HAZARD AND RISK

● Hazard is a source or a situation with potential to cause harm in terms of human injury or ill-health, damage to
property or environment or both.
● Hazards are identified in the performance of various activities, storage and handling of materials, and operation and
maintenance of plants and equipmenť's.
● Hazard control is that function which is oriented towards recognizing, evaluating and working towards eliminating
hazards and destructive effects found at the workplace.

Risk

● A hazard is something that has the potential to cause harm while risk is the likelihood of harm taking place, based on
exposure to that hazard.
● A hazard is something that can cause harm, e.g. electricity, chemicals, working up a ladder, noise, a keyboard, a bully at
work, stress, etc.
● A risk is the chance, high or low, that any hazard will actually cause somebody harm.
TYPES OF HAZARDS
Hazards may be classified as under:

● Mechanical Hazards

● Electrical Hazards

● Chemical Hazards.
1. Mechanical Hazards:
● These are responsible for the majority of the accidents in work situations, therefore every workplace and equipment

should be properly examined for identifying mechanical hazards and for taking mitigating measures.

Common sources of mechanical hazards are:

A. Unguarded or inadequately guarded moving parts or pits etc.

B. Machine tools, hand tools, handling materials, lifting and other appliances.

C. Improper ventilation, unsafe dress or apparel etc.

D. Improper use of tools.

2. Electrical Hazards:
● These may be due to contact of body with wire, cable or rail or from stroke of lightning.
● The immediate effect of this is shock which may be relatively mild or severe so as to cause death (electrocution)
depending upon the strength of the current and/or the path it takes passing the earth through the body.
● Another result is burning and the burns may be severe and deep, especially with higher voltage.

Causes of the electric hazards may be of the following types:

A. Electric shocks may be caused by an exposed live conductor or a faulty piece of equipment.
B. A mobile crane boom, a man carrying or climbing an aluminium ladder, or vertical metal bars etc. can come in contact
with overhead power lines, electric crane rails, open-faced substation switchboards etc.
C. Other causes may be unskilled electricians, improper, instructions, defective wiring which may cause short circuit,poor
installations, misuse or overloading.
D. Ageing and attack by foreign materials causes insulation failures which causes electrical fires or cases of electrocution.
3. Chemical Hazards:
● The usage of chemicals with the resultant hazardous gases, vapours and fumes is one of the most dangerous industries.

The effects of noxious gases are

A. Simple asphyxiants, e.g., nitrogen gas, methane gas, carbon dioxide.

B. Chemical asphyxiants, e.g., carbon monoxide, hydrogen-sulphide, hydrocyanic acid.

C. Irritant gases, e.g., nitrogen dioxide or peroxide, fluorine, hydrogen fluoride, sulphur dioxide, ammonia.

D. Organic metallic gases, e.g., arsenic hydride.

E. Inorganic metallic gases.

CLASSES OF FIRE
● While fire can seem like one big threatening force, iť's important to know that there are

actually several classes of fires. A fire's class can determine how quickly it burns, how

dangerous it is, and the best way to suppress or put it out.

● The 5 different classes of fires each have their own best approach to put them out safely

and effectively.
The 5 main classes of fires are categorized by what caused the fire or what the fire uses as fuel, and are as follows:

● Class A: solid materials such as wood or paper, fabric and some plastics

● Class B: liquids or gas such as alcohol, ether, gasoline or grease

● Class C: electrical failure from appliances, electronic equipment, and wiring

● Class D: metallic substances such as sodium, titanium, zirconium, or magnesium

● Class K: grease or oil fires specifically from cooking

Class A Fire
● Class A fires are the most common type of fire.

● They are produced from common combustible materials including wood, paper, fabric, rubber, and plastic.

● Class A fires have relatively low ignition temperatures, and once the fuel or oxygen has been depleted, the fire will burn

out. A garbage fire is one example of Class A fires.

● Generally speaking, if the fire leaves ash behind, it's likely a Class A Fire.

● Water and foam agents are most often used when fighting Class A fires.
Class B Fire
● Class B fires occur when flammable liquids or gases such as alcohol, kerosene, paint, gasoline, methane, oil-based

coolant or propane ignite.

● Class B fires are most common in industrial settings, but they may also occur in residential or commercial settings.

● Class B fires have a low flashpoint, which means they burn easily at any temperature if exposed to a fire source.

● Class B fires also spread rapidly and produce a thick black smoke as they burn.

● Water is not effective when dealing with Class B fires. Instead, Carbon Dioxide (CO2) or dry chemical agents are often

used to fight these fires.

Class C Fire
● Class C fires are those fires that have live electrical currents or electrical equipment as a source of fuel.

● Such fuel sources could include electric tools, appliances, motors, and transformers

● Class C fires are most common in industrial settings that deal with energy or electrically-powered equipment, like wind

turbines.

● However, Class C fires can also occur in commercial or residential settings due to issues like faulty wiring.

● Electrical fires cannot be fought with water - in fact, it can make it worse.

● Instead, a non-conductive chemical agent, including clean agents, should be used to put out the flames
Class D Fire
● Class D fires describe those fires that occur with a combustible metal fuel source.

● Common combustible metals include aluminum, lithium, magnesium, potassium, titanium, and zirconium.

● These types of combustible metals are most often used in laboratories and in manufacturing, so the biggest danger for

Class D fires occurs in these industries.

● Water can cause some combustible metals to explode, so it should not be used to fight Class D fires.

● Instead, dry powder agents can be used to absorb heat and smother the flames by blocking off the fire's oxygen supply.
Class K Fire
● Finally, Class K fires are cooking fires that occur as a result of the combustion of a cooking liquid like grease, oil, vegetable

fat, or animal fat.

● Class K fires are technically a type of liquid fire, but they are separated out as their own class because of their unique

setting.

● Class K fires are most common in the food service and restaurant industry, but can occur in any kitchen

● Like other liquid fires, water should not be sprayed onto Class K fires.

● Instead, wet chemical agents are the best method to use

TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
● Different types of fire extinguishers exist in order to address the 5 different classes of fires.
● Each fire class describes the fuel or material a fire is burning or what caused it to start - therefore, using the right extinguisher is
essential to put out the fire safely.
Water
● Water is the primary liquid used in these extinguishers, although sometimes other additives are also included.
● A drawback for pure water fire extinguishers is that it is not suitable for use in freezing conditions since the water inside
will freeze and render the extinguisher unusable.
● Certain types of water fire extinguishers contain antifreeze which will allow the extinguisher to be used in freezing
conditions.
● Water type fire extinguishers can also sometimes contain wetting agents which are designed to help increase its
effectiveness against fire.
● These extinguishers are intended primarily for use on Class A fires.
● Water mist extinguishers are a type of water fire extinguisher that uses distilled water and discharges it as a fine spray
instead of a solid stream.
● Water mist extinguishers are used where contaminants in unregulated water sources can cause excessive damage to
personnel or equipment.
● Typical applications include operating rooms, museums, and book collections.
Film-forming foam type
● AFFF (aqueous film-forming foam) and FFFP (film-forming fluoroprotein) fire extinguishers are rated for use on both Class

A and Class B fires.

● As the name implies, they discharge a foam material rather than a liquid or powder.

● They are not suitable for use in freezing temperatures.

● An advantage of this type of extinguisher when used on Class B flammable liquid fires of appreciable depth is the ability

of the agent to float on and secure the liquid surface, which helps to prevent reignition
Carbon Dioxide type
● The principal advantage of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) fire extinguishers is that the agent does not leave a residue after use.
● This can be a significant factor where protection is needed for delicate and costly electronic equipment.
● Other typical applications are food preparation areas, laboratories, and printing or duplicating areas.
● Carbon dioxide extinguishers are listed for use on Class B and Class C fires.
● Because the agent is discharged in the form of a gas/snow cloud, it has a relatively short range of 3 ft to 8 ft (1 m to 2.4
m).
● This type of fire is not recommended for outdoor use where windy conditions prevail or for indoor use in locations that
are subjected to strong air currents, because the agent can rapidly dissipate and prevent extinguishment.
● The concentration needed for fire extinguishment reduces the amount of oxygen in the vicinity of the fire and should be
used with caution when discharged in confined spaces.
Halogenated agent types
1. Halon

● The bromochlorodifluoromethane(Halon 1211) fire extinguisher has an agent that is similar to carbon dioxide in that it is
suitable for cold weather installation and leaves no residue.
● It is important to note that the production of Halon has been phased out because of the environmental damage it causes
to the earth's ozone.
● Some larger models of Halon 1211 fire extinguishers are listed for use on Class A as well as Class B and Class C fires.
● Compared to carbon dioxide on a weight-of-agent basis, bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211) is at least twice as
effective.
● When discharged, the agent is in the combined form of a gas/mist with about twice the range of carbon dioxide.
● To some extent, windy conditions or strong air currents could make extinguishment difficult by causing the rapid
dispersal of the agent.
2. Halon Alternative Clean Agents

● There are several clean agents that are similar to halon agents in that they are nonconductive, non corrosive, and
evaporate after use, leaving no residue.
● Larger models of these fire extinguishers are listed for Class A as well as Class B and Class C fires, which makes them
quite suitable for use on fires in electronic equipment.
● When discharged, these agents are in the combined form of a gas/ mist or a liquid, which rapidly evaporates after
discharge with about twice the range of carbon dioxide.
● To some extent, windy conditions or strong air currents could make extinguishing difficult by causing a rapid dispersal of
agent.
● Clean agent type extinguishers don't have detrimental effect on the earth's ozone so these are more widely available
than Halon type extinguishers.
Dry chemical types
1. Ordinary Dry Chemical

● The fire extinguishing agent used in these devices is a powder composed of very small particulates.

● Types of agents available include sodium bicarbonate base and potassium bicarbonate base.

● Dry chemical type extinguishers have special treatments that ensure proper flow capabilities by providing resistance to

packing and moisture absorption (caking).

2. Multipurpose Dry Chemical

● Fire extinguishers of this type contain an ammonium phosphate base agent.

● Multipurpose agents are used in exactly the same manner as ordinary dry chemical agents on Class B fires.

● For use on Class A fires, the multipurpose agent has the additional characteristic of softening and sticking when in

contact with hot surfaces.

● In this way, it adheres to burning materials and forms a coating that smothers and isolates the fuel from air.

● The agent itself has little cooling effect, and because of its surface coating characteristic, it cannot penetrate below the

burning surface.

● For this reason, extinguishment of deep-seated fires might not be accomplished unless the agent is discharged below the

surface or the material is broken apart and spread out.

Dry powder types
● These fire extinguishers and agents are intended for use on Class D fires and specific metals, following special techniques and
manufacturer's recommendations for use.
● The extinguishing agent can be applied from a fire extinguisher or by scoop and shovel.
● Using a scoop or shovel is often referred to as a hand propelled fire extinguisher.
STRUCTURE OF HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND RISK
ASSESSMENT
● One of the "root causes" of workplace injuries, illness and incidents is the failure to identify or recognize hazards that
are present, or that could have been anticipated.
● A critical element of any effective safety and health program is a proactive, ongoing process to identify and assess such
hazards.

To identify and assess hazards, employers and workers:

● Collect and review information about the hazards present or likely to be present in the workplace.
● Conduct initial and periodic workplace inspections of the workplace to identify new or recurring hazards.
● Investigate injuries, illnesses, incidents, and close calls/near misses to determine the underlying hazards, their causes,
and safety and health program shortcomings.
● Group similar incidents and identify trends in injuries, illnesses, and hazards reported.
● Consider hazards associated with emergency or non routine situations.
● Determine the severity and likelihood of incidents that could result for each hazard identified, and use this information to
prioritize corrective actions.
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Action item 1: Collect existing information about workplace hazards

● Information on workplace hazards may already be available to employers and workers, from both internal and external
sources.

How to accomplish it

Collect, organize, and review information with workers to determine what types of hazards may be present and which workers
may be available and which workers may be exposed or potentially exposed.

Information about hazards may be available from outside sources, such as:

● National Safety Council, and Department of Labour & Employment websites, publications, and alerts.
● Trade associations.
● Labor unions, state and local occupational safety and health committees/coalitions, and worker advocacy groups.
● Safety and health consultants
Information in the workplace may include:

● Equipment and machinery operating manuals.

● Safety Data Sheets (SDS) provided by chemical manufacturers.
● Self-inspection reports and inspection reports from insurance carriers, government agencies, and consultants.
● Records of previous injuries and illnesses
● Workers' compensation records and reports.
● Patterns of frequently-occurring injuries and illnesses.
● Exposure monitoring results, industrial hygiene assessments, and medical records (appropriately redacted to ensure
patient/worker privacy).
● Existing safety and health programs (lockout/tagout, confined spaces, process safety management, personal
protective equipment, etc.).
● Input from workers, including surveys or minutes from safety and health committee meetings.
● Results of job hazard analysis, also known as job safety analysis.
Action item 2: Inspect the workplace for safety hazards

● Hazards can be introduced over time as workstations a processes change, equipment or tools become worn, maintenance is
neglected, or housekeeping practices decline.
● Setting aside time to regularly inspect the workplace for hazards can help identify shortcomings so that they can be addressed
before an incident occurs.

How to accomplish it

● Conduct regular inspections of all operations, equipment, work areas and facilities. Have workers participate on the inspection
team and talk to therm about hazards that they see or report.
● Be sure to document inspections so we can later verify that hazardous conditions are corrected. Take photos or video of
problem areas to facilitate later discussion and brainstorming about how to control them, and for use as learning aids.
● Include all areas and activities in these inspections, such as storage and warehousing, facility and equipment maintenance,
purchasing and office functions, and the activities of on-site contractors, subcontractors, and temporary employees.
● Regularly inspect both plant vehicles (e.g, forklifts, powered industrial trucks) and transportation vehicles (eg, cars, trucks).
● Use checklists that highlight things to look for. Typical hazards fall into several major categories, such as those listed below;
each workplace will have its own list:
○ General housekeeping
○ Slip, trip, and fall hazards
○ Electrical hazards
○ Equipment operation
○ Equipment maintenance
○ Fire protection
○ Work organization and process flow (including staffing and scheduling)
○ Work practices
○ Workplace violence
○ Ergonomic problems
○ Lack of emergency procedures
 ● Before changing operations, workstations, or workflow, making major organizational changes; or introducing new

equipment, materials, or processes, seek the input of workers and evaluate the planned changes for potential hazards

and related risks.

Note:

● Many hazards can be identified using common knowledge and available tools. For example, we can easily identify and

correct hazards associated with broken stair rails and frayed electrical cords.

● Workers can be a very useful internal resource, especially if they are trained in how to identify and assess risks.
Action item 3: Identify health hazards

● Identifying workers' exposure to health hazards is typically more complex than identifying physical safety
hazards.
● For example, gases and vapors may be invisible, often have no odor, and may not have an immediately
noticeable harmful health effect.
● Health hazards include chemical hazards (solvents, adhesives, paints, toxic dusts, etc.), physical hazards (noise,
radiation, heat, etc.), biological hazards (infectious diseases), and ergonomic risk factors (heavy lifting,
repetitive motions, vibration).
● Reviewing workers' medical records (appropriately redacted to ensure patient/worker privacy) can be useful in
identifying health hazards associated with workplace exposures.
Action item 4: Conduct incident investigations

● Workplace incidents -including injuries, illnesses, close calls/near misses, and reports of other concerns- provide a clear
indication of where hazards exist.
● By thoroughly investigating incidents and reports, we can identify hazards that are likely to cause future harm.
● The purpose of an investigation must always be to identify the root causes (and there is often more than one) of the incident or
concern, in order to prevent future occurrences.

How to accomplish it

● Develop a clear plan and procedure for conducting incident investigations, so that an investigation can begin immediately when
an incident occurs.
● The plan should cover items such as
○ Who will be involved
○ Materials, equipment, and supplies needed
○ Lines of communication
○ Reporting forms and templates
Action item 5: Identify hazards associated with emergency and non routine situations

● Emergencies present hazards that need to be understood.

● Nonroutine or infrequent tasks,including maintenance and startup/shutdown activities, also present potential hazards.

● Plans and procedures need to be developed for responding aPpropriately and safely to hazards associated with

foreseeable emergency scenarios and nonroutine situations.

○
How to accomplish it

● Identify foreseeable emergency scenarios and nonroutine tasks, taking into account the types of material and equipment
in use and the location within the facility.

Scenarios such as the following may be foreseeable:

● Fires and explosions

● Chemical releases
● Hazardous material spills
● Startups after planned or unplanned equipment shutdowns
● Nonroutine tasks, such as infrequently performed maintenance activities
● Structural collapse
● Disease outbreaks
● Weather emergencies and natural disasters
● Medical emergencies
● Workplace violence
Action item 6: Characterize the nature of identified hazards, identify interim control measures, and
prioritize the hazards for control

● The next step is to assess and understand the hazards identified and the types of incidents that could result from worker
exposure to those hazards.
● This information can be used to develop interim controls and to prioritize hazards for permanent control.

How to accomplish it

● Evaluate each hazard by considering the severity of potential outcomes, the likelihood that an event or exposure will
occur, and the number of workers who might be exposed.
● Use interim control measures to protect workers until more permanent solutions can be implemented.
● Prioritize the hazards so that those presenting the greatest risk are addressed first. Note, however, that employers have
an ongoing obligation to control all serious recognized hazards and to protect workers.

Note:

"Risk" is the product of hazard and exposure. Thus, risk can be reduced by controlling or eliminating the hazard or by reducing
workers' exposure to hazards. An assessment of risk helps employers understand hazards in the context of their own workplace
and prioritize hazards for permanent control
RISK ASSESSMENT TOOLS
● Risk assessment tools, sometimes called "risk assessment techniques," are procedures or frameworks that can be used in
the process of assessing and managing risks.
● There are many ways to assess risk, making risk assessment tools flexible and easy to use for a variety of jobs, industries,
and needs.
● There are four commonly used risk assessment tools in different businesses.
● All of them are used often and are easily applicable to different situations. These tools are:
a. Risk matrix
b. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
c. Decision Tree
d. Bowtie Model
1. Risk Matrix

● A risk matrix is a visual representation of risks laid out in a diagram or a table, hence its alternate name as a
risk diagram
● Here, risks are divided and sorted based on their probability of happening and their effects or impact.
● A risk matrix is often used to help prioritize which risk to address first, what safety measures and risk
mitigation plans to take, and how a certain task should be done.
● Risk matrices can come in any size and number of columns and rows, depending on the project and risks being
discussed.
2. FMEA

● The Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) risk assessment tool was first discovered in the 1940s by the US

military to identify all possible issues or failures in a design, process, product, and service.

● This tool is often used during a product or service's design or proposal stage to actively study possible risks and

discover their effects.

● FMEA has two parts to it

○ Failure Modes: the failures, problems, and issues that occur

○ Effects Analysis: the analysis of the failures' effects

3. Decision Tree

● The decision tree risk assessment tool works by providing project managers a template to calculate and
visualize the values of different results and the likelihood of achieving them.
● In some cases, a decision tree is also often used to help calculate the value of a project, product, or service.
● To use this tool, one starts with one element, product, or service they want to evaluate, and then creates
different branches from it with different goals. When carried out, the final product looks like a flowchart similar
to a tree with different branches, hence the name.
4. Bowtie Model

● The Bowtie Model risk assessment tool aims to show the causal links between different sources of risks and
their consequences.
● The left side of the diagram shows what causes the risk, the right shows their potential outcomes, and then
both sides meet in the middle with a single risk called "Event."
● The left and right sides of the Event are larger and wider as many source may lead to different consequences,
but still be centered around one risk.
● When drawn out, the model starts to look like a bowtie.
Uses of Risk Assessment Tools

● Risk assessment tools are an essential part of performing risk assessments and risk management tasks.

● Not only do they make risk assessments easier, but they also help put different risks into perspective and help create

contingency plans better.

Some things risk assessments tools can help with are:

● Creating and spreading awareness on different hazards and risks

● Identifying who are most at risk of encountering or suffering from certain risks

● Determining what control measures and programs are required for which risks and what need to change in existing rules

● Preventing and mitigating injuries, fatalities, and illnesses

● Meeting legal requirements on certain industry-specific tasks where applicable

Assessing the Consequences

● In assessing the consequences of a hazard, the first question should be asked "Ifa worker is exposed to this hazard, how bad
would the most probable severe injury be?".
● For this consideration we are presuming that a hazard and injury is inevitable and we are only concerned with its severity.

It is common to group the injury severity and consequence into the following four categories:

● Fatality- leads to death

● Major or serious injury - serious damage to health which may be irreversible, requiring medical attention and ongoing treatment
● Minor injury-reversible health damage which may require medical attention but limited ongoing treatment. This is less likely to
involve significant time off work.
● Negligible injuries - first aid only with little or no lost time.

To illustrate how this can be used in the workplace we will use the example of a metal shearing task.

A hazard involved could include a piece of metal flying out of the equipment while in use,

In this example the probable most severe injury would be "Major or Serious Injury" with the possibility of bruising, breakage, finger
amputation
Assessing the Likelihood

● In assessing the likelihood, the question should be asked "If the hazard
occurs, how likely is it that the worker will be injured?".
● This should not be confused with how likely the hazard is to occur.
● It is common to group the likelihood of a hazard causing worker injury
into the following four categories:
○ Very likely - exposed to hazard continuously.
○ Likely - exposed to hazard occasionally.
○ Unlikely - could happen but only rarely.
○ Highly unlikely - could happen, but probably never will.

In the metal shearing example, the question should not be ‘How likely is the
machine expected to fail?" but instead

"When the machine fails and causes metal to fly out, how likely
THE DOW FIRE AND EXPLOSION INDEX HAZARD

● It is a method for ranking the relative fire and explosion risk associated
with a process
● The index is developed by the Dow Chemical Company and published by
the American Institute of Chemical Engineering, Dow (1994)
(www.aiche.org), evaluating the potential risk from a process and
assessing the potential loss.
● A numerical "Fire and explosion index" (F&EI) is calculated, based on the
nature of the process and the properties of the process materials.
● The larger value of the F&EI, the more hazardous the process
Objectives of dow fire and explosion index

Quantify:

The expected damage potential due to fire & explosion incidents in realistic terms.

Identify:

Equipment that is likely to contribute to the creation or escalation of an incident.

Communicate:

The fire & explosion potential, to design teams and also the plant personnel.

● It is tailored for the storage, handling, and processing of explosive and flammable material in the chemical
process industry.
● It uses a systematic approach based on the rating form.
● Suitable to be used at an early stage of a project and for auditing the existing plant.
● The final rating number (ie F&<El) provides a relative ranking of hazards.
● It is also used for estimating damage radius (using Dow correlation) and estimate the financial loss in the event
of an accident (using consequence analysis form).
Assessment of hazard

● To assess the potential hazard of a new plant, the index can be calculated after the Piping and Instrumentation
and equipment layout diagrams have been prepared.
● In earlier versions of the guide, the index was then used to determine what preventative and protection
measures were needed.
● In the current version, the preventative and protective measures that have been incorporated in the plant
design to reduce the hazard-are taken into account when assessing the potential loss: in the form of loss
control credit factors.
Calculation of the Dow F& EI
● The procedure for calculating the index and the potential loss is set out.
● The first step is to identify the units that would have the greatest impact on the magnitude of
any fire or explosion
● The index is calculated for each of these units.
● The basis of the F& EI is a Material Factor (MF).
● The MF is then multiplied by a Unit Hazard Factor, F3 to determine the F&EI for the process
unit.
● The Unit Hazard factor is the product of two factors which take account of the hazards inhere
in the operation of the particular process unit the general and special process hazards.
Material factor

● The material factor is a measure of the intrinsic rate of energy release

from the burning explosion or other chemical reaction of the material.
● Values for the MF for over 300 of the most commonly used substances
are given in the guide.
● The guide also includes a procedure for calculating the MF for substances
not listed from knowledge of the flash point, (for dusts, dust explosion
tests) and a reactivity value, Nr.
● The reactivity value is a qualitative description of the reactivity of the
substance, and ranges from 0 for stable substances, to 4 for substances
that are capable of unconfined detonation.
General Process Hazards

The general process hazards are factors that play a primary role in determining the magnitude of the loss following
an incident

● Exothermic chemical reactions: the penalty varies from 0.3 for a mild exotherm, such as hydrogenation, to 1.25
for a particularly sensitive exotherm, such as nitration.
● Endothermic processes: penalty of 0.2 is applied to reactors only.
● It is increased to 0.4 if the reactor is heated by the combustion of a fuel.
● Materials handling and transfer: this pernaansfer takes penalty account of the hazard involved in the handling,
transfer and warehousing of the material.
● Enclosed or indoor process units: account for the additional hazard where ventilation is restricted.
● Access of emergency equipment: areas not having adequate access are penalised. Minimum requirement is
access from two sides.
● Draining and spill control: penalises design conditions that would cause large spills of flammable material
adjacent to process equipment such as inadequate design of drainage.
Special process hazards

The special process hazards are factors that are known from experience to contribute to the probability of an incident
involving loss.

● Toxic materials: the presence of toxic substances after an incident will make the task of the emergency
personnel more difficult. The factor applied ranges from 0 for non-toxic materials, to 0.8 for substances that
can cause death after short exposure.
● Sub-atmospheric pressure: allows for the hazard of air leakage into equipment. It is only applied for pressure
less than 500 mmHg (9.5 bar).
● Operation in or near flammable range: cover for the possibility of air mixing with material in equipment or
storage tanks, under conditions where the mixture will be within the explosive range.
● Dust explosion: covers for the possibility of a dust explosion. The degree of risk is largely determined by the
particle size. The penalty factor varies from 0.25 for particles above 175 micrometer, to 2.0 for particles below
75 micrometer.
● Relief pressure: this penalty accounts for the effect of pressure on the rate of leakage, should be a leak occur.
Equipment design and operation becomes more critical as the operating pressure is increased. The factor
depends on the relief device setting and the physical nature of the process material.
● Low temperature: this factor allows for the possibility of brittle fracture occurring in carbon steel, or other
metals at low temperature.
● Quantity of flammable material: the potential loss will be greater the quantity of hazardous material in the
process or in storage. The factor to aPply depends on the physical state and hazardous nature of the process
material, and the quantity of material.
● Corrosion and erosion: despite good design and materials selection, some corrosion problems may arise,
both internally and externally. The factor to be applied depends on the anticipated corrosion rate.
● Leakage-joints and packing: this factor accounts for the possibility of leakage from gaskets. Pump and other
shaft seals and packed glands. The factor varies from 0.1 where there is the possibility of minor leaks, to 1.5 for
process that have slight glasses, bellows or other expansion joints.
● Use of fired heaters: the presence of boilers or furnaces, heated by the combustion of fuels, increases the
probability of ignition should a leak of flammable material occur from a process unit. The risk involved will
depends on the sitting of the fired equipment and the flash point the process material.
● Hot oil heat exchange system: most special heat exchange fluids are flammable and are often used above
their flash points; so their use in a unit increases the risk of fire or explosion. The factor to apply depends on
the quantity and whether the fluid is above or below its flash points
● Rotating equipment: this factor accounts for the hazard arising from the use of large pieces of rotating
equipment, compressors, centrifuges, and some mixers
Basic preventative and protective measure

The basic safety and fire protective measures that should be included in all chemical process design
are listed below. This list is bases on that given in the Dow Guide, with some minor amendments.

a) Adequate, and secure, water supplies for fire fighting.

b) Correct structural design of vessels, piping, steel work.

c) Pressure-relief devices.

d) Corrosion-resistant materials and adequate corrosion allowances.

e) Segregation of reactive materials.

f) Earthing of electrical equipment.

g) Safe location of auxiliary electrical equipment, transformers, switches gear.

h) Provision of backup utility supplies and services.

i) Compliance with national codes and standards.

i) Fail-safe instrumentation.

k) Provision for access of emergency vehicles and the evacuation of personnel.

l) Adequate drainage for spills and fire-fighting water

m) Insulation of hot surfaces.

n) No glass equipment used for flammable or hazardous

materials, unless no suitable alternative is available.

o) Adequate separation of hazardous equipment.

p) Protection of pipe racks and cable trays from fire.

g) Provision of block valves on lines to main processing areas.

r) Protection of fired equipment (heaters, furnaces) against accidental explosion and fire.

s) Safe design and location of control rooms.

Simplified procedure for calculating Dow F&EI
PRELIMINARY HAZARD ANALYSIS

● The Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) is usually the first attempt in the system safety process to identify and
categorize hazards or potential hazards associated with the operation of a proposed system, process, or
procedure.
● The PHA may be preceded with the preparation of a Preliminary Hazard List (PHL).
● It provides rationale for hazard control and indicates the need for more detailed analyses, such as the
Subsystem Hazard Analysis (SSHA) and the System Hazard Analysis (SHA).
● The PHA is usually developed using the system safety techniques known as Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
(FMEA) and/or the Energy Trace and Barrier Analysis (ETBA).
● PHA development can be somewhat simplified through the use of a Preliminary Hazard Matrix identifying a
Generic Hazard Group.
● The PHA Report can be generated based upon evaluation and analysis of system hazard risk.
Characteristics of PHA

● It relies on brainstorming and expert judgment to assess the significance of hazards and assign a ranking to
each situation.
● It is typically performed by one or two people who are knowledgeable about the type of activity in question.
● It is applicable to any activity or system.
● It can be used as a high-level analysis early in the life of a process
● It is used to generates qualitative descriptions of the hazards related to a process. Provides a qualitative
ranking of the hazardous situations; this ranking can be used to prioritize recommendations for reducing or
eliminating hazards in subsequent phases of the life cycle.
● Quality of the evaluation depends on the quality and availability of documentation, the training of the review
team leader with respect to the various analysis techniques employed, and the experience of the review

teams.
Advantages And Disadvantages of PHA

Advantages

● Helps ensure that the system is safe

● Modifications are less expensive and easier to implement in
● The earlier stages of design
● Decreases design time by reducing the number of surprises

Disadvantages

● Hazards must be foreseen by the analysts

● The effects of interactions between hazards are not easily recognized
Procedure for Preliminary Hazard Analysis

The procedure for conducting a preliminary hazard analysis consists of the following steps. Each step is further
explained on the following pages.

1. Define the activity or system of interest. Specify and clearly define the boundaries of the activity or system
for which preliminary hazard information is needed.
2. Define the accident categories of interest and the accident severity categories. Specify the problems of
interest that the risk assessment will address (e.g., health and safety concerns, environmental issues). Specify
the accident severity categories that will be used to prioritize resources for risk reduction efforts.
3. Conduct review. identify the major hazards and associated accidents that could result in undesirable
consequences. Also, identify design criteria or alternatives that could eliminate or reduce the hazards.
4. Use the results in decision making. Evaluate the risk assessment recommendations and the benefits they are
intended to achieve (e.g., improved safety and environmental performance, cost savings).
Determine implementation criteria and plans.

1. Define the activity or system of interest

Intended functions. Because all risk assessments are concerned with ways in which a system can fail to perform an intended

function, clearly defining these intended functions is an important first step in any risk assessment. This step does not have to
be formally documented for most preliminary risk assessments.

Boundaries. Few activities or systems operate in isolation. Most interact with or are connected to other activities or systems. By

clearly defining the boundaries of an activity or system, especially boundaries with support systems such as electric power and
compressed air, the analysis can avoid (1) overlooking key elements of an activity or system at interfaces and (2) penalizing an
activity or system by associating other equipment with the subject of the study.

Example:

Functions of interest

● Safe handling and use of fuel oil for an LNG cargo ship
● Safe handling and use of LNG Cargo for an LNG Cargo ship
● Include only shipboard systems or operations
2. Define the accident categories of interest and the accident severity categories

Accident categories

The following paragraphs describe three of the most common types of accidents of interest in a PHA:

Safety problems. The risk assessment team may look for ways in which improper performance of a marine activity
or failures in a hardware system can result in personnel injury. These injuries may be caused by many mechanisms,
including the following:

● Person overboard
● Exposure to high temperatures (e.g, through steam leaks)
● Fires or explosions

Environmental issues. The risk assessment team may look for ways in which the conduct of a particular activity or
the failure of a system can damage the environment. These environmental issues may be caused by many
mechanisms, including the following:

● Discharge of material into the water, either intentional" or unintentional

● Equipment failures (e.g., seal failures) that result in a material spill
● Disruption of the ecosystem through overutilization marine area
Economic impacts. The risk assessment team may look for ways in which the improper conduct of a particular
activity or the failure of a system can have undesirable economic impacts. These economic risks may be categorized
in many ways, including the following:

● Business risks such as contractual penalties, lost revenue, etc.

● Environmental restoration costs
● Replacement costs for damaged equipment

Some risk assessments may focus only on events above a certain threshold of concern in one or more of these
categories.

Accident severity categories

● During a PHA, a team assesses the severity of the various accidents that can occur with each of the hazards.
● Establishing severity categories with definitive boundaries allows the team to assess each accident against a
consistent measure of severity.
● It thus provides the framework for prioritizing recommendations for risk reduction alternatives.
3. Conduct review

Performing a PHA identifies major hazards and accident situations that could result in losses.

However, the PHA should also identify design criteria or alternatives that could eliminate or reduce those hazards.

Obviously, some experience is required in making such judgments.

The team performing the PHA should consider the following factors:

● Hazardous vessel equipment and materials, such as fuels, highly reactive chemicals, toxic substances,
explosives, high pressure systems, and other energy storage system
● Safety-related interfaces between equipment and material such as material interactions, fire or explosion
initiation and propagation, and control or shutdown systems
● Environmental factors that may influence the vessel or facility equipment and materials, such as vibration,
flooding, extreme temperatures, electrostatic discharge and humidity
● Operating testing, maintenance, and emergency procedures, such as human error potential, crew function to
be accomplished, equipment layout and accessibility and personnel safety protection
● Vessel support, such as storage, equipment testing, training, and utilities
● Safety-related equipment, such as mitigating systems, redundancy, fire suppresSion, and personal protective
equipment.
4. Use the results in decision making

Judge acceptability: Decide whether the estimated performance for the activity or system meets an
established goal or requirement.

Identify improvement opportunities. Identify the elements of the activity or system that are most
likely to contribute to future problems. These are the items with the largest percentage contributions
to the identified risks.

Make recommendations for improvements. Develop specific suggestions for improving future
activity or system performance, including any of the following:

● Equipment modifications
● Procedural changes
● Administrative policy changes, such as planned maintenance tasks or personnel training
Justify allocation of resources for improvements. Estimate how
implementation of expensive or Controversial recommendations for
improvement will affect performance. Compare the economic benefits of
these planned improvements to the total lite-cycle costs of implementing each
recommendation.

Recommend additional risk assessments. AS suggested by the name,

preliminary hazard analysis is conducted in an early phase of a project.
Additional risk assessments will likely be needed to investigate certain issues
in more detail. The insights obtained from the PHA will help determine what, if
any, additional risk assessments should be conducted.
HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP)
● A HAZOP is a systematic assessment tool used to identify and address potential hazards in
industrial processes before an incident occurs that could affect the Safety of people or assets
while hindering Productivity.
● HAZOP studies are typically performed while new facilities are being designed and constructed,
when new processes are added or when processes change.
● Most regulatory agencies also require periodic HAZOP studies on existing processes.
● The HAZOP assessment is typically performed by a small team that breaks each step of a
process down for individual review to identify potential deviations from the original process
design.
● Like all PHAs, HAZOPs go beyond the review of how a process is supposed to operate in order
to identify unintended outcomes and explore their potential ripple effects on health and safety.
The HAZOP Study Process
● Hazard and Operability Study systematically investigates each element in a process.
● The goal is to find potential situations that would cause that element to pose a hazard or limit
the operability of the process as a whole. There are four basiC steps to the process

1. Forming a HAZOP team

2. Identifying the elements of the system

3. Considering possible variations in operating parameters.

4. Identifying any hazards or failure points

● Once the four steps have been completed, the resulting information can lead to improvements
in the system, such a adding caution signs or traffic signs.
● The best way to apply the results of a HAZOP study will depend on the nature of the system.
1. Form a HAZOP team

● To perform a HAZOP, a team of workers is formed, including people with a variety of expertise

such as operation, maintenance, instrumentation, engineering/process design, and other

specialists as needed.

● These should not be "newbies” but people with experience, knowledge, and an understanding

of their part of the system.

● The key requirements are an understanding of the system, and a willingness to consider

reasonable variations at each point in the system.

2. Identify Each Element and its Parameters

● The HAZOP team will then Create a plan for the complete work process, identifying the

individual steps or elements.

● This unically involves using the piping and instrument diagrams (P&ID), or a plant model, as a

guide to examining every section and component of a process.

● For each element, the team will identify the planned operating parameters of the system at

that point: flow rate, pressure, temperature, vibration, and so on.

3. Consider the Effects of Variation

● For each parameter, the team considers the effects of deviation from normal.

● For example, "What would happen if the pressure at this valve was too high? What if the

pressure was unexpectedly low? Would the rate of change in pressure (delta- P) pose its own

problems here?" Don't forget to consider the ways that each element interacts with others over

time; for example, "What would happen if the valve was opened too early, or too late?"
4. Identify Hazards and Failure Points

● Where the result of a variation would be a danger to workers or to the production process,

we've found a potential problem.

● Document this concern, and estimate the impact of a failure at that point.

● Then, determine the likelihood of that failure; is there a real cause for the harmful variation?

● Evaluate the existing safeguards and protection systems, and evaluate their ability to handle

the deviations that we've considered.

Results of a HAZOP Study

● Because HAZOP is a mental exercise, it can be implemented as part of the planning of a new work process,

even before a facility is built.

● Existing facilities and processes can also be assessed with HAZOP.

● Where a HAZOP study is performed in the planning stage of a new process, completing the study means that

all potential causes of failure will be identified.

● The HAZOP team will write deviations, their consequences, their causes, and the protection requirements

● From this point, changes to the plan can be made to prevent problems from arising, or to mitigate their effects.

● In existing facilities, a HAZOP may be ongoing, working to improve the process without any specific end date.

● Instead of a single, large assessment, the study's results will be released as a stream of action items, as each

problem is identified and a solution is created

CONTROL OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS
● A chemical hazard is any substance, regardless of its form that can
potentially cause physical and health hazards to people, or can result in
harm to the environment.
● It can also be defined as the actual risk associated with specific chemicals
such as skin burns, long-term negative impact to health, lasting
environmental damage, fires, or even explosions.
Types of Chemical Hazards
● Health hazard - This symbol shows a person with damage and pertains to chemicals that can cause serious

and long-term negative impacts on health. Carcinogens are also substances that are known to be

cancer-causing chemicals. They are categorized as either natural or manmade, but it is crucial to note that even

a small amount of this type of chemical can severely damage human health.

● Flammable - The symbol for this is a flame and it pertains to chemicals or highly flammable gases that may

catch fire or ignite once exposed to air or other ignition sources or elements.

● Irritant/hazardous/hazardous to the ozone layer This is symbolized by a big exclamation point and refers to

chemicals that usually cause redness, rashes, or inflammation of the affected area. Although the presence of

symptoms is normally short-term, there are still instances where they create long lasting effects on others. It is

also known to either cause harm to individuals or pose a threat to public health by harming the ozone layer.

● Gas under pressure - The symbol for this is a gas cylinder and it pertains to gases that are stored under

pressure and may explode if heated or refrigerated gases that may cause burns or injury.
Corrosion - This pictogram shows corrosion of material and skin. It refers to chemicals that can
cause severe skin burns and damage to the tissue once contacted with.

Explosives This is symbolized by an exploding bomb and pertains to chemicals that may explode or
can cause a mass explosion.

Oxidizers - This pictogram shows a flame over a circle and symbolizes chemicals or substances that,
under certain conditions or exposure to other chemicals or elements, can cause severe physical
hazards such as fires or explosions.

Hazardous to the environment - The symbol for this is a dead tree and fish. It refers to chemicals
that can cause lasting damage to the environment.

Toxic This pictogram shows a skull and crossbones, and symbolizes chemicals that even at a very
low exposure-can cause irreversible changes or mutations to a person's DNA, damage to health, or
even fatality.
Controlling Chemical Hazards

Once the hazards involved in the handling and use of chemicals are identified, the next stage is to put control

measures in place

This includes,

● Elimination- Options which get rid of the hazard altogether

● Substitution-Replacing a hazardous chemical with a less hazardous one wherever possible.

● Engineering Controls- Fume Hoods, local exhaust ventilation, etc.

● Administrative control- Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), caution signages, etc.

● Personal protective equipment- Lab coats, safety glasses, hand gloves, etc.
1. Elimination

● The risk control measure that has the greatest level of effectiveness is
elimination.
● Before any other control measures are considered, elimination must be
applied first.
● Elimination is the method of totally removing a hazard or hazardous
practice from the workplace.
● Some examples of eliminating the use of a hazardous chemical in the
workplace include:
○ Eliminating the use of chemical adhesive by using fasteners such as screws or nails.
○ Eliminating the use of flammable forklift gas by using electric power forklifts instead of
LPG powered forklifts.
2. Substitution
● lf we can't successfully eliminate the use of a hazardous chemical in our business, we must

then try to substitute it.

● Substitution is when we replace the use of a hazardous chemical with another chemical that is

less hazardous and presents a lower level of risk.

● Sometimes, substitution can be hard to achieve because the dangerous properties of

hazardous chemicals are often what makes them very effective in manufacturing and chemical

processes.
3. Isolation
● If it's not possible to substitute the use of a hazardous chemical with another chemical that is

less hazardous, we must then isolate the hazardous chemical from people and other

incompatible substances.

● This can be done in a number of ways, for example: If one part of a manufacturing process

involves the use of a hazardous chemical, we could build a ventilated enclosure over this part

of the manufacturing process.

● This enclosure would stop the airborne contaminants from this area moving into other areas of

the manufacturing facility where people are present.

● The airborne contaminants that are generated inside this enclosure should be vented to the

outside atmosphere in a safe location where people don't congregate.

● If large quantities of hazardous chemicals are stored in the workplace, we could isolate these

hazardous chemicals from people by storing them outdoors in a compliant chemical storage

container.

● Isolating hazardous chemicals from people by storing them outdoors reduces the risk of harm

to people in the event of a workplace fire or chemical spill.

4. Engineering Controls

If isolation cannot be achieved, you can implement a range or engineering controls to reduce the risk
associated with hazardous chemicals.

Engineering controls are physical in nature. They are devices or processes that eliminate exposure to
hazardous chemicals.

Engineering controls can be used to:

● Minimise the generation of hazardous chemicals

● Suppress or contain chemicals
● Limit the area of contamination in the event of spills

Engineering controls can include devices such as mechanical ventilation systems, compliant chemical
storage containers or the automation of processes involving the use of hazardous chemicals.
5. Administrative Controls

● If there is still a chemical risk once higher order controls are implemented, then you must work
to reduce this by developing administrative controls.
● Administrative controls aren't as effective as other controls, because they don't control the
hazard at its source.
● Administrative controls rely on human behaviour and supervision, therefore, they aren't as
consistent or reliable as other controls.
● Administrative controls are generally written policies and procedures that outline the best work
practices to minimise exposure to hazardous chemicals.

These policies can include things such as:

● Reducing the number of people exposed to hazardous chemicals

● Reducing the duration and frequency of exposure to hazardous chemicals
● Reducing the quantity of hazardous chemicals kept on site through inventory reduction
methods such as just in time supply.
6. Personal Protective Equipment

● Personal protective equipment (PPE) should not be relied on to control risk.

● Instead, PPE should only be used as a last resort when other more effective control measures
have been used and the risk has not been eliminated.
● PPE can also be used as interim protection until higher level m controls are fully implemented.
● PPE is also a useful way to supplement higher level controls when carrying out high-risk work
such as spray-painting and abrasive blasting.

Some examples of PPE can include:

● Chemical resistant glasses

● Face shields
● Chemical resistant gloves
● Protective clothing
● Shoe covers
● Respiratory equipment
HAZARDOUS PROPERTIES OF CHEMICALS
● Chemical substances that have the ability to create a physical or health
hazard are considered hazardous
● Due to their properties chemical hazardous substances may be, but are
not limited to being toxic, explosive, flammable, self-reactive, oxidizing, or
corrosive.
● Exposure to these substances by different routes including inhalation,
dermal absorption, or ingestion can lead to adverse health effects,
enhancing the need to know about the hazards associated to these
substances beforehand.
1. Toxic
● A toxic substance is a substance that can be poisonous or cause health
effects.
● Chemicals can be toxic because they can harm us when they enter or
contact the body.
● Exposure to a toxic substance such as gasoline can affect your health.
● Since drinking gasoline can cause burns, vomiting, diarrhea and, in very
large amounts, drowsiness or death, it is toxic.
● Some chemicals are hazardous because of their physical properties they
can explode, burn or react easily with other chemicals.
● Since gasoline can burn and its vapors can explode, gasoline is also
hazardous.
● A chemical can be toxic, or hazardous, or both.
2. Explosive

● Explosive, any substance or device that can be made to produce a volume of rapidly expanding

gas in an extremely brief period.

● Basically, chemical explosives are of two types:

○ (1) detonating, or high, explosives and

○ (2) deflagrating, or low, explosives.

● Detonating explosives, such as TNT and dynamite, are characterized by extremely rapid

decomposition and development of high pressure, whereas deflagrating explosives, such as

black and smokeless powders, involve merely fast burning and produce relatively low

pressures.
3. Flammable

● Flammability is the ability of a chemical to burn or ignite, causing fire or

combustion.
● The degree of difficulty required to cause the combustion of a chemical is
quantified through fire testing.
4. Self-reactive

● Self-reactive chemicals are thermally unstable liquid or solid chemicals

that can undergo exothermic decomposition without interacting with
oxygen.
● Self-reactive chemicals can start decomposing due to:
○ Heat
○ Contact with acids
○ Contact with heavy metal compounds
○ Contact with bases
○ Friction
○ Impact
5 Oxidizing

Oxidizing chemicals are materials that spontaneously evolve oxygen at room temperature or with

slight heating or promote combustion. This class of chemicals includes:

● Peroxides

● Chlorates

● Perchlorates

● Nitrates

● Permanganates

Strong oxidizers are capable of forming explosive mixtures when mixed with combustible, organic or

easily oxidized materials.

6. Corrosive

● Corrosive chemicals are defined as chemicals that can cause damage to body tissues.
● These chemicals can be dangerous if they come into contact with user's skin, tissues, eyes, and
body parts.
● Corrosive materials can irritate eyes, burn skin, irritate and burn the inner lining of the nose
and throat if inhaled, and have other negative effects if users are not careful when handling
these chemicals.
● Common corrosive chemicals include acids and bases.
● Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrofluoric acid are examples of common corrosive acids,
while ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and sodium hydroxide are examples of
bases.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS)
● A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document that contains information on the potential hazards (health,

reactivity and environmental) and how to work safely with chemical product.

● It is an essential starting point for development of a complete health and safety program.

● It contains information on the use, storage, handling and emergency procedures all related to the hazards of

the material.

● The MSDS contains much more information about the material than the label.

● MSDSs are prepared by the supplier or manufacturer of the material.

● It is intended to tell what the hazards of the product are, how to use the product safely, what to expect if the

recommendations are not followed, what to do if accidents occur, how to recognize symptoms of

overexposure, and what to do if such incidents occur.

● The purpose of a safety data sheet is to act as a quick reference for safely storing, handling, and transporting
the chemical product.
● The specific contents of the document vary depending on the nature of the substance and the manufacturer.
● It will, however, typically include the following information
○ Product Information: product identifier (name), manufacturer and suppliers names, addresses, and
emergency phone numbers
○ Hazardous Ingredients
○ Physical Data
○ Fire or Explosion Hazard Data
○ Reactivity Data: information on the chemical instability of a product and the substances it may react with
○ Toxicological Properties: health effects
○ Preventive Measures
○ First Aid Measures
○ Preparation Information: who is responsible for preparation and date of preparation of MSDS