of A and B when the real load of
4 kN is applied to the truss is given in Fig. 9–9c.
 9.4 METHOD OF VIRTUAL WORK: TRUSSES 353

C
4 kN
N
2. 5k 2.5 2.5 kN 2.5 kN
kN
5 3 3 5
A
4 kN B A 4 4
4 kN 2 kN 2 kN B
2 kN

1.5 kN 1.5 kN 1.5 kN real forces N 1.5 kN

(c)

Virtual-Work Equation. Since AE is constant, each of the terms

nNL can be arranged in tabular form and computed. Here positive
numbers indicate tensile forces and negative numbers indicate
compressive forces.

Member n (kN) N (kN) L (m) n NL (kN2 m) #

AB 0.667 2 8 10.67
AC - 0.833 2.5 5 -10.41
CB - 0.833 - 2.5 5 10.41
©10.67

Thus,
10.67 kN2 # m
1 kN # ¢ Cv = a
nNL
=
AE AE
Substituting the values A = 400 mm2 = 400110-62 m2, E = 200 GPa =
20011062 kN>m2, we have
10.67 kN2 # m
1 kN # ¢ Cv =
400110-62 m2120011062 kN>m22
¢ Cv = 0.000133 m = 0.133 mm Ans.

Part (b). Here we must apply Eq. 9–17. Since the vertical displace-
ment of C is to be determined, we can use the results of Fig. 9–7b. Only
member AB undergoes a change in length, namely, of ¢L = - 0.005 m. 9
Thus,
1 # ¢ = ©n ¢L
1 kN # ¢ Cv = 10.667 kN21- 0.005 m2

¢ Cv = -0.00333 m = -3.33 mm Ans.

The negative sign indicates joint C is displaced upward, opposite
to the 1-kN vertical load. Note that if the 4-kN load and fabrication
error are both accounted for, the resultant displacement is then
¢ Cv = 0.133 - 3.33 = - 3.20 mm (upward).
 354 CHAPTER 9 DEF LECTIONS USING ENERGY METHODS

EXAMPLE 9.3
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the steel truss
shown in Fig. 9–10a. Due to radiant heating from the wall, member
AD is subjected to an increase in temperature of ¢T = + 120°F. Take
a = 0.6110-52>°F and E = 2911032 ksi. The cross-sectional area of
each member is indicated in the figure.

1k 1k 80 k
6 ft
wall C
60 k 0.75 k 120 k 60 k
D 2 in2 0.75 k 120 k

2 in2
1k
8 ft 2 in2
in 2

0 80 k 80 k

5k

0k
1.5

1.2

10
B 0.75 k 60 k
A 2 in2 0 0

80 k 80 k
(a) virtual forces n real forces N
Fig. 9–10 (b) (c)

SOLUTION
Virtual Forces n. A vertical 1-k load is applied to the truss at
joint C, and the forces in the members are computed, Fig. 9–10b.

Real Forces N. Since the n forces in members AB and BC are zero,

the N forces in these members do not have to be computed. Why? For
completion, though, the entire real-force analysis is shown in Fig. 9–10c.

Virtual-Work Equation. Both loads and temperature affect the

9 deformation; therefore, Eqs. 9–15 and 9–16 are combined. Working in
units of kips and inches, we have

1 # ¢ Cv = a
nNL
+ ©na ¢T L
AE
10.752112021621122 11218021821122
= 3
+
2[29110 2] 2[2911032]
1 -1.2521- 100211021122
+ + 112[0.6110-52]112021821122
1.5[2911032]

¢ Cv = 0.658 in. Ans.