CHAPTER 1

Research: A Way of Thinking

Research: an integral part of your practice:

Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, research is a way of thinking:
examining critically the various aspects of your day-to-day professional work; understanding and formulating
guiding principles that govern a particular procedure; and developing and testing new theories that contribute
to the advancement of your practice and profession. It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic
examination of clinical observations to explain and find answers for what you perceive, with a view to instituting
appropriate changes for a more effective professional service.

Research is a key part of improving how we do things. It helps us gather information, test ideas, and find better ways to solve
problems. In any practice, whether it's medicine, education, or business, research allows us to understand what works and what
doesn't. By looking at evidence, we can make smarter decisions, improve methods, and provide better outcomes. It also helps us
keep up with new developments and stay effective in our work. Simply put, research helps us learn, grow, and do things more
efficiently.

Research: a way to gather evidence for your practice:

Evidence-based practice (EBP) is the delivery of services, means offering services based on three main things:

i. Research evidence on, how well the service works.

ii. The professional's own judgment about whether the service is right for the client.
iii. The client’s preference or opinion about the service.

EBP started in the medical field but is now used in other areas like nursing, mental health, social work, psychology, and teaching. It
helps professionals to make decisions that are backed by evidence, taking into account the client’s situation and their own
expertise. This approach also ensures that professionals are responsible and accountable for the services they provide.

Research plays a key role in EBP. By doing research, professionals gather reliable information about how effective their services are.
This helps them improve and refine their methods to better serve their clients.

Applications of research:
Research is usually not done just for the sake of learning research methods. Instead, most research is applied, (applied
research is a type of study that focuses on solving practical, real-world problems.). Professionals in all kinds of careers—
like health, education, psychology, and social work—use research techniques to better understand their field and
improve it. They rely on methods that have been tested and developed by experts over time. These methods help make
sure that the results of their research are reliable and accurate.

In any profession where services are provided, research can be useful in different ways, depending on the role of the person
involved. These perspectives include:

i. The service provider (e.g., a doctor or teacher),

ii. The manager or administrator (someone who oversees or plans the services),
 iii. The service consumer (the person receiving the service), and
iv. The professional (the person working in that field).

Although every profession has its own specific challenges, this general framework can help identify where research methods might
be applied to solve problems in any field within the humanities and social sciences. This way, research techniques can be used to
answer important questions and improve professional practice.

Research: what does it mean?

There are several ways of obtaining answers to your professional questions. Research is a way of finding answers to questions,
whether they are professional or personal. It can be done in many ways, from informal approaches based on personal experience to
strict scientific methods that follow specific procedures. When we say we are doing research, it means we are following a process
that:

i. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies

ii. uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability.
iii. is designed to be unbiased and objective.

Research approaches may come from one of several paradigms, such as:

i. Positivist: Focuses on using scientific methods to find facts and objective truths.
ii. Interpretive: Emphasizes understanding how people interpret and give meaning to their experiences.
iii. Phenomenology: Studies how individuals experience and perceive the world around them.
iv. Action or participatory research: Involves working directly with participants to solve a problem or bring about change.
v. Feminist: Examines issues related to gender inequality and promotes social justice through research.
vi. Qualitative: Focuses on exploring ideas and experiences through detailed, non-numerical data like interviews or
observations.
vii. Quantitative: Involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to find patterns and test theories.

The academic discipline you have been trained in also influences your approach.

Validity: Ensures that the correct procedures are followed to answer the research question.
Reliability: Refers to the consistency and accuracy of the measurement process, ensuring repeatability.
Unbiased and objective: Means that each step of the research is done fairly, without personal interests influencing the conclusions.

Subjectivity: Is a natural part of how you think, shaped by your educational background, discipline, philosophy, experiences, and
skills. For example, a psychologist may interpret a piece of information differently from an anthropologist or historian.
Bias: A deliberate act of hiding or emphasizing certain aspects of the research.

Following the principles of validity, reliability, and objectivity makes the process qualify as "research." When you say you're doing
research to answer a question, it means your methods meet these expectations.

For beginners, it’s important to understand that research doesn’t always involve complicated statistics, technology, or advanced
methods. It can be as simple as finding answers to everyday questions. Research can also be used to develop complex theories that
explain how the world works. What makes research different from non-research activities is the process used to find answers. To
call something research, it needs to meet certain standards and follow specific guidelines.

Let’s look at some definitions of research to understand this better:

i. The word "research" comes from "re," meaning again, and "search," meaning to examine closely. Together, they describe a
careful, systematic investigation to find facts or principles. (Grinnell, 1993: 4)
 ii. Grinnell also says research is a structured way of asking questions using scientific methods to solve problems and create
new knowledge. (1993: 4)
iii. Lundberg (1942) compares scientific research to how we make generalizations in our daily lives. He says the main difference
is that scientific research is more formal, rigorous, and reliable. (1942: 5)
iv. Burns (1997: 2) defines research as a systematic way to find answers to a problem.
v. Kerlinger (1986: 10) says scientific research is a controlled, careful investigation into the relationships between different
phenomena.
vi. Bulmer (1977: 5) says sociological research aims to create reliable and valid knowledge about the social world.

The research process: characteristics and requirements

Research is a method for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting information to answer questions. However, to be considered
research, it needs to meet certain conditions. It should be controlled, systematic, rigorous, verifiable, based on real-world evidence,
and open to critical examination. Let’s break down what these features mean:

• Controlled: In real life, many factors can influence an outcome. It's rare for one factor alone to cause a
specific result. Often, it's a mix of several factors. In research, especially when studying cause and effect, it’s
important to show how one thing (the cause) leads to another (the effect). In fields like social science, this
is hard because there are many influences you can’t control. Researchers try to measure the impact of
these outside factors when full control isn’t possible.
• Rigorous: This means you must carefully make sure that the steps you take to answer your questions are
proper, relevant, and necessary. The level of detail and care can differ between areas of study, with physical
sciences typically having more control than social sciences.
• Systematic: Research should follow a logical order. You can’t just jump around between steps; each part
should follow a planned sequence.
• Valid and Verifiable: This means that the conclusions you draw from your research should be correct, and
other people should be able to check or confirm them.
• Empirical: Your conclusions must be based on real evidence, which comes from information gathered
through actual experiences or observations.
• Critical: It’s important to carefully evaluate the steps and methods used in your research. The process
should be solid and without flaws, able to stand up to careful questioning and examination.

To qualify as research, a process must include all of these characteristics.

Types of Research:
There are different ways to look at types of research, and these can be grouped into three main categories:

• How the research findings will be used (application);

• What the research aims to achieve (objectives);
• How the research is carried out (method of enquiry).

These categories aren't separate, meaning a single research study can fall into more than one group. For example, a study can be
classified as pure or applied (based on how the findings will be used), descriptive, correlational, explanatory, or exploratory (based
on the study's objectives), and as qualitative or quantitative (based on how the research is conducted).

1. Application perspective
When we look at research based on its use, we can divide it into two main types: pure research and applied research.
Pure Research:
This type of research focuses on developing and testing theories and ideas that are interesting to researchers. However, these ideas
may not have practical uses right now or in the future.
Pure research often deals with very abstract and specialized concepts.
It also includes improving research methods and tools. For example, pure research could involve:
• Creating a new way to select participants for a study.
• Developing methods to check if a research technique is valid.
• Designing a tool to measure how stressed people are.
• Finding the best ways to measure people’s opinions.
The goal of pure research is to add to the general knowledge of research methods.

Applied Research:
Most social science research is applied. This means that researchers use established methods and techniques to gather information
about specific issues or problems. The information collected can be used for practical purposes, like creating policies, managing
programs, or better understanding a particular situation.

Pure research focuses on theory and methods, while applied research uses those theories and methods to address real-world
issues.

2. Objectives Perspective
When we look at research studies based on their goals, we can group them into four main types: descriptive, correlational,
explanatory, and exploratory.

Descriptive Research: This type of research aims to systematically describe a situation, problem, or phenomenon. For example, it
might look at the living conditions of a community, the services an organization provides, or people's attitudes toward a certain
issue. The goal here is to provide a clear picture of what is happening regarding the topic being studied.

Correlational Research: This research focuses on finding relationships between two or more aspects of a situation. It answers
questions like: How does an advertising campaign affect product sales? Is there a link between stressful living conditions and heart
attacks? The purpose is to see if changes in one thing are related to changes in another.

Explanatory Research: This type of research goes a step further by trying to explain why and how two aspects are related. For
example, it might explore why stressful living leads to heart attacks or how a child’s home environment impacts their academic
performance.

Exploratory Research: This research is conducted when little is known about a topic. It aims to explore new areas or check if a more
detailed study is possible. Often called a feasibility study or pilot study, it helps researchers decide whether it’s worth conducting a
larger investigation. Exploratory studies can also help develop and test tools and methods for research.

While research can be categorized into these four types, most studies blend elements from the first three—descriptive,
correlational, and explanatory.

3. Mode of enquiry perspective

When conducting research, it's important to consider how you will find answers to your questions. There are two main approaches
to research:

1. Structured Approach: In a structured approach, every part of the research process is planned in advance.
This includes your objectives, design, sample, and the questions you will ask participants. This approach is
best for measuring how widespread a problem, issue, or phenomenon is. For example, if you want to know
 how many people have a particular viewpoint or problem, a structured approach is suitable.

2. Unstructured Approach: In contrast, the unstructured approach allows for flexibility in the research
process. This method is useful when you want to explore the nature of an issue, such as the different
experiences people have or the various opinions they hold. For instance, if you are interested in
understanding the perspectives of a community regarding an issue, an unstructured inquiry would be more
appropriate.

Combining Both Approaches

It is often beneficial to start with an unstructured inquiry to understand the diversity of a phenomenon. Once you have this
understanding, you can use a structured approach to quantify what you have discovered. Both methods have their advantages and
disadvantages, and it's essential not to limit yourself to just one approach.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

The structured approach is usually linked to quantitative research, while the unstructured approach is associated with qualitative
research. Here are some differences:

Qualitative Research:
• Focuses on describing situations, problems, or events.
• Gathers information using nominal or ordinal scales (qualitative measurements).
• Analyzes variation in the situation without quantifying it.
• Examples: Describing opinions about an issue or the living conditions of a community.

Quantitative Research:
• Aims to quantify variation in a phenomenon or issue.
• Collects information primarily through quantitative variables.
• Analyzes data to measure the extent of variation.
• Examples: Counting how many people have a specific problem or attitude.

Importance of Both Approaches:

Statistics are not the main focus of quantitative research but serve to confirm or refute conclusions based on analyzed data. They
help measure relationships, indicate confidence in findings, and isolate the effects of different variables.

It's important not to limit yourself to just quantitative or qualitative research. While some fields, like anthropology and history, lean
more towards qualitative research, others like psychology and economics often use quantitative methods. However, researchers
from any discipline can benefit from both approaches.

Both qualitative and quantitative methods have their strengths and weaknesses, and neither is better than the other in every
situation. The choice between these methods should depend on the research problem at hand.

For example, if you want to explore the types of services available to victims of domestic violence, that involves a qualitative
approach. However, if you also want to know how many people use these services, you'll need a quantitative approach to measure
that. Combining both methods can provide a more comprehensive understanding of your research topic.

Research Paradigms:
There are two main ways to conduct research in social sciences. This book won’t go into details, but the key question is whether we
can use the methods of physical sciences to study social issues. The first approach, based on physical sciences, is called the positivist
approach. The other approach is known as qualitative, ethnographic, ecological, or naturalistic. Supporters of these two sides have
created their own values, terms, methods, and techniques to understand social issues.
Since the mid-1960s, people have recognized that both approaches have value. The choice of method should depend on the
purpose of the research. Using just one approach for every research problem can lead to confusion and mistakes.

The positivist approach can use both quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (descriptive) research. However, it’s important to note
that qualitative data is about measuring variables, while qualitative research focuses on using specific methods.

Regardless of which approach researchers choose, they should follow certain principles. These include controlling bias and staying
objective during the research process and in the conclusions they reach. Applying these principles to gathering, analyzing, and
interpreting information is what makes it a proper research process.

Chapter #2
The Research Process: A Quick Glance

The Research Process: An Eight-Step Model:

Research methods are taught in many academic fields, and different people have different ways of approaching research. While
these approaches may differ in specific details, they generally follow similar principles. Festinger and Katz highlighted this in their
book, saying that although the basic logic of scientific research is consistent across fields, the techniques and methods can vary
based on the subject matter.

The model presented here is designed to be general, meaning it can be used in various social science disciplines. It focuses on a
practical, step-by-step approach to conducting research, with each step offering a variety of methods and procedures.

Think of starting a research project like going on a drive. Before you leave, you need to decide where you want to go and which
route to take. If you know the route well, you don’t need a map, but if you’re unsure, you’ll need one. If there are multiple routes,
you must choose the best one. Similarly, in research, you first need to determine what questions you want to answer. Once you
have your research questions, you’ll decide how to find the answers. This plan for finding answers is what we call research
methodology.

Just as there are milestones during a drive, there are practical steps in your research journey that help you answer your questions.
The order of these steps can vary, and with experience, you may adapt them. At each step, you will need to choose from many
different methods and procedures to help you achieve your research goals. This is where understanding research methods is very
important.

The goal of this book is to provide you with the knowledge to choose the right methods and procedures for your research. It aims to
connect theoretical concepts with the steps you’ll take on your research journey. Each operational step will offer beginner-level
insights into the methods and procedures used by both qualitative and quantitative researchers, though there is a slight emphasis
on quantitative methods.

Qualitative and quantitative research methods differ in their underlying philosophies and some of the techniques they use. While
the research process is generally similar for both, they differ in how data is collected, processed, analyzed, and communicated. For
example, if your research question is better suited for qualitative inquiry, you might use unstructured interviews or observations to
collect data. In qualitative analysis, you identify themes and describe what you found instead of applying statistical methods to the
data.
Since the choice of methods can be influenced by whether you’re doing qualitative or quantitative research, the book discusses
methods separately for each type in some chapters. However, the author aims to keep this distinction minimal, as the model is
applicable to both approaches. It's important to note that this book is for beginners, so it won’t cover every detail of each method,
model, or procedure extensively. The author focuses more on quantitative methods than qualitative ones. For a deeper
understanding of any method, you may want to check additional resources mentioned in the text or in the bibliography.

Phase I: Deciding What to Research

Step I: Formulating a Research Problem
Formulating a research problem is the first and most crucial step in the research process. It defines what you want to study and
guides your research direction. A clear and specific problem statement helps you, your supervisor, and your readers understand
your research goals.
Your research problem affects everything that follows, including study design, measurement methods, sampling strategies, analysis,
and writing style. Therefore, take the time to evaluate it carefully.
Consider your available financial resources, time, and your own and your supervisor’s expertise in the subject. Also, identify any
gaps in your knowledge, such as statistical analysis skills or computer software usage, especially if you plan to use them in your
research.

Phase II: Planning a Research Study

Step II: Conceptualizing a Research Design:
Research is about exploring what we don't know, establishing connections, and predicting outcomes. A good research design is
essential for answering your research questions effectively. It includes details about the study's structure, how you'll gather data,
who you'll study, how you'll analyze the results, and the timeline for your research.
It's important to differentiate between research design and study design. The study design is just one part of the overall research
design, which encompasses all aspects of the research process.
Choosing the right research design is crucial for obtaining valid and reliable findings. A poor design can lead to misleading results,
wasting both time and resources. In scientific research, the quality of an investigation is often judged by the design used. So, when
selecting a design, make sure it is valid, practical, and manageable.

Step III: Creating a Tool for Data Collection

A research tool is anything used to gather information for your study, like observation forms, interview schedules, questionnaires,
or interview guides.
Creating a research tool is the first practical step in your study. You need to decide how to collect data and then create a tool for
that purpose.
If you’re collecting primary data (new information for your study), you can either create a new tool or choose one that's already
available.
If you’re using secondary data (information collected for other reasons), you need to identify what data you need and develop a
form to extract it.
To ensure your tool works well, you should test it (pre-test) with a similar group, not the actual study group you plan to use.

Step IV: Selecting a Sample:

The accuracy of your research findings depends heavily on how you choose your sample. The main goal of any sampling method is
to minimize the difference between the results from your sample and those from the entire study population, while keeping costs in
mind.
A small, well-chosen sample can give a reliable representation of the larger group you’re studying. When selecting a sample, you
should aim to do two things: avoid bias in your selection and achieve the highest precision possible within your budget.
There are three main types of sampling designs: random (probability) sampling, non-random (non-probability) sampling, and mixed
sampling. Each type has its own strategies, strengths, and weaknesses, so it’s important to understand these differences. The choice
of sampling method will affect how well you can generalize your findings to the entire population and which statistical tests you can
use with your data.

Step V: Writing a Research Proposal:

After completing your preparatory work, the next step is to create a research proposal. This document outlines your research
problem and how you intend to study it. Its main purpose is to provide a clear plan for answering your research questions and to
reassure readers that your methods are valid and reliable.

Different universities may have varying requirements for research proposals, depending on the discipline or supervisor. However,
most proposals should cover the following key points:
• What you plan to do.
• How you will carry it out.
• Why you chose this approach.

Phase III: Conducting a Research Study

Step VI: Collecting Data:
After defining your research problem, planning your study, creating a research tool, and choosing your sample, it's time to collect
data. This data will help you draw conclusions for your study. You have several ways to gather this information, depending on your
plan. You might conduct interviews, send out questionnaires, hold focus group discussions, or make observations. Remember that
collecting data can involve ethical considerations.

Step VII: Processing and Displaying Data:

How you analyze your data depends on two main factors: the type of data (like descriptive, quantitative, qualitative, or attitudinal)
and how you want to share your results.

First, decide if you will analyze the data by hand or with computer software. For descriptive studies, you can write your report
based on field notes, analyze those notes manually (using content analysis), or use a computer program.

For quantitative analysis, think about the type of analysis you need (like frequency distribution, cross-tabulations, or other statistical
methods such as regression or analysis of variance) and how you will present the results. You’ll also need to identify which variables
will be included in these analyses.

Step VIII: Writing a Research Report:

There are two main types of research reports: quantitative and qualitative. While these categories are mostly academic, most
studies combine both types. Writing the report is often seen as the hardest part of the research process. This report shares what
you did, what you found, and what conclusions you reached. Understanding your entire research process will help you write your
report clearly. Your report should be in an academic style and organized into different chapters or sections based on the key themes
of your study.

CHAPTER 3
 Reviewing the Literature

The place of the literature review in research:

When starting a research project, one of the first tasks is to review existing literature in your area of interest. Although this process
can be time-consuming and challenging, it is also very rewarding. A literature review is a crucial part of the research process and
helps at every stage.

Benefits of a Literature Review:

Before Research Begins: It helps you understand the existing theories, clarify your ideas, and develop your research methods.
During Research: It enhances your knowledge and allows you to connect your findings with what is already known.
Writing Up Your Findings: It helps you show how your results relate to previous studies, whether they support or contradict earlier
research. This connection becomes more critical as the academic level of your work increases.

In summary, a literature review serves several key functions:

• It provides a theoretical background for your study.
• It links your research to what has been previously studied.
• It shows how your findings add to the current knowledge in your field.

In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways. It can:
1. Clarify and focus your research problem.
2. Improve your research methods.
3. Expand your knowledge in the field.
4. Contextualize your findings within existing research.

Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem:

Conducting a literature review has a unique challenge. You need a basic idea of the problem you want to investigate before you
start looking for literature. However, as you review existing studies, you gain a better understanding of your topic, which can help
you refine and clarify your research problem. By learning about what others have studied, their findings, and the gaps in research,
you can focus your study on relevant areas and make it more significant.

Improving your research methodology

Reviewing the literature exposes you to different methods used by other researchers. You can see what worked well and what
challenges they faced. This knowledge helps you choose a methodology that is more likely to yield valid results for your own
research question. It also boosts your confidence in the methods you choose and prepares you to justify their use.

Broadening your knowledge base in your research area

A key function of the literature review is to help you read widely in your research area. Understanding what other researchers have
discovered, the theories they propose, and the gaps in knowledge is essential, especially for higher degree research like a master's
or PhD. A thorough literature review makes you an expert in your field and shows how your findings fit into existing knowledge.

Enabling you to contextualise your findings

Finding answers to your research questions may be straightforward, but understanding how your results relate to existing
knowledge is more complex. A literature review helps you compare your findings with previous studies and determine how your
work contributes to the field. It allows you to place your results in the broader context of what is already known.

How to review the literature:

If you don’t have a specific research problem yet, start by exploring literature in your general area of interest. This will help you
narrow down what you want to investigate. Once you have a clearer idea of your research problem, focus your literature review on
that topic. Be careful not to let a broad literature review shape your thinking too much; it can lead to less creative choices in your
research problem and methods. It’s best to have a general idea of your research question before diving into the literature review.

Here are four steps to conduct a literature review:

i. Search for existing literature in your area of study.
ii. Review the selected literature.
iii. Develop a theoretical framework to guide your research.
iv. Create a conceptual framework to structure your ideas.

Keep in mind that developing theoretical and conceptual frameworks is more challenging than the other tasks.

Searching for Existing Literature

To effectively search for literature in your field, you need a basic understanding of your topic. Here’s how to gather relevant sources:

Sources for Bibliography

Books:
Advantages: Books contain well-researched and organized information.
Disadvantages: They may not be up-to-date due to the time it takes to publish.
How to Search: Use library catalogs that categorize books by subject. Ask librarians for help if needed. Look for books related to
your topic and take notes or print their titles. After choosing 10-15 books, check their bibliographies for additional sources. Keep a
list of essential readings and review the contents to ensure relevance. If you find a book useful, create an annotated bibliography
summarizing key points and its relevance.

Journals
Journals provide the most current research, even though there can be a delay in publication.
How to Search: Identify journals in your field and look through their contents. Use citation and abstract indices or electronic
databases to find relevant articles. When you find useful articles, read their abstracts and summarize or photocopy them for later
use.

The Internet:
The Internet is a valuable tool for finding literature quickly.
How to Search: Use search engines like Google to find materials by entering relevant keywords. Using Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT)
can help refine your search results to find the most relevant references.

Reviewing the Literature:

Once you have selected useful books and articles, read them critically to identify important themes and issues for your study. Use
separate sheets of paper to jot down notes on each theme as you go along. This will help you organize your thoughts and findings.

Organize Your Research: Create a rough outline and write down your findings under each theme on separate sheets of paper. As
you read more, continue adding information to the relevant themes. You may need to create new themes as you go.
While reading, consider these points:

• Is the information in your theoretical framework well-supported?

• What theories are presented, what criticisms do they have, and what methods were used in the studies (like study design,
sample size, and measurement techniques)?
• How well can the findings be applied to other situations?
• Are there major disagreements among researchers? Share your thoughts on the validity of these differences.
 • Identify areas where little is known—look for gaps in the research.

Developing a Theoretical Framework:

Reviewing literature can feel overwhelming, but it’s important to focus your search on key themes related to your research topic. As
you read, you'll find that your research problem is connected to various theories from different viewpoints.

To organize your findings, group the information by these main themes and theories, noting where authors agree or disagree and
highlighting any gaps or unanswered questions. This organization will help you create a theoretical framework, guiding your
literature review.

You may face a challenge: you need to read literature to develop a framework, but you also need a framework to effectively review
the literature. A good approach is to start by reading some material to form a basic framework. As you learn more, you can adjust
this framework as needed. Without a framework, you might end up with a lot of irrelevant information.

Literature related to your study can provide two types of information:

i. Universal: General concepts that apply widely.
ii. Specific: Local trends or details about a specific program.

When writing about this information, begin with the general ideas and then narrow down to the specific ones.

Developing a conceptual framework:

The conceptual framework forms the foundation of your research problem. It is based on the theoretical framework and highlights
specific areas that guide your study. While the theoretical framework includes the broader theories related to your research, the
conceptual framework focuses on the particular parts you choose to investigate.