INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL PAST QUESTIONS

QUIZ 1

1. A two-dimensional full-area display does not find it's application in:

A. digital clock
B. television
C. ipad
D. computer monitor
2. Uses of standards do not include:
A. enhances confidentiality and job supremacy
B. avoids the need to start a project from scratch
C. presents experts knowledge for practical assessment
D. improve communication
3. A good temperature sensor obeys the following rules except:
A. sensitive to the temperature being measured
B. versatile and applicable to other physical quantities such as humidity
C. insensitive to any other property
D. does not add it's internal temperature to the measured quantity
4. All these are characteristics of an active transducer except:
A. draws energy from the system under measurement
B. gives very small output
C. needs an external power source for operation
D. self-generating
5. Measurement errors associated with whether a value is attained by increasing or decreasing
means is termed:
A. non-linearity error
B. reading error
C. insertion error
D. hysteresis error
6. Which one of these is not an example of a passive transducer?
A. thermister
 B. photoemission cell
C. resistance thermometer
D. thermocouple
7. The change in output of a measuring system that occurs over a period of time is referred to
as:
A. strand
B. drift
C. f.s.d.
D. dead band
8. Signals crossing a boundary into the environment are collectively referred to as:
A. output
B. environment
C. interconnected system
D. input
9. The property that indicates how much the output of an instrument changes when the
quantity being measured changes by a given amount is termed:
A. Precision
B. Stability
C. Sensitivity
D. Accuracy
10. A measured value of Resistance R= 66.98 ‡ 0.1 ohms. Calculate the percentage error in the
resistance?
A. 0.032 %
B. 0.149 %
C. 0.067 %
D. 0.001 %
11. A transducer that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism is called:
A. signal processor
B. signal conditioner
C. actuator
D. sensor
12. Which of these technologies is not employed in segment displays?
A. vacuum fluorescent display
B. LED display
C. LCD
D. cathode-ray tube (CRT) display
13. Measurement errors associated with the uncertainty of scale markings especially when the
pointer falls within two-scale markings could be classified as:
A. hysteresis error
B. non-linearity error
C. reading error
D. insertion error
14. One unpopular means of giving the value of a measured variable is:
A. induce
B. transmit
C. display
D. record
15. The property that indicates how a number of repeated readings are spread around a true
value is termed:
A. Precision
B. Sensitivity
C. Stability
D. Accuracy
16. Systematic errors may be due to the following:
A. non-linearity
B. noise
C. zero drift
D. wrong calibration
17. The property that indicates how close a measured value is to the true value is termed:
A. Accuracy
B. Precision
C. Sensitivity
 D. Stability
18. Power P within a resistor is given by V^2/R. V = 25 ‡ 0.2 V and R = 35 ‡ 0.01 ohm. What
is the percentage error of the V^2 term?
A. 0.16 %
B. 0.016%
C. 1.6%
D. 0.8%
19. In measuring a targeted value of 240 V, three sets of multiple readings were taken as
I) 220 V, 200 V, 250 V, 230 V;
II) 230 V, 245 V, 235 V, 250 V;
III) 200V, 205 V, 208 V, 203 V.

Which of these readings i.e. I, Il or Ill has high accuracy?

A. None
B. Ill
C. Il
D. I
20. For a targeted value of 220V, a measuring instrument was used to record a value of 237V.
Determine the error in the instrument reading.
A. 228.5 V
B. 457 V
C. 17 V
D. 8.5 V
21. low sound output heard from an amplified loudspeaker is collectively referred
A. environment
B. output
C. interconnected system
D. input
22. A transducer that responds to stimulus from physical medium is called:
A. Signal processor
B. Signal conditioner
 C. Sensor
D. Actuator
23. In measuring a targeted value of 240 V, three sets of multiple readings were taken as
i. 220 V, 200 V, 250 V, 230 V;
ii. 230 V, 245 V, 235 V, 250 V;
iii. 200V, 205 V, 208 V, 203 V.

Which of these readings i.e. I, Il or Ill has precision?

A. None
B. Ill
C. Il
D. I
24. Voltage = I x R. R and I measured by an ohmeter and ammeter are respectively given as
40 ‡ 0.15 ohms and 12 ‡ 0.08 Determine the average voltage if two additional voltages
already determined are 230 ‡ 0.1 V and 195 + 0.23 V.
A. 905 ‡ 1.37 V
B. 905 ‡ 5.3 V
C. 905 + 0.547 V
D. 905 + 1.201 V
25. An accuracy of 1.25% of the full- scale deflection of 120 V may be quoted in decimal as:
A. 1.25
B. 0.01
C. 1.04
D. 1.50
26. Voltage =1x R. R and I measured by an ohmeter and ammeter are respectively given as 40
‡ 0.15 ohms and 12 ‡ 0.08. Determine the error rate of the voltage.
A. ‡ 5.0
B. + 0.01
C. + 1.04
D. ‡ 0.38
 27. Power P within a resistor is given by V^2/R. V = 25 ‡ 0.2 V and R= 35 ‡ 0.01 ohm.
Determine the percentage error in the power value?
A. 1.62%
B. 0.0328 %
C. 1.6286 %
D. 0.0826 %

QUIZ 2

1. For a complete manipulation of the final control element of a flow process, the following
sequence of instrumentation is necessary.
A. FV--FIC--FI--FE—FT

B. FE--FI--FT--FIC--FV

C. FT--FV--FI--FIC--FE

D. FI--FIC--FT--FE--FV

E. FIC--FE--FV--FT--FI
2. Which of these flow instrumentation devices is a final control element?
A. FIC

B. FI

C. FE

D. FV

E. FT
3. Which of these pressure instrumentation devices is a sensing element that directly comes into
contact with the pressure environment under test?
A. PIC

B. PI

C. PE

D. PV
E. PT
4. In a process flow diagram, a line with circles placed on it at regular intervals and another line
with two-short slanted lines placed on it at regular intervals respectively represent;
A. Data link and hydraulic signal
B. Software link and pneumatic signal
C. Pneumatic line and data link
D. Capillary tubing for filled system and electrical signal
E. Software link and Connecting line
5. In a process flow diagram, a dash dash line represents;
A. Data link

B. Software link

C. Pneumatic signal

D. Electrical signal

E. Hydraulic signal
6. Which of these linear continuous time filters has the steepest cutoff?
A. Elliptic filter

B. Butterworth filter

C. Chebyshev filter

D. Bessel filter

E. FFT filter
7. Which of these linear continuous time filters has the flattest frequency response?
A. Elliptic filter

B. Butterworth filter

C. Chebyshev filter

D. Bessel filter

E. FFT filter
8. In a process flow diagram, a circular Temperature Indicator Control (TIC) symbol with NO
horizontal diameter indicates that the TIC is mounted in the control room.
A. True

B. False
9. Frequency values that lie between passband and stopband are refered to as:
A. cutoff

B. roll-off

C. transition

D. ripple E. order
10. The number of elements required to build a passive filter is termed:
A. cutoff

B. roll-off

C. transition

D. ripple

E. order
11. Frequencies above the highest passband frequency are referred to as ------ frequency:
A. cutoff

B. roll-off

C. transition

D. ripple

E. order
12. A summing amplifier with a feedback resistance of 23 Ω has input voltages of 5 V, 10 V and
12 V which are respectively connected to input resistances of 12.5 Ω, 25 Ω and 18.8 Ω.
Determine the output voltage of the summing amplifier.
A. -33.081 V

B. -1.438 V

C. 6.567 V
D. -151.03 V

E. 33.1 V

13. A summing amplifier with a feedback resistance of 10 kΩ has input voltages of 2 mV and 5
mV which are respectively connected to input resistances of 1 kΩ and 2 kΩ. The summing
amplifier is coupled to an inverting amplifier having an input resistance of 25 Ω and a feedback
resistance of 41.5 Ω. Determine the output voltage of the entire arrangement.
A. 54.91 V

B. -1.66 V

C. 74.7 mV

D. 60.9 mV

E. 250.7 V
14. Determine the voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier which has an input resistance of 25
Ω and a feedback resistance of 41.5 Ω.
A. 26.60 V

B. 2.66 V

C. 2.387 V

D. 10.9 mV

E. 23.87 V
15. What is the turn’s ratio of a transformer with primary voltage rating of 4,800 V and a
secondary voltage rating of 240 V?
A. 1:20

B. 20:1

C. 25:1

D. 1:25

E. 9:2
16. How many turns would be required in the secondary of a transformer that has a primary
voltage of 120 V and a secondary voltage of 12 V with 800 primary turns.
A. 40

B. 80

C. 120

D. 160

E. 100
17. An infrared LED and Phototransistor is a typical source-sensor combination of an opto-
isolator.
A. True

B. False
18. An Isolation transformer transfers power between two circuits which are not electrically
connected.
A. True

B. False
19. Schering bridge is _____ which is used to measure ______.
A. an ac bridge; inductance
B. an ac bridge; capacitance
C. a dc bridge; resistance
D. a dc bridge; reactance
E. an ac bridge; resistance
20. Determine the output voltage of a digital word of 11010 using a simple resistive divider
network considering a uniform input voltage of 5 V.
A. 1.72 V

B. 4.2 V

C. 4.06 V

D. 55 V
E. 1.77 V
21. Determine the value corresponding to one-third of the maximum voltage of a 5-bit digital
word having a uniform input voltage of 8 V with the conversion effected by a binary ladder
network.
A. 7.75 V

B. 8 V

C. 2.67 V

D. 2.58 V

E. 5.33 V
22. Determine the high-level output voltage of a digital word of 100101 using a parallel output
N-bit shift register converter with a uniform input voltage of 7.5 V.
A. 6.67 V

B. 2.67 V

C. 12.4 V

D. 35 V

E. None of these
23. All these can be used for instrumentation circuit protection except:
A. Series resistor
B. Fuse
C. Zener diode
D. Miniature circuit breaker
E. Induced protective switch
24. A protective device used to protect against high voltages and wrong polarity voltages could
be:

A. Series resistor
B. Fuse
C. Zener diode
D. change over polarity switch
E. Fused switch
25. Though Anderson's bridge is complex as compared to Maxwell's bridge, both bridges are
used to measure capacitance.
A. True

B. False
26. Determine the value of an unknown resistance R1 using a Wheatstone bridge having a source
voltage of 12 V and known resistances as follows: R2 = 2 kΩ; R3 = 706 Ω and R4 = 1.56 kΩ.
A. 0.91 kΩ

B. 900.8 Ω

C. 10.8 kΩ

D. 75.43 Ω

E. 905.1 kΩ
27. A co0upling capacitor may cause severe electric shock when it fails.
A. True

B. False
28. Capacitors connected between AC Live conductor and the Neutral conductor may help filter
out possible electromagnetic interference.
A. True

B. False
29. Fire outbreak is a possible result of bypass capacitor failure.
A. True

B. False
30. The analogue voltage output expected from a digital word conversion of 11001 in greater
than that expected from a digital word conversion of 10011 using simple resistive network with
equal, voltage inputs in both instances.
A. True

B. False
31. A thermistor is connected in series with a protective resistance of 1 kΩ. If the supply voltage
is obtained from a 9 V battery, what will be the required voltage to be applied accross the
thermistor if the internal resistance of the thermistor is 60 Ω?
A. 0.51 Ω

B. 0.54 Ω

C. 8.50 Ω

D. 0.34 Ω

E. 5.63 Ω

GENERAL PAST QUESTIONS

1. A Wheatstone bridge when used as a signal processing element can have an

input of a change in resistance and an output of:
a. A bigger resistance change
b. A digital signal
c. Voltage
d. Current

7. For axial strain measurement, the bridge is configured with the gauges in the place of
resistors
a. R1R2
b. R1RX
c. R1R3
d. R1R2R3RX
8. For bending strain measurement, the bridge is configured with the gauges in the place of
resistorns
a. R1R2
b. R1RX
c. R1R3
d. R1R2R3RX
9. For torsional strain measurement, the bridge is configured with the gauges in the place of
resistors
a. R1R2
b. R1RX
c. R1R3
d. R1R2R3RX
10. Which of the following is not a constituent of a measuring instrument
a. Transducer
b. Signal Conditioner
c. Measurand
d. Display or recorder unit
11. A Wheatstone bridge is which type of transducer
a. Analog
b. Digital
c. Hybrid
d. None of the above

The fluid power control systems shown below consists of the parts labelled A- F. select
what each represents.
12. A represents………
a. Fluid Supply
b. Fluid Transfer
c. Electrohydraulic Element
d. Signal Processing
13. B represents………
a. Fluid Supply
b. Fluid Transfer
c. Electrohydraulic Element
d. Signal Processing
14. C represents………
a. Fluid Supply
b. Fluid Transfer
c. Electrohydraulic Element
d. Signal Processing
15. D represents………
a. Fluid Supply
b. Fluid Transfer
c. Electrohydraulic Element
d. Signal Processing
16. E represents………
a. Fluid Supply
b. Fluid Transfer
c. Measuring Element
d. Actuator and load
17. F represents………
a. Fluid Supply
b. Fluid Transfer
c. Measuring Element
d. Actuator and load
18. Causes of fundamental error include all except
a. Friction
b. Tilting of instrument
c. Human mistakes
d. Incorrect graduation
19. External control actions on a system consist of the following except
a. State co-ordinates
b. Output variables of the system
c. Controlled and uncontrolled quantities that characterize the system
d. Observable and unobservable variables of the system.
20. Which bridge is MOST suitable for measurement of a few micro-Henrys
a. Anderson
b. Owen
c. Hay
d. Schering
21. Bandwidth is specified by frequencies on the response curve at which responses have fallen
by
a. 3%
b. 30 points
c. 3 points
d. 30 %
22. In a pressure strain gauge sensor, the sensor component is…………………..
a. Resistors
b. Wheatstone bridge
c. Body of sensor
d. None of the above
25. A measuring instrument must possess the following except
a. High degree of variance
b. Appropriate alignment
c. High degree of repeatability
d. None of the above

2018
1. The analogue output VA obtained from the binary ladder DAC network having a digital
word of
11001 is:

a. 9.677 V
b. 7.125 V
c. 9.375 V
d. 7.355 V
2. Which of the following types of errors can be traced to a defect in the measuring instrument?
a. Systematic
b. Random
c. Gross
d. instrumentation
3. All these are units of mass except:
a. lb
b. g
c. cd
d. kg
4. Using the resistive divider network shown, convert the digital word 11001 into an analogue
voltage.

a. 9.677 V
b. 7.125 V
c. 9.375 V
d. 7.355 V
5. Systematic errors lead to a lack of:
a. precision in the measurement.
b. accuracy in the measurement.
c. significant digits in the measurement.
d. graduation of the measuring instrument.
6. What quantity is measured using the following unit? Cubit2
a. length
b. volume
c. area
d. mass
7. Just after calibration, reliability is equal to:
a. 100
b. 1
c. 0
d. infinity

9. The following are examples of a closed-loop system except

a. door lock system
b. thermostat heater
c. voltage stabilizer
d. electric hand drier
10. The resolution of a 10-bit digital word, with ± 15 V analogue voltage range is:
a. 4.88 mV
b. 29.33 mV
c. 4.88 V
d. 29.33 kV
Preamble for Questions 11 – 15: In a differential amplifier, the output voltage is given as: 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅𝑓 / 𝑅𝑖𝑛 (𝑉2 - 𝑉1) where 𝑉2 = 150 ± 3 𝑉, 𝑉1 = 100 ± 3.5 𝑉, 𝑅𝑓 = 4.70 ± 4 𝑘𝛺 and 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 500 ± 2 𝛺
11. From the preamble, determine the percentage error in the resultant voltage.
a. 85 %
b. 0.4 %
c. 0.085 %
d. 13 %
12. Determine the fractional error in the input resistance.
a. 0.85
b. 0.004
c. 0.00085
d. 0.13
13. Find the percentage error in the feedback resistor.
a. 85 %
b. 0.4 %
c. 0.085 %
d. 13 %
14. Determine the percentage value of the error associated with the output voltage.
a. 13.4085 %
b. 98.004 %
c. 98.4 %
d. 13.485 %
15. The output voltage is given as:
a. 470 ±63.38 V
b. 470 ±462.48 V
c. 470 ±460.62 V
d. 470 ±63.02 V
16. Which of these is not an examples of open loop system:
a. door lock system
b. thermostat heater
c. voltage stabilizer
d. electric hand drier
17. All these are advantages of open loop system except:
a. simple to design
b. unaffected by external noise
c. more accurate than counterpart system
d. easy to maintain
18. How close repeated measurements are to each other represents the:
a. stability
b. accuracy
c. reliability
d. precision

20. How close the measurement is to the true (accepted) value is referred to as:
a. stability
b. accuracy
c. reliability
d. precision
Instrumentation and Control

MN / RN 467 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Objectives

The course aims at providing knowledge on instrumentation and measurement science, and control
system applications. It is designed to help students;

i. understand instrumentation and measurement systems,

ii. understand analogue, digital and hybrid signals;

iii. know the theory and application of sensors and transducers,

iv. have good knowledge of temperature, pressure, flow and level measurements and their
control systems.

Content

Instrumentation and measurement. Signal diagram, analogue and digital signals. Sensors and
transducers; the Wheatstone bridge. Strain measurement; the strain gauge. Temperature
measurement. Pressure measurement. Level measurement. Flow measurement.

Further Reading Materials

Bolton W. (2004) “Instrumentation and Control Systems”, Elsevier Science & Technology
Books Publishers, 339 pp. , ISBN: 0750664320

Johnson, C. D. (2007), Process Control and Instrumentation Technology, Prentice Hall of India,
8th edition, 704pp. ISBN-13: 978-8120330290.

Kirk, W. F. (2014), Instrumentation and Process Control, American Technical Publishers,6th

edition, 690 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0826934420.

Patranabis, D. (2011), Instrumentation and Control, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd., India, 392 pp.

US Department of Energy (2010), DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Instrumentation and Control,

Volumes 1&2, Knowledge Publications, 300 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1603220095.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 1

Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 1

MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS

1. 1 INTRODUCTION

A system can be defined as an arrangement of parts within

some boundary which work together to provide some form
of output from a specified input or inputs as shown in Fig.
1.1.
Characteristics of a system include:
a. The boundary divides the system from the
environment.
b. System interacts with the environment by means of;
i. Signals crossing the boundary from the Fig. 1.1
environment to the system, i.e. inputs,
ii. Signals crossing the boundary from the system to
the environment, i.e. outputs.

Interconnected system is one or more systems connected together to achieve specific goal (Fig.
1.2). Connection is done by arrows representing information flow in a specific direction.

Fig. 1.2 Interconnected System

1.2 INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS

Instrumentation system is the interconnection of devices to measure physical quantities.

Measurements instrumentation system gives numerical value. It has input of true value of variable
being measured with output as the measured value (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3 Instrumentation systems: (a) pressure, (b) speedometer, (c) flow rate measurement

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 2

Instrumentation and Control

1.2.1 Constituent Elements of an Instrumentation System

Instrumentation system consists of several active elements which are used to carry out particular
functions. These include:

1. Sensors
Element of the system which is effectively in contact with the
process for which a variable is being measured. It gives an output
which depends on the value of the variable, and which can be used
by the rest of the measurement system to give a value (Fig. 1.4).

Eg. Automatic Flight Control System

Sensors: speed control, height, position, doors, obstacle,
fuel, maneuvering and many more.
Signal processor: Computer
Display: Observed in engines, flaps, rudders etc.
Fig. 1.4 Sensor Elements
Types of Sensors A good sensor obeys the following rules:
Sensors are classified based on their field of • sensitive to the measured property
application such as acoustic, automotive, • insensitive to any other property
electrical and environmental. Some types of • does not influence measured
sensors include: property.

Table 1.1 Types of Sensors

Ionizing radiation, subatomic Acoustic, sound, vibration Thermal, heat, temperature
particles
Geophone Bolometer
Cloud chamber Hydrophone Bimetallic strip
Geiger counter Microphone Calorimeter
Geiger-Muller tube Seismometer Exhaust gas temperature gauge
Ionisation chamber Sound locator Flame detection
Neutron detection Gardon gauge
Proportional counter Proximity, presence Golay cell
Scintillation counter Heat flux sensor
Semiconductor detector Alarm sensor Infrared thermometer
Thermoluminescent dosimeter Doppler radar Microbolometer
Motion detector Microwave radiometer
Flow, fluid velocity Occupancy sensor Net radiometer
Proximity sensor Quartz thermometer
Air flow meter Passive infrared sensor Resistance thermometer
Anemometer Reed switch Special sensor microwave/imager
Flow sensor Stud finder Temperature gauge
Gas meter Triangulation sensor Thermistor
Mass flow sensor Touch switch Thermocouple
Water meter Wired glove Thermometer
Pyrometer

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 3

Instrumentation and Control

Table 1.1 Types of Sensors _Cont’d

Optical, light, imaging, photon Chemical sensors Position, angle, displacement,
distance, speed, acceleration
Charge-coupled device Breathalyzer
CMOS sensor Carbon dioxide sensor Auxanometer
Colorimeter Carbon monoxide detector Capacitive displacement sensor
Contact image sensor Catalytic bead sensor Capacitive sensing
Electro-optical sensor Chemical field-effect transistor Flex sensor
Flame detector Chemiresistor Free fall sensor
Infra-red sensor Electrochemical gas sensor Gravimeter
Kinetic inductance detector Electronic nose Gyroscopic sensor
LED as light sensor Fluorescent chloride sensors Impact sensor
Nichols radiometer Holographic sensor Inclinometer
Fiber optic sensors Hydrocarbon dew point analyzer Laser rangefinder
Optical position sensor Hydrogen sensor Laser surface velocimeter
Thermopile laser sensors Hydrogen sulfide sensor LIDAR
Photodetector Infrared point sensor Linear encoder
Photodiode Ion-selective electrode Liquid capacitive inclinometers
Photomultiplier tubes Nondispersive infrared sensor Odometer
Phototransistor Microwave chemistry sensor Photoelectric sensor
Photoelectric sensor Nitrogen oxide sensor Piezoelectric accelerometer
Photoionization detector Olfactometer Position sensor
Photomultiplier Optode Position sensitive device
Photoresistor Oxygen sensor Angular rate sensor
Photoswitch Ozone monitor Rotary encoder
Phototube Pellistor Selsyn
Scintillometer pH glass electrode Shock detector
Shack-Hartmann Potentiometric sensor Shock data logger
Single-photon avalanche diode Redox electrode Tilt sensor
Transition edge sensor Smoke detector Tachometer
Visible light photon counter Zinc oxide nanorod sensor Ultrasonic thickness gauge
Wavefront sensor Ultra-wideband radar
Variable reluctance sensor
Velocity receiver

Pressure sensors Force, density, level sensors Electric current, electric

potential, magnetic, radio
Barograph Bhangmeter
Barometer Hydrometer Current sensor
Boost gauge Force gauge and Force Sensor Daly detector
Bourdon gauge Level sensor Electroscope
Hot filament ionization gauge Load cell Electron multiplier
Ionization gauge Magnetic level gauge Faraday cup
McLeod gauge Nuclear density gauge Galvanometer
Oscillating U-tube Piezocapacitive pressure sensor Hall effect sensor
Permanent Downhole Gauge Piezoelectric sensor Hall probe
Piezometer Strain gauge Magnetic anomaly detector
Pirani gauge Torque sensor Magnetometer
Pressure sensor Viscometer Magnetoresistance
Pressure gauge MEMS magnetic field sensor
Tactile sensor Metal detector
Time pressure gauge Planar Hall sensor
Radio direction finder
Voltage detector

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 4

Instrumentation and Control

Table 1.1 Types of Sensors _Cont’d

Environment, weather, Others Automotive Sensors
moisture, humidity sensors
Actigraphy Air flow meter
Actinometer Air pollution sensor Air–fuel ratio meter
Air pollution sensor Analog image processing AFR sensor
Bedwetting alarm Atomic force microscopy Blind spot monitor
Ceilometer Catadioptric sensor Crankshaft position sensor
Dew warning Chemoreceptor Hall effect sensor
Electrochemical gas sensor Compressive sensing Wheel speed sensor
Fish counter Cryogenic particle detectors Airbag sensors
Frequency domain sensor Dew warning Brake fluid pressure sensor
Gas detector Diffusion tensor imaging Camshaft position sensor
Hook gauge evaporimeter Digital holography Crankshaft position sensor
Humistor Electronic tongue Exhaust gas temperature sensor
Hygrometer Fine Guidance Sensor Fuel level sensor
Leaf sensor Flat panel detector Fuel pressure sensor
Lysimeter Glass break detector Knock sensor
Pyranometer Heartbeat sensor [Light sensor]
Pyrgeometer Hyperspectral sensors MAP sensor
Psychrometer Laser beam profiler Mass airflow sensor
Rain gauge LORROS Oil level sensor
Rain sensor Millimeter wave scanner Oil pressure sensor
Seismometers Magnetic resonance imaging Oxygen sensor
SNOTEL Moire deflectometry Parking sensor
Snow gauge Molecular sensor Radar sensor
Soil moisture sensor Nanosensor Speed sensor
Stream gauge Nano-tetherball Sensor Throttle position sensor
Tide gauge Omnidirectional camera Tire pressure sensor
Organoleptic sensors Torque sensor
Speed sensors Optical coherence tomography Turbine speed sensor
Phase unwrapping techniques Variable reluctance sensor
Wheel speed sensors Polygraph Truth Detection Vehicle speed sensor
Speedometers Positron emission tomography Water-in-fuel sensor
Pitometer logs Push broom scanner Wheel speed sensor
Pitot tubes Quantization (signal processing)
Airspeed indicators Range imaging Navigation instruments
Piezo sensors Scanning SQUID microscope
LIDAR SPECT Air speed indicator
Ground speed radar Smartdust Altimeter
Doppler radar Attitude indicator
ANPR Depth gauge
Fluxgate compass
Gyroscope
Inertial navigation system
Inertial reference unit
Magnetic compass
MHD sensor
Ring laser gyroscope
Turn coordinator
Variometer
Vibrating structure gyroscope
Yaw rate sensor

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 5

Instrumentation and Control

2. Signal processor
Element that takes output from sensor and converts it into suitable form for display or onward
transmission in some control system. Eg. amplifier to increase e.m.f. of thermocouple (Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.5 Sample Elements that Employ Sensor Outputs

Signal conditioner: Used to convert the output of a sensor into a suitable form for further
processing. Thus, for resistance thermometer there might be a signal conditioner, a Wheatstone
bridge, which transforms the resistance change into a voltage change, then an amplifier to increase
the voltage for display.

3. Data presentation
Measured value displayed by a pointer moving across the scale of a meter (analogue) or perhaps
on a visual display unit (VDU); usually digital. Constituent elements of a measuring system is
shown in Fig. 1.6. Several data presentation types are given in Table 1.2.

Fig. 1.6 Composition of an Instrumentation System

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 6

Instrumentation and Control

Table 1.2 Display Types

Display
Types Applications Underlying Technologies
Types
Segment • Seven-segment mostly used in • Incandescent filaments
displays display digital watches and • Vacuum fluorescent display
• show only • Fourteen-segment pocket calculators • Cold cathode gas discharge
digits or display • Light-emitting diode (LED)
alphanumeric • Sixteen-segment • Liquid crystal display (LCD)
characters display
• segments are • HD44780 LCD
usually controller a widely
single LEDs accepted protocol
or liquid for LCDs.
crystals.
Full-area 2- • Television set • Cathode ray tube display (CRT)
dimensional • Computer • LED
displays (video monitors • Electroluminescent display (ELD)
displays) • Head-mounted • Electronic paper, E Ink
display • Plasma display panel (PDP)
• Broadcast • Liquid crystal display (LCD)
reference • High-Performance Addressing display
monitor (HPA)
• Medical • Thin-film transistor display (TFT)
monitors • Organic light-emitting diode display
(OLED)
• Digital Light Processing display (DLP)
• Surface-conduction electron-emitter display
(SED) (experimental)
• Field emission display (FED) (experimental)
• Laser TV (forthcoming)
• Carbon nanotubes (experimental)
• Quantum dot display (experimental)
• Interferometric modulator display (IMOD)
• Digital microshutter display (DMS)
Three- • Swept-volume • Broadcasting Stereo displays
dimensional display • Medical Side-by-side images
displays • Varifocal mirror imaging Stereoscope/stereographic card
display • Defense and Transparency viewers
• Emissive volume security Head-mounted displays
display • 3D viewing Head-mounted projection
• Laser display Anaglyph
• Holographic Polarization systems
display Eclipse method
• Integral imaging Interference filter technology
Autostereoscopy
• Compressive light
field displays
Mechanical • Ticker tape Rackmount display
Types • Split-flap display Screens and board displays
• Flip-disc display Cartographic displays
• Rollsign Actuator displays
• Tactile electronic
displays (Optacon)

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1.2.2 Transducers

✓ Often used in relation to measurement systems.

✓ Converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.
✓ Can be defined as a device which converts a non- electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity. Thus, sensors can be transducers.
✓ Contain two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing element and
transduction element. Thus a transducer performs two functions:
• Detects or senses the presence, magnitude & changes in physical quantity being measured
• Provides a proportional electrical output
However, a measurement system may use transducers, in addition to a sensor, in other parts of the
system to convert signals in one form to another form.

1. Transducer Classification
• Active/Passive (Table 1.3)
• Primary/Secondary
• Analog/Digital
• Capacitive Electromagnetic Inductive
• Transducers: non-electrical to electrical / Inverse Transducers (Bidirectional)
• Transducers may be classified according to their: application, method of energy
conversion, nature of the output signal, based on Quantity to be measured and so on.

Fig. 1.7 Basic Types of Transducers

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Table 1.3 Clarification in Transducer Basic Types

Active Transducers Passive Transducers
• Self-generating • Not self-generating
• Draw energy from the system under • Need external source of power for their
measurement. operation.
• Usually give very small output • DC power supply or audio frequency
• Use of amplifiers thus become essential. generator is used as an external power
• Produce equivalent electrical output signal source.
Example: thermocouples, piezoelectric Example: Resistance thermometers,
transducer, photovoltaic cell thermistors, differential transformer,
photoemission cell.

Sensor Actuator
• Transducer that receives and responds to a • Device responsible for moving or
signal or stimulus from a physical system. controlling a mechanism or system.
• Produces a signal, which represents • Operated by a source of energy, which can
information about the system be mechanical force, electrical current,
hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic
pressure
• Converts that energy into motion.

2. Transducer Selection Factors

a. Operating Principle: Resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.

b. Sensitivity: Must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.
c. Operating Range: Should maintain the range requirement and have a good resolution.
d. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
e. Cost & availability: Should be cost effective, easily available, reliable & low maintenance.
f. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described
by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.

1.3 PERFORMANCE TERMS

Accuracy • Indicator of how close the value given by a measurement system can be to the
true value.
• Summation of all the possible errors that are likely to occur, as well as the
accuracy to which the system or element has been calibrated.
• Often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full-scale deflection
(f.s.d).
• Eg. A system might have an accuracy of ±1% of f.s.d. If the full-scale deflection
is, say, 10 A, then the accuracy is ±0.1 A.

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Instrumentation and Control Fig. 1.8

Error • Difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured
• Error = measured value – true value
• Thus if the measured value is 10.1 when the true value is 10.0, the error is +
0.1. If the measured value is 9.9 when the true value is 10.0, the error is – 0.1

Range • Limits between which the input variable can vary.

• Eg. A resistance thermometer sensor might be quoted
as having a range of – 200 to + 800 °C. Range of
variable of an instrument is
sometimes called its span.
• Dead band or dead space is
used if there is a range of input a) b)
values with no output. Fig. 1.8

Precision • Degree of freedom of a measurement system from random errors.

• A high precision instrument gives only a small spread of readings if repeated
readings are taken of the same quantity.
• A low precision system gives a large spread of readings.
• Eg, consider two sets of readings obtained for repeated measurements of the
same quantity by two different instruments:
a) 20.1 mm, 20.2 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.0 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.0 mm
b) 19.9 mm, 20.3 mm, 20.0 mm, 20.5 mm, 20.2 mm, 19.8 mm, 20.3 mm
• First set shows smaller spread than second.
• First set → higher degree of precision; Second set → low precision.

Fig. 1.9

Repeatability • Ability of a measurement system to give the same value for repeated
(precision in measurements of the same value of a variable.
specific • Common cause of lack of repeatability are random fluctuations in the
context) environment, e.g. changes in temperature and humidity.
• Error arising from repeatability is usually expressed as a percentage of the
full range output. Eg, A pressure sensor might be quoted as having a
repeatability of ±0.1% of full range. Thus with a range of 20 kPa this would
be an error of ±20 Pa.

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Reproducibility • Ability of a system to give the same output when it and/or elements of the
(precision in system are disconnected from the input and then reinstalled.
specific context) • Resulting error is usually expressed as a percentage of full range output.

Sensitivity • Indicates how much the output of an instrument system or system element
changes when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount, i.e.
the ratio ouput/input.
• Eg; Thermocouple sensitivity is 20 µV/oC. That is, output of 20 µV for
each 1 oC change in temperature. Taking series of readings of an instrument
for different inputs and plotting a graph of output against input; the
sensitivity is the slope of the graph.
• Eg, A spring balance has its deflection
measured for a number of loads and gave the
following results. Determine its sensitivity.
• Load in kg 0 1 2 3 4 == Deflection in mm
0 10 20 30 40
• Graph of output against input gives a slope of
10 mm/kg and so this is the sensitivity.
Fig. 1.10 Deflection Plot

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Stability • Ability of a system to give the same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time.
• Drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time.
• The drift may be expressed as a percentage of the full range output.
• Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero
input.
Dynamic • Static characteristics: These are the values given when steady-state
characteristics conditions occur, i.e. the values given when the system or element has
settled down after having received some input.
• Dynamic characteristics: The behaviour between the time that the input
value changes and the time that the value given by the system or element
settles down to the steadystate value.
Terms commonly used for dynamic characteristics are:
• Response time: Time which elapses after the input to a system or element
is abruptly increased from zero to a constant value up to the point at which
the system or element gives an output corresponding to some specified
percentage, e.g. 95%, of the value of the input.
• Rise time: Time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage
of the steady-state output. Often the rise time refers to the time taken for
the output to rise from 10 % of the steady-state value to 90 or 95 % of the
steady-state value.
• Settling time: Time taken for the output to settle to within some percentage,
e.g. 2 %, of the steady-state value.

1.4 RELIABILITY

The reliability of a measurement system, or element in such a system, is defined as being the
probability that it will operate to an agreed level of performance, for a specified period, subject to
specified environmental conditions. The agreed level of performance might be that the
measurement system gives a particular accuracy.

It is likely to change with time as a result of perhaps springs slowly stretching with time, resistance
values changing as a result of moisture absorption, wear on contacts and general damage due to
environmental conditions.

Eg, just after calibration, reliability should be 1. However, after perhaps six months reliability
might have dropped to 0.7. System cannot then be relied on to always give the required accuracy
of measurement. i.e. Only giving the required accuracy seven times in ten measurements, seventy
times in a hundred measurements. A high reliability system will have a low failure rate. Failure
rate is the number of times during some period that the system fails to meet the required level of
performance, i.e.:

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𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝜇 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

A failure rate of 0.4 per year means that in one year, if ten systems are observed, 4 will fail to meet
the required level of performance. Failure rate is affected by environmental conditions. Eg, failure
rate for temperature measurement system used in hot, dusty, humid, corrosive conditions might be
1.2 per year, while for the same system used in dry, cool, non-corrosive environment it might be
0.3 per year.

𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜇𝑡
Complement of reliability, called failure probability (or unreliability), P, is given by:

𝑃(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑅(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜇𝑡

The failure density function is defined as the derivative of the failure probability:
𝑑𝑃(𝑡)
f(𝑡) = = 𝜇𝑒 −𝜇𝑡
𝑑𝑡

The time interval between two failures of the component is called the mean time between failures
(MTBF) and is given by the first moment of the failure density function:
∞
1
𝐸(𝑡) = 𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 = ∫ 𝑡𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝜇
1.5 STANDARDS

Standards don't just make life easier they make it safer…and they enhance companies' profitability.
For instance, builders save money because construction materials are available in standard sizes.
At the same time, electrical codes that builders must follow save lives.

1.5.1 Key Features, Advantages and Benefits of Standards

Standards help realize a direct return on investment by:

i. lowering installation and startup costs;
ii. reducing need to maintain large inventories;
iii. enabling interchangeability of components;
iv. improving design with less "custom" effort; and
v. increasing safety.

Use of standards in industry include the following:

i. improves communication;
ii. provides practical application of expert knowledge; and

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iii. represents years of experience and avoids necessity of starting each project from ground.

Standards helps to achieve operational excellence by:

i. improving performance;
ii. lowering maintenance costs;
iii. reducing downtime;
iv. enhancing operability; and
v. saving money.

1.5.2 Standard Units (SI Units)

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI, from the French Système International d’unités)
is the metric system used in science, industry, and medicine. Also available is “imperial” system
(gallons, feet, miles, and pounds). Prefixes redefine the measurement as either a multiple or a
fraction of the basic unit. Some accepted prefixes are given below.

Table 1.4 Basic SI Units

Unit Name Unit Symbol Quantity Name Quantity Symbol Dimension Symbol
meter m length l, x, r L
kilogram kg mass m M
second s time t T
ampere A electric current I I
kelvin K thermodynamic temperature T Θ
candela cd luminous intensity Iv J
mole mol amount of substance n N

Prefixes for SI units: Prefixes redefine the measurement as either a multiple or a fraction of the
basic unit. 20 accepted prefixes are given as:

1.5.3 Other Standards

Ghana Standards Authority (GSA)

The Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) is the National Statutory body responsible for the National
Quality Infrastructure embracing Standardization, Metrology, and Conformity Assessment. The
GSA offers a wide variety of services and activities categorized as follows (GSA, 2019):

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− Sale of Standards (National and International)

− Standards Development and Adoption
− Calibration, verification and inspection of weighing and measuring devices.
− Inspection of Products
− Product Certification
− System Certification
− Laboratory Testing

In Ghana, a number of Legislative Instruments and Constitutional Instruments present standards

on various issues regarding the constitution, elections (Electoral Commission of Ghana), public
laws (Millennium Development Authority – Act 702, West African Examinations Council – Act
2006, Whistleblower – Act 2006, Act 720), criminal law (Domestic Violence Act 2007, Act 732),
civil laws (Lands Commission – Act 1994), commercial laws (Ghana Free Zones Board – Act
1995 - ACT 504, Ghana Standards Board), company laws, labour laws (Fair Wages and Salaries
Commission – Act 2007, Act 737 and Labour – Act 2003), health law (National Health Insurance
Authority – Act 650 and Food and Drugs Authority – Act 1992), mining laws (Minerals
Commission – Act 1993), tax laws (Internal Revenue Authority – Act 2000), banking laws
(Internal Audit Agency – Act 2003), communications and media laws (National Communications
Authority – Act 2008, Act 769), transport and maritime laws (Driver and Vehicle Licensing
Authority, Ghana Civil Aviation Authority, Ghana Maritime Authority, Ghana Port and Harbour
Authority), environmental laws (Environmental Protection Agency – Act 1994 - Act 490),
intellectual property (Copyright – Act 2005, Act 690) and energy laws (Energy Commission Act,
1997 - Act 541, Ghana National Petroleum Corporation – Act 1983).

1.5.4 Other Standards

Standards of societies and professional bodies that ensure consistency in products, materials,
measurements and representations. Examples are given as follows:

GSA: Ghana Standards Authority GhIE: Ghana Institute of Engineers

ISA: Instrument Society of America ISO: International Standards Organization
IEC: International Electrochemical Commission EIA: Electrical Industries Association
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
SAMA: Scientific Apparatus Makers Association
SBA: National Bureau of Standards
BIPM: International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures).

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CHAPTER 2

ERRORS AND CALIBRATION

2. 1 MEASUREMENT ERRORS

Instrumentation • inherent feature of an instrument and can arise in the manufacture of the
errors instrument.
• causes include: i) tolerances on the dimensions of mechanical components
ii) values of electrical components used in the construction of the
instrument. iii) accuracy with which the instrument has been calibrated
iv) readings being taken under different conditions to which the
instrument was calibrated,

Reading errors • arise due to the limited accuracy with which scales can be read. When the
pointer of an analogue instrument falls between
• two scale markings ( uncertainty in reading), reading error might be
quoted as ± 0.5 mm. Eg, 65 ± 0.5 mm.
• For digital displays, no uncertainty in value displayed, but values between
digits are not displayed since reading move in jumps of digits.

Human errors • Include misreading of the position of a pointer on a scale or, where there
are multiple scales,
• For ou-of-phase pointer and scale, reading obtained depends on angle at
which the pointer is viewed against the scale; termed parallax errors.
• Some instruments incorporate a mirror alongside the scale so that the scale
is read when the pointer and its image are superimposed, thus ensuring
that the pointer is being viewed at right angles to the scale.

Insertion errors • In some measurements, insertion of instrument into the position to

measure a quantity can affect the value obtained.

Hysteresis error • Difference in outputs given from the same value

of quantity being measured according to whether
that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing
change.
• Thus, thermometer can measure same level of
temperature of a liquid if it is reached by the
warming up or by cooling down.
Fig. 2.1 Hysteresis Error

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Non- • Error that occurs as a result of assuming a linear

linearity relationship between the input and output over the
error working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted
against input is assumed to give a straight line.
• Few systems or elements, however, have a truly
linear relationship and thus errors occur as a result
of the assumption of linearity. Linearity error
expressed as a percentage error of full range or full
Fig. 2.2 Non-Linearity Error
scale output.
2. 2 RANDOM ERRORS

All errors, whatever their source, can be described as random or systematic.

Random errors can vary in a random manner between successive readings of the same quantity.
These may be due to personal errors by the person making the measurements or perhaps due to
random electronic fluctuations (termed noise) in the instruments or circuits used, or perhaps
varying frictional effects.

Systematic errors are errors which do not vary from one reading to another. These may be due to
some defect in the instrument such as a wrongly set zero so that it always gives a high or low
reading, or perhaps incorrect calibration, or perhaps an instrument is temperature dependent and
the measurement is made under conditions which differ from those for which it was calibrated, or
there is an insertion error.

Random errors can be minimised by taking several readings and obtaining a mean value;
systematic errors require different instrument or measurement technique to establish them.

2.2.1 Other Errors (Relative/Absolute Error)

Let the true value of a quantity be and the measured or inferred value . Then the relative error
is defined by:

where is the absolute error. The relative error of the quotient or product of several quantities is
less than or equal to the sum of their relative errors. The percentage error is 100% times the relative
error. The relative error is often used to compare approximations of numbers of widely differing
size. Relative error is undefined when the true value is zero.

2.2.2 Mean Values

Random errors give a reading that is sometimes too high, sometimes too low. Hence, the true value
of a measurement might be regarded as the value given by the mean of a very large number of
readings of the variable concerned. The mean or average of a set of readings is given by:
(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥̂ =
𝑛

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where x1 is the first reading, x2 the second reading, ... xn the nth reading. The more readings we
take, the more likely it will be that we can cancel out the random variations that occur between
readings.

2.2.3 Standard Deviation

Consider the following sets of time readings:

20.1, 20.0, 20.2, 20.1, 20.1 and 19.5, 20.5, 19.7, 20.6, 20.2 s

Both sets of readings have the same average of 20.1 s, but the second set of readings is more spread
out than the first and thus shows more random fluctuations.
The spread of a set of readings is taken as a measure of the certainty we can attach to any one
reading being close to the mean value, the bigger the spread the greater the uncertainty. The spread
of the readings is specified by a quantity termed the standard deviation; which is given by:

(𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + 𝑑𝑛2 )

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = √
𝑛−1

where d1 is the deviation of the first result from its average, and dn the deviation of the nth reading
from the average.

Fig. 2.3 Sample Readings for Standard Deviation

2.2.4 Standard Error

The standard error of the mean is a measure of the dispersion of sample means around the
population mean. The standard error (expressed in the same units as the data) is given by:

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑆𝐸 =
√𝑛
The smaller the standard error, the more representative the sample will be of the overall population.
The standard error is also inversely proportional to the sample size; the larger the sample size, the
smaller the standard error because the statistic will approach the true value of the population mean.

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2. 3 COMBINATIONS OF ERRORS

• Finding value of some quantity might require several measurements taken in an equation.
• Eg, Determination of density ρ of a solid: mass m of the body; volume V; and density m/V.
• Mass and volume each have errors associated with them.
• How then do we determine the consequential error in the density?

2.3.1 Errors when adding quantities

When we add two measured quantities the worst possible error in the calculated quantity is the
sum of the errors in the measured quantities.
If measured quantity A has error ± ∆A and quantity B an error ± ∆B; then worst possible error in
Z (i.e. if the quantities are at the extremes of their error bands and the two errors ∆Z are both
positive or both negative) is:

Subtracting one equation from the other gives worst possible error as:

2.3.2 Errors when subtracting quantities

When we subtract two measured quantities the worst possible error in the calculated quantity is
the sum of the errors in the measured quantities.
With calculated quantity Z being difference between two measured quantities, i.e. 𝑍 = 𝐴– 𝐵, then,
worst possible error is given by;
𝑍 + ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 + ∆A) − (B + ∆B)
𝑍 − ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 − ∆A) − (B − ∆B)
and so, subtracting the two equations gives the worst possible error as:

2.3.3 Errors when multiplying quantities

The percentage error in the product of two measurements is equal to the sum of the percentage
errors in each of the measured quantities.
If we have the calculated quantity Z as the product of two measured quantities A and B, i.e. Z =
AB, then worst error in Z is:
Errors in A and B are small in comparison with the values of A and B so we can neglect the
quantity ∆A∆B as being insignificant. Then:

Dividing through by Z gives:

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2.3.4 Errors when dividing quantities

The percentage error in the result of the division of two measurements is equal to the sum of the
percentage errors in each of the measured quantities.
If the calculated quantity is obtained by dividing one measured quantity by another, i.e. Z = A/B,
then the worst possible error is given by:

Using binomial series, the above is written as;

Neglecting products of ∆A and ∆B and writing A/B as Z, gives:

Hence;

2.3.5 Summary and Examples

When measurements are added or subtracted, resulting worst error is the sum of the errors.
When measurements are multiplied or divided, resulting worst percentage error is the sum of the
percentage errors.

Example 1
Distance between two points determined from the difference between two length measurements.
If these are 120 ± 0.5 mm and 230 ± 0.5 mm, what will be the error in the distance?
Adding the errors gives the difference as 110 ± 1.0 mm.
Example 2
Resistance R of a resistor is determined from measurements of potential difference V across it and
current I through it, and resistance given by V/I. The pd, V is 2.1 ± 0.2 V and I is 0.25 ± 0.01 A.
What will be the error in the resistance?
Percentage error in voltage is (0.2/2.1) x 100% = 9.5% and in current is (0.01/0.25) x 100% =
4.0%. Thus, percentage error in resistance is 9.5 + 4.0 = 13.5%. Since we have V/I = 8.4 Ω and
13.5% of 8.4 is 1.1, then the resistance is 8.4 ± 1.1 Ω.

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CHAPTER 3

SIGNALS AND SIGNAL CONDITIONERS

3. 1 Process Flow Signals

Fig. 3.1 Process Flow Line Signals and Symbols

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a)

b)
Fig. 3.2 Process Flow Indicator and Control Symbols

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3.2 Understanding P&IDs Drawings

A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) is defined as ‘A diagram which shows the
interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process’. In the
process industry, a standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawings of processes. The
instrument symbols used in these drawings are generally based on International Society of
Automation (ISA) Standard S5.1.

Fig. 3.3 Typical P&ID

Fig. 3.3 consists of the following:
(a) Sensors/Measuring or Sensing elements:
TE 03 is a field mounted thermocouple that senses the change in the outlet temperature of the
process liquid and converts the change in temperature to a millivolt signal. The milivolt
signal(electric) then goes to TT 03, a temperature transmitter, which then converts the millivolt
signal to a standard 4-20mA signal for transmission toTIC 03.
LT 01 is a level transmitter which senses and measures changes in the level of the process liquid
in the vessel(exchanger). The level measurement is converted into a standard 4-20mA signal
for transmission to LIC 01. PT 02 is a pressure transmitter that measures the process pressure
in the vessel. This measurement is then converted into a 4-20mA signal for transmission to PIC
02.

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(b) Controllers/Controlling Elements:

Also, in the above P&ID are devices we call controllers. They receive the standard signals from
the transmitters/sensing elements (TT 01, PT 02 and (LT 01).
TIC 03 is a control room mounted, Temperature Indicator and Controller. It receives the 4-20mA
signal from TT 03 and compares it to a preset temperature set point and then initiates a control
action by sending a corresponding electric signal to TCV 03 via TY 03.
LIC 01 is a control room mounted Level Indicator and Controller. It receives a 4-20mA from LT
01 and compares it to a preset level set point within the controller. Based on this comparison,
LIC 01 initiates a control action and sends a corresponding signal to the final control element
LCV 01 via LY.
Lastly, PIC 02 is a control room mounted, Pressure Indicator and Controller. It gets a 4-20mA
signal from PT 02, compares it to a preset pressure set point and initiates a control action by
sending a corresponding signal to final control element PCV 02 via PY.

(c) Final Control Elements:

TCV 03, is a field mounted Temperature Control Valve which receives its control signal from TIC
03 (located in the control room) to either open or close to drain condensate in order to control
the temperature of the process liquid.
On TCV 03 is TY 03. TY 03 is an I/P converter which converts the electric signal it receives from
TIC 03 to a pneumatic signal.
Similarly, LCV 01 (a level control valve) and PCV 02 (pressure control valve) get signals from
LIC 01 and PIC 02 to either open or close, thereby controlling level and pressure respectively.
TY 03, LY 01 and PY 02 are called transducers. They convert electrical signals to pneumatic
signals.

Important things to note in the P&ID of Fig. 3.3:

There are three control loops in the P&ID namely temperature control (TE 03-TT 03- TIC 03 –
TCV 03), level control (LT 01-LIC 01-LCV 01) and pressure control (PT 02-PIC 02-PCV 02).
NB: The complexity of the P&ID is not important rather what is important is the individual control
loops that make up the P&ID. Understand the P&ID, you understand the process!

3.3 Signal Conditioning Processes and Transducers

Signal conditioning processes include the following:
• Filtering • Linearization
• Amplifying • Cold Junction Compensation
• Electrical Isolation • Attenuation
• Excitation

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3. 4 Filtering

3.4.1 Linear Continuous-Time Filters

• Chebyshev filter, has the best approximation to the ideal response of any filter for a
specified order and ripple.
• Butterworth filter, has a maximally flat frequency response.
• Bessel filter, has a maximally flat phase delay.
• Elliptic filter, has the steepest cutoff of any filter for a specified order and ripple.

Fig. 3.4 Graphical Representation of Common Linear Continuous-Time Filters

3.4.2 Frequency Response Filters

Frequency response can be classified into several different band forms describing which frequency
bands the filter passes (the passband) and which it rejects (the stopband):

Fig. 3.5 Sample Frequency Response Filters

• Low-pass filter – low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.
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Instrumentation and Control

• High-pass filter – high frequencies are passed, low frequencies are attenuated.
• Band-pass filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.
• Band-stop filter or band-reject filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are attenuated.
• Notch filter – rejects just one specific frequency - an extreme band-stop filter.
• Comb filter – has multiple regularly spaced narrow passbands giving the band form the
appearance of a comb.
• All-pass filter – all frequencies are passed, but the phase of the output is modified.
• Cutoff frequency is the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass signals. It is usually
measured at a specific attenuation such as 3 dB.
• Roll-off is the rate at which attenuation increases beyond the cut-off frequency.
• Transition band, the (usually narrow) band of frequencies between a passband and
stopband.
• Ripple is the variation of the filter's insertion loss in the passband.
• The order of a filter is the degree of the approximating polynomial and in passive filters
corresponds to the number of elements required to build it. Increasing order increases roll-
off and brings the filter closer to the ideal response.

3. 5 Amplifiers

Fig. 3.6 Amplifier Image and Circuit

• Electronic devices that can increase power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current).
• Amplification level measured by gain: i.e. ratio of output to input. Power gain > one.
• Can either be a separate equipment or an electrical circuit contained within another device.

3.5.1 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)

Fig. 3.7 Operational Amplifier Basics

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where Av is open loop gain

Virtual short:

Fig. 3.8 Circuit Diagrams of Sample Op Amp

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3.5.2 Op Amps Examples

1. Assuming an ideal op-amp, determine voltage gain of the
circuit.
20𝑘
Soln: 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 1𝑘 = 21

4𝑘+2𝑘 6000
Soln: 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + = 1+ = 31
200 200

2. For the difference amplifier circuit

shown, determine the output voltage at
terminal A.
3𝛺
𝑉𝑖𝑛+ = 25𝑉 ( ) = 9.375 𝑉
5𝛺 + 3𝛺
By virtual short, 𝑉𝑖𝑛− = 9.375 𝑉
Using Ohm’s law,
30𝑉−9.375 𝑉
𝐼15 = = 1.375 𝑉; For infinite
15𝛺
input impedance, 𝐼𝑖𝑛− = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼15 = 𝐼20
Using Kirchoff’s voltage law, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛− − 20𝐼20 = 9.375 𝑉 − 20𝛺 × 1.375 𝐴 = −18.125 𝑉

3. What is the current, i?

Soln:
The input current in an op amp is so small that
it is assumed to be zero.

4. What is the output voltage, Vo?

Soln: This op amp circuit is a summing amplifier. Since i=0,

5.For the ideal op-amp shown, what should be the value of

Rf to obtain a gain of 5?

Since the op amp draws no current, if=i,

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3. 6 Electrical Isolation

• Galvanic isolation: Principle of isolating functional sections of electrical systems to

prevent current flow; with no direct conduction path permitted.
• Used where two or more electric circuits must communicate, but their grounds may be at
different potentials.
• An effective method of breaking ground loops by preventing unwanted current from
flowing between two units sharing a ground conductor.

3.6.1 Transformer
Transformers couple by magnetic flux.
Autotransformer does not provide isolation.
Voltage difference applied between windings without
risk of breakdown (the isolation voltage) is specified in
kilovolts by an industry standard.
𝐸𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠 Fig. 3.9 Transformer Circuit Symbol
= = =
𝐸𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝
Example:
If the primary voltage of a transformer is 110 volts (V), the
primary winding has 100 turns, and the secondary winding
has 400 turns, what will the secondary voltage be?

Isolation Transformer
• Transfer power between two circuits which must not
be connected; Fig. 3.10 Transformer Schematic
• Protect against electric shock;
• Suppress electrical noise in sensitive devices by blocking transmission of DC component
in signals.
• Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used in power supplies of sensitive
equipment such as computers, medical devices, or laboratory instruments.

3.6.2 Opto-Isolator
• Opto-isolator, optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical isolator
transmits info by light waves.
• The sender (light source) and receiver (photosensitive
device) are not electrically connected; and typically held in
place within a matrix of transparent, insulating plastic.
Source-Sensor Combinations
1. Near infrared LED – Photodiode Fig. 3.11 LED; Dielectric barrier; Phototransistor

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Instrumentation and Control

2. LED – LASCR
3. Lamp – Photoresistor Closed optical
(dielectric)
channel
LED converts electrical input into light
Photosensor detects light and generate electric energy

3.6.3 Capacitor
• Capacitors allow AC to flow, but block DC;
• They couple ac signals between circuits at different
direct voltages. Fig. 3.12 Typical Opto-Coupler Operation
• Depending on conditions, a capacitor may fail and become "short circuited", ending its
electric isolation function, which creates risk to the "now connected circuit" and, possibly,
human danger.

Fig. 3.13 Capacitor Types and Classification

• Class-X and Class-Y capacitors help to minimize the generation of EMI/RFI and the negative
effects associated with received EMI/RFI. (EMI --- electromagnetic interference and RFI --- radio-
frequency interference; RFI is simply higher-frequency EMI).
• To perform their EMI/RFI filtering tasks, capacitors are directly connected to the AC power input,
i.e., the AC “line” and the AC “neutral”.
• Capacitors may be subjected to over-voltages and/or voltage transients — lightning strikes, power
surges. Thus, capacitor failure is a very real possibility. Hence, they must be rated and certified as
"safety capacitors." https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/safety-capacitor-class-x-and-class-y-capacitors/

Fig. 3.14 Class X and Y Capacitor Types

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International standards, according to Kemet: Table 3.1 Standards and Logo

• UL 1414: American standard for
across-the-line applications.
• UL 1283: American standard for
electromagnetic interference filters.
• CAN/CSA C22.2 No.1: across-the-
line applications
• CAN/CSA 384-14: across-the-line
applications

When a Class-X capacitor, ("across the line

capacitor") fails due to overvoltage event, it is
likely to fail short. Failure would cause an
overcurrent protective device, like a fuse or
circuit breaker, to open. Therefore, no electrical shock hazards caused.

If a Class-Y capacitor, ("line to ground capacitor" or "the line bypass capacitor") fails short, fatal
electric shock could result due to loss of ground connection. Class-Y safety capacitors are designed
to fail open. A failure will cause electronic device to be subjected to noise and interference that
the capacitor would normally filter out, but at least there will be no fatal electric shock hazard.

3.6.4 Hall Effect Sensors

• A transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field.
• Used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications.
• Discovered in 1879 by American physicist Edwin H. Hall (1855–1938)
https://www.explainthatstuff.com/hall-effect-sensors.html
Hall Effect
• Fluctuating AC through a coil of copper wire produces temporary
magnetic field.
• Placed in magnetic field, coil either attracts or repels magnetic field of
permanent magnet.
• If coil is free, it moves either toward or away from the permanent magnet.
• When movement stops, and current doesn’t change, the Hall voltage
becomes a measure of the magnetic flux density.
• In electric motor, coil is set up to spin around on the spot and turn a wheel;
• In loudspeakers and headphones, coil is glued to paper, plastic, or fabric that moves back
and forth to pump out sound.

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Fig. 3.15 Demonstration of Hall Effect

Basically, there are two kinds of Hall effect sensors.

• Linear: Output of voltage linearly depends on magnetic flux density;
• Threshold: Sharp decrease of output voltage at each magnetic flux density.

Lorentz force: Force which is exerted by a magnetic field on a moving electric charge
The bigger the magnetic field, the more the electrons are deflected;
The bigger the current, the more electrons there are to deflect. Either way, the bigger the potential
difference (known as the Hall voltage) will be.

Fig. 3.16 Lorentz Force Demonstration

FB = force on electron due to magnetic field. VH Hall voltage (V)

FE = force on electrons due to repulsion I Current across the conductor length (A)
by other electrons.
B Magnetic field (T)
B = magnetic field strength (T)
v = drift velocity of electrons (ms-1) n Charge carrier density of the carrier electrons (1/m3)
d = width of the conductor (m) t Thickness of the conductor (m)
e atomic unit of charge =1.602176565x10-19 coulomb
𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑡𝑒

One very important use of the Hall effect is to determine whether positive or negative charges
carries the current. The Hall effect has other uses that range from the determination of blood flow
rate to precision measurement of magnetic field strength. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/austincc-
physics2/chapter/22-6-the-hall-effect/

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a) The Hall effect. (a) Electrons move to the left

in this flat conductor (conventional current to the
right). The magnetic field is directly out of the c) The Hall effect can be used to
page, represented by circled dots; it exerts a force measure fluid flow in any fluid
on the moving charges, causing a voltage ε, the b) The Hall emf ε produces an electric force having free charges, such as
Hall emf, across the conductor. (b) Positive that balances the magnetic force on the blood. The Hall emf ε is measured
charges moving to the right (conventional current moving charges. The magnetic force across the tube perpendicular to
also to the right) are moved to the side, producing produces charge separation, which builds up the applied magnetic field and is
a Hall emf of the opposite sign, –ε. Thus, if the until it is balanced by the electric force, an proportional to the average
direction of the field and current are known, the equilibrium that is quickly reached. velocity v.
sign of the charge carriers can be determined from
the Hall effect.

Fig. 3.17 Pictorial Analysis of the Hall Effect Voltage

Although the magnetic force moves negative charges to one side, they cannot build up without
limit. The electric field caused by their separation opposes the magnetic force, F = qvB, and the
electric force, Fe = qE, eventually grows to equal it. That is,
qE = qvB E = vB
ote that the electric field E is uniform across the conductor because the magnetic field B is
uniform, as is the conductor. For a uniform electric field, the relationship between electric field
and voltage is E = ε/l, where l is the width of the conductor and ε is the Hall emf. Hence,

ε/l = vB
Solving this for the Hall emf yields ε = Blv (B, v, and l, mutually perpendicular),

where ε is the Hall effect voltage across a conductor of width l through which charges move at a
speed v.

Example: A Hall effect flow probe is placed on an artery, applying a 0.100-T magnetic field across
it. What is the Hall emf, given the vessel’s inside diameter is 4.00 mm and the average blood
velocity is 20.0 cm/s?
Strategy
Because B, v, and l are mutually perpendicular, the equation ε = Blv can be used to find ε.
Solution
Entering the given values for B, v, and l gives
𝜀 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 = (0.100 𝑇)(4.00 × 10−3 𝑚)(0.200 𝑚/𝑠) = 80.0 𝜇𝑉
Discussion
This is the average voltage output. Instantaneous voltage varies with pulsating blood flow. The
voltage is small in this type of measurement. ε is particularly difficult to measure, because there

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Instrumentation and Control

are voltages associated with heart action (ECG voltages) that are on the order of millivolts. In
practice, this difficulty is overcome by applying an AC magnetic field, so that the Hall emf is AC
with the same frequency. An amplifier can be very selective in picking out only the appropriate
frequency, eliminating signals and noise at other frequencies.

Sample Questions
1. A large water main is 2.50 m in diameter and the average water velocity is 6.00 m/s. Find the
Hall voltage produced if the pipe runs perpendicular to the Earth’s 5.00 × 10−5-T field. [7.50 × 10−4 V]
2. What Hall voltage is produced by a 0.200-T field applied across a 2.60-cm-diameter aorta when
blood velocity is 60.0 cm/s?
3. (a) What is the speed of a supersonic aircraft with a 17.0-m wingspan, if it experiences a 1.60-
V Hall voltage between its wing tips when in level flight over the north magnetic pole, where the
Earth’s field strength is 8.00 × 10−5 T? (b) Explain why very little current flows as a result of this
Hall voltage. [(a) 1.18 × 103 m/s (b) Once established, the Hall emf pushes charges one direction and the magnetic force acts in the
opposite direction resulting in no net force on the charges. Therefore, no current flows in the direction of the Hall emf. This is the same as
in a current-carrying conductor—current does not flow in the direction of the Hall emf.]
4. A nonmechanical water meter could utilize the Hall effect by applying a magnetic field across
a metal pipe and measuring the Hall voltage produced. What is the average fluid velocity in a 3.00-
cm-diameter pipe, if a 0.500-T field across it creates a 60.0-mV Hall voltage?
5. Calculate the Hall voltage induced on a patient’s heart while being scanned by an MRI unit.
Approximate the conducting path on the heart wall by a wire 7.50 cm long that moves at 10.0 cm/s
perpendicular to a 1.50-T magnetic field. [11.3 mV]
6. A Hall probe calibrated to read 1.00 μV when placed in a 2.00-T field is placed in a 0.150-T
field. What is its output voltage?
7. A patient with a pacemaker is mistakenly being scanned for an MRI image. A 10.0-cm-long
section of pacemaker wire moves at a speed of 10.0 cm/s perpendicular to the MRI unit’s magnetic
field and a 20.0-mV Hall voltage is induced. What is the magnetic field strength? [2.00 T]

3. 7 Signal Processing

Signal processing may be applied to signals that may be;

• too small and must be amplified,
• analogue and must be made digital,
• digital and must be made analogue,
• a resistance and must be made into a current change,
• a voltage and must be made into a suitable size current change,
• a pressure change, and must be made into a current change, etc.

3.7.1 Resistance to Voltage Converter

1. Potential divider circuit

When the resistance of the thermistor changes, the
fraction of the 6 V across the 10 kΩ resistor changes.
Fig. 3.18 Voltage Divider Circuit

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2. Wheatstone Bridge
For Vo = zero, pd between B and D = 0. Hence, potential at B
must equal to that at D. The potential difference across R1 i.e.
VAB, must then equal that across R3, i.e. VAD. Thus:

➔ Bridge is balanced

Fig. 3.19 Wheatstone Bridge Consider resistance R1 to be a sensor which has a resistance
change, e.g. a strain gauge which has a resistance change when strained. A change in resistance
from R1 to R1 + δR1 gives a change in output from Vo to Vo + δVo, where;

Hence
If δR1 is much smaller than R1 then the denominator R1 + δR1 + R2 approximates to R1 + R2 and
so the above equation approximates to:

Example: A platinum resistance coil is to be used as a temperature sensor and has a resistance at
0°C of 100 fi. It forms one arm of a Wheatstone bridge with the bridge being balanced at this
temperature and each of the other arms also being 100 Ω, If the temperature coefficient of
resistance of platinum is 0.0039 K-1, what will be the output voltage from the bridge per degree
change in temperature if the supply voltage is 6.0 V?
Soln: The variation of the resistance of the platinum with temperature can be represented by:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝑎𝑡)
where Rt, is the resistance at t °C, Ro the resistance at 0 °C and 𝑎 the temperature coefficient of
resistance. Hence:
change in resistance 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 = 𝑅0 𝑎𝑡. Thus, for a one degree change in temperature:
change in resistance = 100 × 0.0039 × 1 = 0.39 𝛺
Since this resistance change is small compared to the 100 Ω, the approximate equation for the
output voltage can be used. Hence, the change in output per degree change in temperature is:

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3. Maxwell’s Bridge
Measures value of given inductance by comparison with a variable standard self-inductance.

Let; L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1,

L2 = variable inductance of fixed resistance r2,
R2 = variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2,
R3, R4 = known non-inductive resistances.
At balance,

Resistance R3 and R4 are normally a selection of values from 10,

100, 1000 and 10,000.
Example: Arm ab consists of a coil with inductance L1 and resistance r1
Fig. 3.20 Maxwell’s Bridge in series with a non-inductive resistance R. Arm bc and ad are each a non-
inductive resistance of 100Ω. Arm ad consists of standard variable inductor L of resistance 32.7Ω. Balance is obtained
when L2 = 47.8mH and R = 1.36Ω. Find the resistance and inductance of the coil in arm ab.
Soln: At balance, [(𝑅1 + 𝑟1) + 𝑗𝑤𝐿1] ∗ 100 = (𝑟2 + 𝑗𝑤𝐿2) ∗ 100 Equating the real and
imaginary terms; R1+r1 = r2 and L2=L1. Therefore, resistance of coil: r1 = r2 – R1 = 32.7 –
1.36 = 31.34Ω. Inductance of coil: L1 = L2 = 47.8mH.

4. Schering Bridge
Measurement of capacitance

Let; C1= capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,

r1 = a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor
C2 = a standard capacitor; R3 = a non – inductive
resistance; C4 = a variable capacitor
R4 = a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with
variable capacitor C4

At balance; Fig. 3.21 Schering Bridge

Equating real and imaginary parts;

Two independent balance equations are obtained

if C4 and R4 are chosen as the variable elements.
The dissipation factor is given by:

Advantages of Schering Bridge:

• The balance equation is independent of frequency.
• Used for measuring the insulating properties of electrical cables and equipments.

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5. Anderson Bridge

Advantages of Anderson’s Bridge:

• Very easy to obtain the balance point as compared to
Maxwell’s bridge.
• Fixed standard capacitor is used therefore there is no
need of costly variable capacitor.
• Very accurate for measurement of capacitance in
terms of inductance.

Disadvantages of Anderson’s Bridge:

• More complex as compared with Maxwell’s
inductance bridge.
• An additional junction point increases the difficulty
of shielding the bridge.
Fig. 3.22 Anderson Bridge

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6. Hay Bridge for Measurement of Inductance

L1=unknown resistance having a resistance R1,

R2, R3, R4=known non-inductive resistance,
C4=standard capacitor.
At balance,

Separating real and imaginary terms, we obtain:

Fig. 3.23 Hay Bridge

Solving the above two equations we have,

and Q factor of coil is:

Advantages of the Hay’s bridge:

• Gives simple expression for unknown inductance for high Q coils,
• Suitable for coils having Q > 10.
• Gives simple expression for Q factor.
• For high Q factor the value of resistance R4 should be small.
Disadvantages of Hay’s bridge:
• Suited for measurement of high Q inductors, Q > 10.

3.7.2 Protection
An important element that is often present with signal processing is protection against high
currents or high voltages. For example, sensors when connected to a microprocessor can damage
it if high currents or high voltages are transmitted to the
microprocessor.
• Series resistor used to limit the current to an acceptable level
• A fuse to break if the current does exceed a safe level.
• Zener diode circuit used to protect against high voltages and
wrong polarity voltages.
Fig. 3.24 Zener Diode Circuit
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Instrumentation and Control

✓ Zener diodes voltage ratings indicate at which voltage they become conducting.
✓ Eg; to allow a maximum voltage of 5 V but stop voltages above 5.1 V, Zener diode
with voltage rating of 5.1 V might be chosen. For voltages below 5.1 V the Zener
diode, in reverse voltage connection, has a high resistance so virtually all the
applied voltage is across the Zener diode. When the voltage rises to 5.1 V, Zener
diode breaks down and its resistance drops to a very low value and most of the
voltage then dropped across the resistor.
• Completely isolate circuit using opto-isolator.

3. 8 Strain Gauge

A strain gauge (also spelled strain gage) is a device used to measure strain on an object. A Strain
gauge (sometimes referred to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied
force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which
can then be measured. Invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938.

Stress is force per unit area. When a material is stretched in one

Strain is the deformation of a direction it tends to get thinner in
solid due to stress. the other two directions

Fig. 3.25 Strain Gage Tensions

• Strain gauges are attached to the substrate with a special glue.

• Type of glue depends on the required lifetime of the measurement system.
• Short term measurements (up to some weeks) – cyanoacrylate glue is appropriate,
• Long lasting installation – epoxy glue used; requiring high temperature curing (at about
80-100 °C).
• Surface preparation to fix strain gauge – of utmost importance. Surface must be smoothed
(e.g. with very fine sand paper), de-oiled with solvents, with solvent traces removed and
strain gauge glued immediately to avoid oxidation or pollution of the prepared area. [For
reliable and predictable measurement errors].
• Gauges attached to a load cell – normally expected to remain stable over years or decades;
while those to measure response in dynamic experiment – attached for few days, energized
for less than an hour, and operated for less than a second.
• Load cell: is a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is
directly proportional to the force being measured. The various load cell types include
hydraulic, pneumatic, and strain gauge.

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Gauge factor (GF) or strain factor of a strain gauge

is the ratio of relative change in electrical
resistance R, to the mechanical strain ε. The gauge
factor is defined as:
OR
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐺𝑓 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∗𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
where

𝛥𝐿
𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿0
ΔL = absolute change in length
L0 = original length
ν = Poisson's ratio [the negative of the ratio of
transverse strain to axial strain. For small values of
these changes, is the amount of transversal
expansion divided by the amount of axial
compression.
𝑅𝐴
𝜌 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐿
ΔR = change in strain gauge resistance
R = unstrained resistance of strain gauge

Fig. 3.26 Strain Gauge Patterns

3.8.1 Types of Strain Gauges

1. Semiconductor strain gauges: (so called piezo resistors), usually has larger gauge factor
than foil gauge. Semiconductor gauges tend to be more expensive, more sensitive to
temperature changes, and are more fragile than foil gauges.
2. Foil gauges
3. Nanoparticle-based strain gauges: Resistive sensors whose active area is made by an
assembly of conductive nanoparticles, such as gold or carbon. Combine a high gauge
factor, a large deformation range and a small electrical consumption due to their high
impedance.
4. Mercury-in-rubber strain gauge: Used in biological measurements, especially blood flow
and tissue swelling, and consists of small amount of liquid mercury enclosed in a small
rubber tube, which is applied around e.g., a toe or leg. Swelling of the body part results in
stretching of the tube, making it both longer and thinner, which increases electrical
resistance.
5. Fiber optic sensing: Can be employed to measure strain along an optical fiber.
Measurements can be distributed along the fiber or taken at predetermined points on the
fiber.
6. Microscale strain gauges: Widely used in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to
measure strains such as those induced by force, acceleration, pressure or sound. Eg, airbags
in cars are often triggered with MEMS accelerometers.

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7. Integrated optical ring resonators: Used to measure strain in Micro-Opto-Electro-

Mechanical Systems (MOEMS).
8. Capacitive strain gauges: Use a variable capacitor to indicate the level of mechanical
deformation.
9. Vibrating wire strain gauges: Used in geotechnical and civil engineering applications.
Consists of vibrating, tensioned wire. Strain is calculated by measuring the resonant
frequency of the wire (an increase in tension increases the resonant frequency).
10. Simple mechanical types: Used in civil engineering to measure movement of buildings,
foundations, and other structures.
11. Sophisticated mechanical types: Incorporate dial indicators and mechanisms to compensate
for temperature changes. These types can measure movements as small as 0.002 mm.

3.8.2 Strain Gauge Wheatstone Measurements

Stress (σ) = ε0 ・E

Fig. 3.27 Strain Gauge Wheatstone Measurements

3.8.3 Selection of Strain Gauge

Strain Gauge Selection Considerations

• Gauges Length
• Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Grid Resistance
• Strain-Sensitive Alloy
• Carrier Material
• Gauge Width
• Solder Tab Type
• Configuration of Solder Tab
• Availability

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3. 9 Digital-To-Analogue Converters

3.9.1 Simple Resistive Divider Network for DAC

• Can be used to convert 3-bit digital input into
equivalent analogue output.
• If RL is much larger than R, then the output analogue
voltage is given by

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
[ 1⁄𝑅 ] + [ 2⁄(𝑅 ⁄2)] + [ 3⁄(𝑅 ⁄4)]
𝑉𝐴 =
[1⁄𝑅 ] + [1⁄(𝑅 ⁄2)] + [1⁄(𝑅 ⁄4)]

𝑉 2𝑉 4𝑉
[ 1⁄𝑅 ] + [ 2⁄𝑅 ] + [ 3⁄𝑅 ]
Fig. 3.28 Simple Resistive Divider 𝑉𝐴 =
Network for DAC [1⁄𝑅 ] + [2⁄𝑅 ] + [4⁄𝑅 ]

𝑉1 + 2𝑉2 + 4𝑉3 𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22
𝑉𝐴 = =
7 23 − 1
Hence, generalized expression is given by:
𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 × 2𝑛−1
𝑉𝐴 =
2𝑛 − 1
if V1= V2= _ _ _ = Vn = V, then a logic ‘1’ at the LSB position would contribute V/(2n −1) to the
analogue output, and a logic ‘1’ in the next adjacent higher bit position would contribute 2V/(2n
−1) to the output, etc. When all input bit positions have a logic ‘1’, the analogue output is given
by
𝑉 (20 + 21 + 22 + ⋯ + 2𝑛−1 )
𝑉𝐴 = =𝑉
2𝑛 − 1
If all inputs are in the logic ‘0’ state, VA = 0. Therefore, the analogue output varies from 0 to V
volts as the digital input varies from an all 0s to an all 1s input.

3.9.2 Binary Ladder Network for DAC

The binary ladder, too, is a resistive network that produces an analogue output equal to the
weighted sum of digital inputs.

𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22 + 𝑉4 × 23
𝑉𝐴 =
24
In general, for an n-bit DAC using binary ladder
network,
𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 × 2𝑛−1
𝑉𝐴 =
Fig. 3.29 Binary Ladder Network 2𝑛
for DAC
For V1= V2= V3= … = Vn = V, 𝑉𝐴 =
[(2𝑛 − 1)/2𝑛 ]𝑉.
For V1= V2 = V3 = ・ ・ ・ =Vn = 0, VA = 0.

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The analogue output voltage in this case varies from 0 (for an all 0s input) to [(2n −1)/2n] V (for
an all 1s input).

3.9.3 Parallel Output N-Bit Shift Register DAC

The Fig. shows four resistors connected to the outputs of a 4-bit parallel output shift register and
having their other terminals connected in common. The register values bear a binary relationship
to one another as shown. The voltage applied to a resistor by its associated register output is either
0 V or + 5 V, etc. depending on whether that output is low or high.

A1 R

A2 2R
A3 4–bit Shift Register 4R
A4 8R
Fig. 3.30 Parallel Output N-Bit Shift Register DAC
Eg; Input digital word is 1000. Then circuit is redrawn as:
 Ro 
Vo =   V
 R + Ro 

where V = + 5 V; R0 is the equivalent resistance for the three parallel-

connected resistors
1 1 1 1 8R
= + +  R0 =
Hence; R0 2R 4R 8R 7
8𝑅/7 8 8 Fig. 3.31 Circuit Redraw
𝑉0 = 5= 5= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = 2.67 𝑉
𝑅 + 8𝑅/7 15 3

3.9.4 BCD-Input DACs

A BCD-input DAC accepts BCD equivalent decimal digits at input. Eg. A two-digit BCD DAC is
an eight-bit DAC. Such a converter has 99 steps and accepts decimal digits 00 to 99 at its input. A
12-bit converter will have 999 steps. The weight of the
different bits in the least significant digit (LSD) will be 1
for A0, 2 for B0, 4 for C0 and 8 for D0. Weights of
corresponding bits in the next higher digit will be 10 times
the weights of corresponding bits in the lower adjacent
digit. So, 10 for A1, 20 for B1, 40 for C1 and 80 for D1. In
general, an n-bit D/A converter of the BCD input type
will have (10n/4 − 1) steps. The percentage resolution of
such converter is given by [1/(10n/4 − 1)]×100.
Fig. 3.32 BCD-Input DAC

Example
A 12-bit BCD-input DAC has a step size of 6.25 mV. Determine the full-scale output.
Solution
• A step size of 6.25 mV implies that A0 has a weight of 6.25 mV.
• The weights of B0, C0 and D0 would respectively be 12.5, 25 and 50 mV.

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• Now, the weight of A1 will be 10 times weight of A0, i.e. the weight of A1 will be 62.5 mV.
• The weights of B1, C1 and D1 will accordingly be 125, 250 and 500 mV respectively.
• Similarly, weights of A2, B2, C2 and D2 will respectively be 625 mV, 1.25 V, 2.5 V and 5 V.
• For full-scale output, input will be decimal 999. Each of the three four-bit groups will be 1001.
• Hence, full-scale analogue output = 6.25 + 50 + 62.5 +500 + 625 + 5000 mV = 6.24375 V.
• Alternatively, full-scale output= step size × number of steps = 6.25 × 999 = 6.24375 V.

3.9.5 DAC Resolution

Resolution of a D/A converter (DAC) is the number of states (2n) into which the full-scale range
is divided or resolved. Here, n is the number of bits in the input digital word. The higher the number
of bits, the better is the resolution. An eight-bit DAC has 255 resolvable levels. It is said to have a
percentage resolution of (1/255)×100=0.39 % or simply an eight-bit resolution. A 12-bit DAC
would have a percentage resolution of (1/4095)×100 = 0.0244 %. In general, for an n-bit DAC, the
percentage resolution is given by (1/2n −1) × 100. The resolution in millivolts for the two cases for
a full-scale output of 5 V is approximately 20 mV (for an eight-bit converter) and 1.2 mV (for a
12-bit converter).

NB: Difference Between LSB and MSB

In a digital data bit string, the MSB is a bit of the highest digit, and the LSB is a bit of the lowest
digit. Digital data is binary, and like ordinary numerical notation, the left end is the highest digit,
while the right end is the lowest digit. For example, 99 in the decimal system is expressed as
(MSB)01100011(LSB) in the binary system. In this case, the MSB is 0 and the LSB is 1.

3.9.6 ADC Resolution

Resolution of an ADC is the quantum of the input analogue voltage change required to increment
its digital output from one code to the next higher code. An n-bit ADC can resolve one part in 2n−
1. It may be expressed as a percentage of full scale or in bits. The resolution of an eight-bit ADC,
for example, can be expressed as one part in 255 or as 0.4% of full scale or simply as eight-bit
resolution. If such a converter has a full-scale analogue input range of 10 V, it can resolve a 40
mV change in input.
Resolution = (full-scale range)/(2n – 1) = FSR/(2n – 1)

Example: Calculate the resolution of a 12-bit digital word, with ± 10V analogue voltage
range.
Solution: Resolution = FSR/(2n – 1).
20 20
= = = 4.88mV
212 − 1 4095

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Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 4

PRESSURE AND LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

4. 1 Pressure Terminologies
Static pressure: The pressure of fluids or gases
that are stationary or not in motion (Fig. 4.1).
The pressure at point A is considered as static
pressure although the fluid above it is flowing.
Dynamic pressure: The pressure exerted by a
fluid or gas when it impacts on a surface or an
object due to its motion or flow. In Fig. 4.1,
dynamic pressure is the difference in pressure between points B and A.
Impact pressure (total pressure): The sum of the static and dynamic pressures on a surface or
object. The pressure at point B in Fig. 4.1 is the impact pressure.

4.1.1 Terms Applied to Pressure Measurements

Total vacuum: Zero pressure or lack of pressure, as

would be experienced in outer space.
Vacuum: Pressure measurement made between total
vacuum and normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure on the earth’s surface
due to the weight of the gases in the earth’s atmosphere,
normally expressed at sea level as 14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa.
It is, however, dependent on atmospheric conditions. The
pressure decreases above sea level, and at an elevation of
5000 ft drops to about 12.2 psi (84.122 kPa) due to the
lower gravitational force and reduced atmospheric
pressure. Absolute pressure: Pressure measured with respect to a vacuum and is expressed in
pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or kilopascals absolute kPa (a).
Gauge pressure: Pressure measured with respect to atmospheric pressure and is normally
expressed in pounds per square inch gauge (psig) or kPa (g). Figure 4.2 shows graphically the
relation between atmospheric, gauge, and absolute pressures.
Differential pressure: Pressure measured with respect to another pressure and is expressed as the
difference between the two values. This would represent two points in a pressure or flow system,
and is referred to as the delta p, or Δp.

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4.1.2 Pressure Measurement Units

1. Pounds per square foot
(psf), or per square inch (psi)
2. Pascals (N/m2);
3. Atmospheres (atm)
4. Inches or cm. of water
5. Inches or mm of mercury
6. Torr = 1 mm mercury
7. Bar (1.013 atm) = 100 kPa

4.1.3 Pressure Formulas

Hydrostatic pressure: Pressure in a liquid. It increases as the depth in the liquid increases due to
the weight of the fluid above the measurement point. Hydrostatic pressure is given by

The hydrostatic paradox states that the pressure at a given depth in a liquid is independent of the
shape of the container or the volume of liquid contained.
Head, sometimes used as a measure of pressure, is the pressure in terms of a column of a particular
fluid; i.e., a head of 1 ft of water is the pressure that would be exerted by a 1-ft-tall column of
water, i.e., 62.4 psfg, or the pressure exerted by 1 ft head of glycerin would be 78.6 psfg.

Buoyancy: The upward force exerted on an object immersed or floating in a liquid. The weight is
less than it is in air due to the weight of the displaced fluid. The upward force on the object causing
the weight loss is called the buoyant force and is given by

Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied to an

enclosed liquid (or gas) is transmitted to all parts of the
fluid and to the walls of the container (Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3

where AS / AL is the cross-sectional area of the smaller piston / large piston respectively. A vacuum
is very difficult to achieve in practice. Vacuum pumps can only approach a true vacuum. Pressures
less than atm. pressure are often referred to as “negative gauge” and are indicated by an amount
below atm. pressure, e.g., – 5 psig corresponds to 9.7 psia (assume atm = 14.7 psia).

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4.2 Pressure Measurement Instruments

4.2.1 U-Tube Manometers
U-tube manometers: Consist of U-shaped glass
tubes partially filled with a liquid. When there
are equal pressures on both sides, the liquid
levels will correspond to the zero point on a scale
as shown in Fig. 4.4a. The scale is graduated in
pressure units.

where γ is the specific weight of the liquid in the manometer.

Inclined manometers: Developed to

measure low pressures. With the low-
pressure arm inclined, the fluid has a
longer distance to travel than in a
vertical tube for the same pressure
change, giving a magnified scale (Fig.
4.5a).
Well manometers: An alternative to inclined manometers for measuring
low pressures using low-density liquids. In the well manometer, one leg
has a much larger diameter than the other leg, as shown in Fig. 4.5b.
When there is no pressure difference the liquid levels will be at the same
height for a zero reading. An increase in pressure in the large leg will
cause a larger change in the height of the liquid in the smaller leg. The
pressure across the larger area of the well must be balanced by the same
volume of liquid rising in the smaller leg.

4.2.2 Diaphragms, Capsules and Bellows

Gauges: Pressure sensors that measure pressure with respect to

atmospheric pressure. When pressure is applied, a change in the shape
of gauge sensors is converted into an electrical signal using capacitive,
LVDT (linear variable differential transformer), potentiometer,
piezoelectric, strain-gauge transducer or micromachined silicon
diaphragm being the most commonly used industrial pressure sensor for
the generation of electrical signals. Gauge sensors include diaphragms,
capsules, bellows, and Bourdon tubes. Fig. 4.6 Various
Diaphragm: Consists of a thin layer of sensing film supported on a rigid Types of Pressure-
frame (Fig. 4.6a). Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for Sensing Elements

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gauge sensing, or to both sides of the film for differential or absolute pressure sensing. Sensing
film can be rubber or plastic for low pressure devices, silicon for medium pressures, and stainless
steel for high pressures.
Capsules: Two diaphragms joined back-to-back (Fig. 4.7b) with pressure applied to the space
between the diaphragms forcing them to measure gauge pressure. Expansion of the diaphragm
may be mechanically coupled to an indicating device. The deflection in a capsule depends on its
diameter, material thickness, and elasticity. Materials used are phosphor bronze, stainless steel,
and iron nickel alloys.
Bellows: Similar to capsules except that the diaphragms instead of being joined directly together
are separated by a corrugated tube or tube with convolutions (Fig. 4.7c). When pressure is applied
to the bellows it elongates by stretching the convolutions, not the end diaphragms. Bellows devices
can be used for absolute and differential pressure measurements.

Fig. 4.7 Differential Capsule Pressure Sensor with Closed Loop Electronic Control

Fig. 4.8 Differential Bellows Pressure Gauges (P1 − P2) for Direct Scale Reading

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Bourdon Tubes (BT): These are

hollow, flattened, or oval cross-
sectional beryllium, copper, or steel
tubes (Fig. 4.9(a)). The flattened
tube is then shaped into a three-
quarter circle (Fig. 4.9(b)). The
a.
operating principle is that the outer
edge of the cross section has a larger
Fig. 4.9 a. Cross-Section of BT,
surface than the inner portion. When
b. BT Pressure Gauge
pressure is applied, the outer edge
b.
has a proportionally larger total
force applied because of its larger surface area, and the diameter of the circle increases. The walls
of the tube are between 0.01 and 0.05 in thick. The tubes are anchored at one end. When pressure
is applied to the tube, it tries to straighten, and in doing so, the free end of the tube moves. This
movement can be mechanically coupled to a pointer, which will indicate pressure as a line-of-sight
indicator, or it can be coupled to a potentiometer, which will give a resistance value proportional
to pressure as an electrical signal.

Table 4.1 Approximate Pressure Ranges for Pressure Sensing Devices

4.3 Level Formulas

Pressure and Buoyancy are often used as indirect methods of measuring liquid levels.

Note the units must be consistent, i.e., pounds and feet, or Newton and meters.

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where area is the cross-sectional area of the object and d is the immersed depth of the object. The
liquid level is then calculated from the weight of a body in a liquid WL, which is equal to its weight
in air (WA – B), from which we get

The weight of a container can be used to calculate the level of the material in the container.

The weight of material W in a container is given by

A load cell is used to measure the weight of the container.

Capacitive probes can be used in nonconductive liquids and free flowing solids for level
measurement. Many materials when placed between the plates of a capacitor increases the
capacitance by a factor μ called the dielectric constant of the material. The capacitance (Cd) is
given by

The capacitance can be measured using a capacitance bridge circuit.

Table 4.2 Dielectric Constant of Some

Common Liquids →

4.4 Level Sensing Devices

There are two categories of level sensing devices. They are direct sensing, in which the actual level
is monitored, and indirect sensing where a property of the liquid such as pressure is sensed to
determine the liquid level.

4.4.1 Direct Level Sensing

Sight glass (open end/differential) or gauge is the simplest method for direct visual reading where
the sight glass is normally mounted vertically adjacent to the container (Fig. 4.10). The liquid level
can then be observed directly in the sight glass.

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Fig. 4.10 Various Configurations of a Sight Glass to Observe Liquid Levels

Floats (angular arm or pulley) are shown in Fig. 4.11. The float material is less dense than the
density of the liquid and floats up and down on top of the material being measured. An advantage
of the float sensor is that it is
almost independent of the
density of the liquid or solid
being monitored. the
disadvantage of this type of
float is its nonlinearity as
shown by the line-of-sight
scale of Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.11 Measuring Liquid Levels using (a) a Simple Float and (b) an Angular Arm Float

Fig. 4.12 Float Level Sensor Scales (a) Nonlinear Scale and (b) Linear Scale with Pulley Float

4.4.2 Indirect Level Sensing

Most commonly used method
• measure the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container.
• Extrapolate depth from the pressure and calculate specific weight of the liquid using

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Bubbler devices require supply of clean air or inert

gas. Gas is forced through a tube whose open end is
close to the bottom of the tank (Fig. 4.13). The
specific weight of the gas is negligible compared to
the liquid and can be ignored. The pressure required
to force the liquid out of the tube is equal to the
pressure at the end of the tube due to the liquid, which
is the depth of the liquid multiplied by the specific Fig. 4.13 Liquid Level Measurement using a
Bubbler
weight of the liquid. This method can be used with
corrosive liquids as the material of the tube can be chosen to be corrosion resistant.

Que: How far below the surface of the water is the end of a bubbler tube, if bubbles start to emerge
from the end of the tube when the air pressure in the bubbler is 148 kPa?

Displacer with force sensing element. This device uses change in

buoyant force to measure changes in liquid level. The displacers must
have a higher specific weight than that of the liquid level being
measured and have to be calibrated for the specific weight of the
liquid. A force or strain gauge measures the excess weight of the Fig. 4.14 Displacer with Force
displacer. There is only a small movement in this type of sensor Sensor
compared to a float sensor.

PROBES for measuring liquid levels fall into three categories, i.e., conductive, capacitive, and
ultrasonic.
Conductive probes are used for single-point measurements in liquids that are conductive and
nonvolatile as a spark can occur. When the liquid is in contact with two probes the voltage between
the probes causes a current to flow indicating a set level has been reached. Thus, probes can be used
to indicate when the liquid level is low and to operate a pump to fill the container. Another or third
probe can be used to indicate when the tank is full and to turn-off the filling pump.

Fig. 4.15 Methods of Measuring Liquid Levels Using (a) Conductive Probes for Detecting Set Levels and (b) a Capacitive
Probe for Continuous Monitoring

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Capacitive probes are used in liquids that are nonconductive and have a high μ and can be used
for continuous level monitoring. The capacitive probe shown in Fig. 4.15b consists of an inner rod
with an outer shell; the capacitance is measured between the two using a capacitance bridge. In
the portion out of the liquid, air serves as the dielectric between the rod and outer shell. In the
immersed section, the dielectric is that of the liquid that causes a large capacitive change, if the
tank is made of metal it can serve as the outer shell. The capacitance change is directly proportional
to the level of the liquid. The dielectric constant of the liquid must be known for this type of
measurement. The dielectric constant can vary with temperature so that temperature correction
may be required.

Que: A capacitive probe 30-in long has a capacitance of 22 pF in air. When partially immersed in
water with a dielectric constant of 80 the capacitance is 1.1 nF. What is the length of the probe
immersed in water?

Ultrasonic sensors can be used for single-

point or continuous level measurement of a
liquid or a solid. A single ultrasonic
transmitter and receiver can be arranged
with a gap to give single-point
Fig. 4.16 Ultrasonics (a) Single-Point and (b) Continuous
measurement (Fig. 4.16a). As soon as liquid Liquid Level Measurements
fills the gap, ultrasonic waves from the
transmitter reach the receiver. A setup for continuous measurement is shown in Fig. 4.16b. Ultrasonic
waves from the transmitter are reflected by the surface of the liquid to the receiver; the time for the
waves to reach the receiver is measured. The time delay gives the distance from the transmitter and
receiver to the surface of the liquid, from which the liquid level can be calculated knowing the velocity
of ultrasonic waves. As there is no contact with the liquid, this method can be used for solids, corrosive
materials, and volatile liquids.

Table 4.3 Level Measurements

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Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 5

FLOW AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

5. 1 Basic Flow Terminologies

Velocity is a measure of speed and direction of an object. When related to fluids it is the rate of
flow of fluid particles in a pipe. The speed of particles in a fluid flow varies over the cross section
of the flow, i.e., where the fluid is in contact with the constraining walls (the boundary layer) the
velocity of the liquid particles is virtually zero; in the center of the flow the liquid particles will
have the maximum velocity.
Laminar flow of a liquid occurs when its average velocity is comparatively low and the fluid
particles tend to move smoothly in layers.
Turbulent flow occurs when the flow velocity is high and the particles no longer flow smoothly
in layers and turbulence or a rolling effect occurs.
Viscosity is a property of a gas or liquid that is a measure of its resistance to motion or flow.

Table 5.1 Conversion Factors for Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosities

Reynolds number R is a derived relationship combining the density and viscosity of a liquid with
its velocity of flow and the cross-sectional dimensions of the flow and takes the form as follows:

Flow patterns can be considered to be laminar, turbulent, or a combination of both. Osborne

Reynolds observed in 1880 that the flow pattern could be predicted from physical properties of the
liquid. If the Reynolds number for the flow in a pipe is equal to or less than 2000, the flow will be
laminar. From 2000 to about 5000 is the intermediate region where the flow can be laminar,
turbulent, or a mixture of both, depending on other factors. Beyond about 5000 the flow is always
turbulent.

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The Bernoulli equation is an equation for flow based on the conservation of energy, which states
that the total energy of a fluid or gas at any one point in a flow is equal to the total energy at all
other points in the flow.
Flow rate is the volume of fluid passing a given point in a given amount of time and is typically
measured in gallons per minute (gpm), cubic foot per minute (cfm), liters per min, etc. (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2 Flow Rate Conversion Factors (US Gallons) *

Total flow is the volume of liquid flowing over a period of time and is measured in gallons, cubic
feet, liters, and so forth

5. 2 Flow Formulas

Continuity Equation: The continuity equation states that if the overall flow rate in a system is not
changing with time (see Fig. 4.2a), the flow rate in any part of the system is constant. From which
we get the following equation:

Example 5.1 What is the flow rate through a pipe 9-in diameter, if the average velocity is 5 fps?
Solution

If liquids are flowing in a tube with different cross-section areas, i.e., A1 and A2, the continuity
equation gives

Example 5.2 If a pipe goes from 9-cm diameter to 6-cm diameter and the velocity in the 9-cm
section is 2.21 m/s, what is the average velocity in the 6-cm section?
Solution

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Mass flow rate F is related to volume flow

rate Q by Fig. 5.1

where F is the mass of liquid flowing and ρ

is the density of the liquid. For compressible
gas, continuity equation is given as:

where γ1 and γ2 are specific weights of the gas in the two sections of pipe.

Bernoulli Equation: The Bernoulli equation gives the relation between pressure, fluid velocity,
and elevation in a flow system. The equation is accredited to Bernoulli (1738).

The units translate to:

Example 5.3 If h in Fig. above is 7.5 m, what is the pressure at P2? Assume the areas at points 2
and 3 are 0.48 m2 and 0.3 m2, respectively.
Solution

Velocity at point 2 is given by:

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5. 3 Flow Losses

Outlet losses

where CD is the discharge coefficient that is dependent on the shape and size of the orifice. The
discharge coefficients can be found in flow data handbooks.
Frictional losses. They are losses from liquid flow in a pipe due to friction between the flowing
liquid and the restraining walls of the container. These frictional losses are given by

The friction factor f depends on the Reynolds number for the flow and the roughness of the pipe
walls.
Example 5.4 What is the head loss in a 2-in diameter pipe 120-ft long? The friction factor is 0.03
and the average velocity in the pipe is 11 fps.

Fitting losses are losses due to couplings and fittings, which are normally less than those
associated with friction and are given by

Table 5.3 Typical Head Loss Coefficient Factors for Fittings

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Form drag is the impact force exerted on devices protruding into a pipe due to fluid flow. The
force depends on the shape of the insert and can be calculated from:

Table 5.4 Typical Drag Coefficient Values for Objects Immersed in Flowing Fluid

5. 4 Flow Measurement Instruments

5.4.1 Flow Rate Measurement

Orifice plate: Normally a simple
metal diaphragm with a
constricting hole used to measure
the difference in pressure between
the two ports. The diaphragm is
normally clamped between pipe
flanges to give easy access. The
differential pressure ports can be
located in the flange either side of
the orifice plate or at specific
locations in the pipe either side of
the flange determined by the flow
Fig. 5.1 Types of constrictions used in flow rate measuring devices (a)
patterns (named vena contracta).
orifice plate, (b) Venturi tube, (c) flow nozzle, and (d) Dall tube
Venturi tube: Applies same
differential pressure principal as the orifice plate. It normally uses a specific reduction in tube size,
and is not normally used in larger diameter pipes, where it becomes heavy and excessively long.
The advantages of the Venturi tube are its ability to handle large amounts of suspended solids, it
creates less turbulence and hence less insertion loss than the orifice plate. The Venturi tube has
good accuracy but its cost is high.

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Flow nozzle: A good compromise on cost and accuracy between the orifice plate and the Venturi
tube for clean liquids. It is not normally used with suspended particles. Its main use is the
measurement of steam flow.
Dall tube: has the lowest insertion loss but is not suitable for use with slurries.
SUMMARY: Orifice plate is simplest, cheapest, easiest to replace, least accurate, more subject to
damage and erosion, and has the highest loss. Venturi tube is more difficult to replace, most
expensive, most accurate, high tolerance to damage and erosion, and has the lowest losses of all
the three tubes. Flow nozzle is intermediate between the other two, and offers a good compromise.

Read on the ff. Other flow measuring devices: (a) elbow, (b) pilot static tube, and (c) rotameter
Flow rate measuring devices: (a) turbine and (b) moving vane

Electromagnetic flow meters: Can only be

used in conductive liquids. It consists of
two electrodes mounted in the liquid on
opposite sides of the pipe. A magnetic field
is generated across the pipe perpendicular
to the electrodes. The conducting fluid
flowing through the magnetic field
generates a voltage between the electrodes,
which can be measured to give the rate of flow. There is no insertion loss and the readings are
independent of the fluid characteristics, but it is a relatively expensive instrument.

5.4.2 Mass Flow Rate Measurement

By measuring the flow and knowing the density of a fluid, the mass of the flow can be measured.
Mass flow instruments include constant speed impeller turbine wheel-spring combinations that
relate the spring force to mass flow and devices that relate heat transfer to mass flow.
Anemometer: Instrument to measure gas flow rate.

5.4.3 Dry Particulate Flow Rate

Dry particulate flow rate can be measured as they are being
carried on a conveyer belt with the use of a load cell. To
measure flow rate, it is only necessary to measure the weight
of material on a fixed length of the conveyer belt. The flow rate
Q is given by:

Example 5.5 A conveyer belt is traveling at 19 cm/s. A load cell with a length of 1.1 m is reading
3.7 kg. What is the flow rate of the material on the belt?

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Instrumentation and Control

Table 5.5 Summary of Flow Meter Characteristics

5.5 Temperature and Heat Conversions

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5.6 Heat Definitions

Heat is a form of energy; as energy is supplied to a system the vibration amplitude of its molecules
increases and its temperature increases. The temperature increase is directly proportional to the
heat energy in the system.
British Thermal Unit (BTU or Btu): Defined as the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of pure water by 1°F at 68°F and at atmospheric pressure. It is the most widely
used unit for the measurement of heat energy.
Calorie (SI): The amount of energy required
to raise the temperature of 1 g of pure water
by 1°C at 4°C and at atmospheric pressure. It
is also a widely used unit for the
measurement of heat energy.
Joules (SI): Used to define heat energy and
is often used in preference to the calorie,
where 1 J (Joule) = 1 W (Watt) × s.
Sublimation: Transformation from solid to gas or gas to solid.
Specific heat: The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given weight of a
material by 1°. The most common units are BTUs and calorie.

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Thermal conductivity: The

flow or transfer of heat from a
high temperature region to a
lower temperature region.
There are three basic methods
of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Conduction: The flow of heat
through a material or solid medium. The molecular vibration amplitude or energy is transferred
from one molecule in a material to the next. Convection: The transfer of heat due to motion of
elevated temperature particles in a material (liquid and gases). Eg. Air-conditioning systems and
hot water heating systems. Radiation: The emission of energy by electromagnetic waves that travel
at the speed of light through most materials that do not conduct electricity. For instance, radiant
heat can be felt some distance from a furnace where there is no conduction or convection.

Thermal Expansion Definitions Linear thermal expansion: The change in dimensions of a

material due to change in linear dimension per degree temperature change. Volume thermal
expansion: The change in the volume per degree temperature change due to the linear coefficient
of expansion.

Table 5.6 Thermal Coefficients of Expansion per Degree Fahrenheit

5.7 Heat Transfer

The amount of heat needed to raise or lower the temperature of a given weight of a body can be
calculated from

Example 5.6 What is the heat required to raise the temperature of a 1.5 kg mass by 120°C if the
specific heat of the mass is 0.37 cal/g°C?

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Solution
Heat conduction through a material is derived from the following relationship:

The negative indicates a positive heat flow.

Example 5.7 A furnace wall 12 ft2 in area and 6-in thick has a thermal conductivity of 0.14 BTU/h ft°F.
What is the heat loss if the furnace temperature is 1100°F and the outside of the wall is 102°F?
Solution

Heat convection calculations in practice are not as straight forward as conduction. However, heat
convection is given by:

In practice the proper choice for h is difficult because of its dependence on a large number of variables
(such as density, viscosity, and specific heat). Charts are available for h.

Example 5.8 How much heat is transferred from a 25 × 24-ft surface by convection if the temperature
difference between the front and back surfaces is 40°F and the surface has a heat transfer rate of 0.22 BTU/h
ft2°F?
Solution

The radiant heat transfer is given by:

Example 5.9 The radiation constant for a furnace is 0.23 × 10−8 BTU/h ft2°F4, the radiating surface area
is 25 ft2. If the radiating surface temperature is 750°F and the room temperature is 75°F, how much heat is
radiated?

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Instrumentation and Control

Solution
5.7 Thermal Expansion
Linear expansion

Volume expansion

In a gas, the relation between the pressure, volume, and temperature of the gas is given by:

5.8 Temperature Measuring Devices

There are several methods of measuring temperature, which can be categorized as follows:
a. Expansion of a material to give visual indication, pressure, or dimensional change
b. Electrical resistance change
c. Semiconductor characteristic change
d. Voltage generated by dissimilar metals
e. Radiated energy
Thermometer is often used as a general term given to devices for measuring temperature. Examples
of temperature measuring devices are given in Table 5.7.

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Table 5.7 Temperature Range and Accuracy of Temperature Sensors

Table 5.8 Summary of Sensor Characteristics

5.8.1 Thermocouples

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Thermocouples are formed when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form a junction. An
electrical circuit is completed by joining the other ends of the dissimilar metals together to form a
second junction. A current will flow in the circuit if the two junctions are at different temperatures.
Three effects are associated with thermocouples. They are as follows:
a. Seebeck effect: States that the voltage produced in a thermocouple is proportional
to the temperature between the two junctions.
b. Peltier effect: States that if a current flows through a thermocouple one junction is
heated (puts out energy), and the other junction is cooled (absorbs energy).
c. Thompson effect: States that when a current flows in a conductor along which there
is a temperature difference heat is produced or absorbed, depending on the direction
of the current and the variation of temperature.
In practice, the Seebeck voltage is the sum of the electromotive forces generated by the Peltier and
Thompson effects.

Table 5.9 Operating Ranges for Thermocouples and Seebeck Coefficients

Thermopile: A number of thermocouples connected in series, to increase the sensitivity and

accuracy by increasing the output voltage when measuring low temperature differences.
Pyrometers: Devices that measure temperature by sensing the heat radiated from a hot body
through a fixed lens, which focuses the heat energy on to a thermopile; this is a noncontact device.
Furnace temperatures, e.g., are normally measured through a small hole in the furnace wall. The
distance from the source to the pyrometer can be fixed and the radiation should fill the field of
view of the sensor.

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Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 6

PROCESS CONTROL
5. 1 Introduction

Two basic modes of process control are:

i. Sequential control, or On/Off action; and
ii. Continuous control action.

5.2 Sequential Control

a. Processes in which a variable does not have to be controlled, but a sequence of events has
to be controlled.
b. Sequential process or batch process can be event-based, time-based, or a combination of
both.
c. An event-based system is one in which the occurrence of an event causes an action to take
place. For example, a level sensor detects that a container is full, and switches its output
from On to Off, which sends a signal to the controller to turn off the filling liquid.
d. A time-based sequence is one in which an event is timed by the controller and is not
waiting for an input signal.

A batch process can be distinguished from a continuous process as follows:

• All actions can be defined by On/Off states;
• Discrete quantities are handled individually at each step, rather than as a continuous flow;
• Each quantity is kept as a separate unit and can be individually identified;
• Each unit, unlike in continuous processing, can see different process steps;
• Each unit will not start a new step until the previous step has been completed; and
• Batch processes can have process variations for each batch of new material, depending on
previous processing.

5.3 Discontinuous Control

It could be considered as a discrete On/Off mode. In reality, discontinuous control is the basis of
continuous control, in its simplest and least expensive form.

5.3.1 Discontinuous On/Off Action

The measured variable is compared to a set reference. When the variable is above the reference,
the system is turned On, and when below the reference, the system is turned Off, or vice versa,
depending upon the system design.

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5.3.2 Differential Closed Loop Action

Differential or delayed On/Off action is a mode of operation where the simple On/Off action has
hysteresis or a dead-band built in.

5.3.3 Electronic On/Off Controller

An electronic two-way On/Off controller, for eg. the LM 34, can be used as a temperature sensor
in a room controller application. The output of the LM 34 changes 10 mV/°F. If the nominal room
temperature is 75°F, then the output of the LM 34 is 0.75 V, and with a ratio for R2/R1 of 10, the
output of the amplifier is −7.5V. If the set point voltage (Vset) is −7.5 V, the output of the
comparator will switch from “0” to “1” when the temperature increasing from 0°F reaches 75°F.

5.4 Continuous Control

In continuous control (modulating control) action, the feedback controller determines the error
between a set point and a measured variable. The error signal is then used to produce an actuator
control signal, which is used to control a process input variable. The change in input variable will
reduce the change in the measured output variable, reducing the error signal. This type of control
continuously monitors the measured variable, and has three modes of operation: proportional,
integral, and derivative.

5.4.1 Proportional Action

The amplitude of the output variable from a process is measured and converted to an electrical signal.
This signal is compared to a set reference point, and any difference in amplitude between the two (error
signal) is amplified and fed to a control valve (actuator) as a correction signal. The control valve
controls one of the inputs to the process. Changing this input will result in the output amplitude
changing, until it is equal to the set reference, or the error signal is zero. The amplitude of the correction
signal is transmitted to the actuator controlling the input variable, and is proportional to the percentage
change in the output variable amplitude measured with respect to the set reference.
In the proportional mode, there is a linear relationship between error and controller output p. The range
of error to cover the controller output from 0% to 100% is known as the proportional band (PB), and
can be expressed by:

where Kp is the proportional gain between error and controller output, expressed as a percentage per
percentage, and Po is the controller output with zero error, expressed as a percentage. When there is
zero error, the output equals Po. When there is an error, a correction of Kp% is added to, or subtracted
from, Po for every 1% of error, provided the output is not saturated. The term gain (Kp) or proportional
band can be used to describe the transfer function, and the relation between the two is given by:

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Instrumentation and Control

5.4.2 Derivative Action

Proportional plus derivative (PD) action was developed in an attempt to reduce the correction time
that would have occurred using proportional action alone. Derivative action senses the rate of
change of the measured variable, and applies a correction signal that is only proportional to the
rate of change (this is also called rate action or anticipatory action). The derivative of a positive
slope is a positive signal, and the derivative of a negative slope is a negative signal, while zero
slopes give zero signals.
In derivative controller action, the derivative of the error is the rate at which the error is changing,
and is approximately given by:

where the gain KD is the percentage change in controller output for every percentage per second
rate of change of error.
In PD action, the analytic expression is given by the combination of PB and the derivative control
action, and is given by:

5.4.3 Integral Action

Proportional plus integral (PI) action, also known as reset action, was developed to correct for
long-term loads, and applies a correction that is proportional to the area under the change in the
variable curve. Integral action gives a slower response to changes in the measured variable to avoid
overshoot, but has a high gain, so that with long term load changes, it takes over control of the
manipulated variable, and applies the correction signal to the actuator. Because of the higher gain,
the measured variable error or offset is reduced to close to zero. This also returns the proportional
amplifier to its normal operating point, so that it can correct other fluctuations in the measured
variable. Note that these corrections are done at relatively high speeds, while the older pneumatic
systems are much slower, and can take several seconds to make such a correction. When a change
in loading occurs, the P signal responds to take corrective action to restore the measured variable
to its set point. Simultaneously, the integral signal starts to change linearly to supply the long-term
correction, thus allowing the proportional signal to return to its normal operating point. The
integral signal can become complex. The expression for the integral process is given by:

where p(0) is the controller output when the integral action starts, and the gain KI is the controller
output in percentage needed for every percentage time accumulation of error.

When proportional mode is combined with integral mode, the equation for the control process is
given as:

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Instrumentation and Control

where pI(0) is the integral term value at t = 0 (initial value).

5.4.4 PID Action

A combination of all three of the actions described above is more commonly referred to as PID
action. The waveforms of PID action are illustrated in Fig. 6.1. The proportional, derivative, and
integral signals are generated from the change in measured variable. The P and D signals are
summed, and combined with the I signal, to generate the PID signal for the controlled variable.
The integral signal is shown taking over from the proportional signal and reducing the offset to
zero. PID is the most complex corrective action used for process control. However, there are many
other types of control actions based upon PID action.
The typical PID equation is given as:

where p is the controller output in percentage of full scale, ep is the process error in percentage of
the maximum, Kp is the proportional gain, K1 is the integral gain, KD is the derivative gain, and
p1(0) is the internal controller integral output. This equation can be implemented using op-amps.
An alternative expression when combining the effects of P, I, and D is given by:

where, Output is the controller output, e is the error (variable – set point), Ti is integral time in
minutes, t = time (minutes), and Td is the derivative time in minutes.

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Instrumentation and Control

Fig. 6.1 (a) Waveforms for proportional plus integral action, and (b) waveforms for
proportional plus derivative and integral action

To give an approximate indication of the use of PID controllers for different types of loops, the
following are general rules:
• Pressure control requires P and I, but D is not normally required.
• Level control uses P and sometimes I, but D is not normally required.
• Flow control requires P and I, but D is not normally required.
• Temperature control uses P, I, and D, usually with I set for a long time period.

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Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 7

CORRECTION ELEMENTS
7.1 Introduction

Correction element or final control element is the element in a control system which is responsible
for transforming the output of a controller into a change in the process which aims to correct the
change in the controlled variable.
Example:
• It might be a valve which is operated by the output from the controller and used to change
the rate at which liquid passes along a pipe and so change the controlled level of the liquid
in a cistern.
• It might be a motor which takes the electrical output from the controller and transforms it
a rotatory motion in order to move a load and so control its position.
• It might be a switch which is operated by the controller and so used to switch on a heater
to control temperature.
Actuator is used for the part of a correction/final control element that provides the power, i.e. the
bit which moves, grips or applies forces to an object, to carry out the control action.

7.2 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems

• Process control systems frequently require control of the flow of a fluid.

• Valves used as the correction elements are frequently pneumatically operated, even when
the control system is otherwise electrical. This is because such pneumatic devices tend to
be cheaper and more easily capable of controlling large rates of flow.
• Main drawback with pneumatic systems is, however, the compressibility of air.

7.2.1 Current to Pressure Converter

Current to pressure converter can be used to
convert current output from a controller,
typically in the range 4 to 20 mA, to
pneumatic pressure signal of 20 to 100 kPa
to operate a final control element. Current
from the controller passes through coils
mounted on a pivoted beam. 1) Coils are then
attracted towards a magnet depending on size
of current. ii) movement of coils cause lever Fig. 7.1 Current to Pressure Converter
to rotate about its pivot and so change the separation of a flapper from a nozzle. iii) Position of
flapper in relation to the nozzle determines the size of the output pressure in the system.

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7.2.2 Pressure Sources

Pneumatic System
• With pneumatic system source of
pressurised air is required.
• Pressurised air provided by electric
motor driving an air compressor.
• Air is drawn from the atmosphere
via a filter.
Fig. 7.2 Pneumatic System
• Since the air compressor increases temperature of the air, a cooling system may be applied
afterwards. Since air contains significant amount of moisture, a moisture separator to
remove the moisture from the air is also employed.
• Storage reservoir used to smooth out any pressure fluctuations due to compressibility of
air. Pressure relief valve protects against over-pressure in the system beyond safe level.

Hydraulic System
• With a hydraulic system, source of pressurised oil
is required.
• Provided by pump driven by electric motor.
• Pump pumps oil from sump through non-return
valve and an accumulator and back to the sump.
• Non-return valve prevents oil from back-driving
to the pump.
• Pressure relief valve releases pressure above safe
level.
Fig. 7.3 Hydraulic System

• Accumulator holds oil under pressure against external force and helps smooth out short-
term fluctuations in output oil pressure. If oil pressure rises, piston moves to allow more
volume of oil to enter accumulator, and so reduces the pressure.

7.2.3 Control Valves

• Directional control valves, pressure control valves and flow control valves: give direction
to flow of fluid through a system, control pressure and control the rate of flow.
• Directional control valves, sometimes termed finite position valves; because they are either
completely open or completely closed, i.e. on/off devices, used to direct fluid along one
path or another; equivalent to electric switches.
• Flow control valves, sometimes termed infinite position valves; vary rate at which fluid
passes through pipe and are used to regulate flow of materials in process control systems.

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7.2.4 Actuators
Fluid power actuators
• Linear actuators: Used to move an object or apply a force in a
straight line. Eg hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder
• Rotary actuators: Used to move object in a circular path.
• Hydraulic/pneumatic cylinder consists of hollow cylindrical
tube along which a piston can slide.
Fig. a) Single acting cylinder b) Double acting cylinder
Fig. 7.4 Actuators
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣

Rotary actuator: partial rotation Vane motor: continuous rotation

Fig. 7.5 Rotary and Vane Actuators
Example
A hydraulic cylinder is to be used in a manufacturing operation to move a workpiece through a
distance of 250 mm in 20 s. If a force of 50 kN is required to move the workpiece, what is the
required pressure difference and hydraulic liquid flow rate if a cylinder with a piston diameter of
150 mm is to be used? Soln:

7.3 Directional Control Valves

• Basic symbol for a control valve is a square.

• With a directional control valve, two or more squares are used, with each square
representing the positions to which the valve can be switched.

2-position valve 3-position valve Flow path Shut-off Input connections

Fig. 7.6 Directional Control Valves

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• Directional control valves are described by the number of ports and the number of
positions. Thus, a 2/2 valve has 2 ports and 2 positions, a 3/2 valve 3 ports and 2 positions,
a 4/2 valve 4 ports and 2 positions, a 5/3 valve 5 ports and 3 positions.

Fig. 7.7 Commonly Used Directional Valves: P or 1 indicates the pressure supply ports, R
and S or 3 and 5 the exhaust ports, A and B or 2 and 4 the signal output ports

Fig. 7.8 Examples of Valve Actuating Methods

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Examples:
Symbol for a 3/2 valve with solenoid activation and return
by means of a spring.
When solenoid is not activated by current through it, signal
port 2 is connected to exhaust 3 and so is at atmospheric
pressure.
When solenoid is activated, pressure supply P is connected
to signal port 2 and thus the output is pressurised.

Fig. 7.9 Control of a single-acting cylinder: (a) before solenoid activated, (b) when solenoid
activated
When switch is closed and current passes through solenoid, the valve switches position and
pressure is applied to extend the piston in the cylinder. NB: Single-acting is used when pressure
signal is applied to only one side of the piston.

Control of double-acting cylinder

Fig. shows how a double-solenoid activated valve
can be used to control double-acting cylinder.
Momentary closing switch S1 causes current to
flow through solenoid at the left-hand end of the
valve and so result in the piston extending.
On opening S1, valve remains in extended
position until a signal is received by the closure of
switch S2 to activate the right-hand solenoid and
return the piston.
Fig. 7.10 Double Acting Cylinder

7.4 Flow Control Valves

In many control systems, rate of flow of fluid along a pipe is controlled by a valve which uses
pneumatic action to move a valve stem and hence a plug or plugs into the flow path, so altering
the size of the gap through which the fluid can flow. The term single seated is used where just one
plug is involved and double seated where there are two.

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Instrumentation and Control

A single-seated valve (a) has the advantage compared with the

double-seated valve (b) of being able to close more tightly; but
has disadvantage that the force on the plug is greater from the
fluid and so a larger area diaphragm may be needed.

7.5 Forms of Plugs

7.5.1 Linear Plug

Change in flow rate proportional to change in valve stem displacement, i.e.:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘 (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
where k is constant. If Q is flow rate at a valve stem displacement S and Qmax is maximum flow
rate at the maximum stem displacement Smax, then we have:

or percentage change in flow rate equals the percentage change in stem displacement. Linear
valves are widely used for control of liquids entering cisterns when liquid level is being controlled.

7.5.2 Quick-Opening Plug

A large change in flow rate occurs for a small movement of the valve stem. This characteristic is
used for on-off control systems where the valve has to move quickly from open to closed and vice
versa.

7.5.3 Equal Percentage Plug

The amount by which the flow rate changes is proportional to the value of the flow rate when the
change occurs. Thus, if the amount by which the flow rate changes is ∆Q for a change in valve
stem position ∆S, then it is proportional to the value of the flow Q when the change occurs, i.e.:
∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
∝𝑄 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒, = 𝑘𝑄
∆𝑆 ∆𝑆

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Instrumentation and Control

Generally, this type of valve does not cut off completely when at the limit of its stem travel, thus
when S = 0 we have Q = Qmin. If we write this expression for small changes and then integrate it
we obtain:
𝑄 𝑆
1
∫ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑆
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄 0
Hence,
𝑙𝑛𝑄 − 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘𝑆

Considering that flow rate Qmax is given by Smax, then:

𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥

Eliminating k from these two equations gives:

𝑙𝑛𝑄 − 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑆
=
𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑄 𝑆 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑆
𝑄 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
=( )
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛

Example 1
A valve has a stem movement at full travel of 30 mm and has a linear plug which has a minimum
flow rate of 0 and a maximum flow rate of 20 m3/s. What will be the flow rate when the stem
movement is 15 mm?

The percentage change in the stem position from the zero setting is (15/30) × 100 = 50%.
Since tlie percentage flow rate is the same as the percentage stem displacement, then a
percentage stem displacement of 50% gives a percentage flow rate of 50%, i.e. 10 m3/s.

Example 2
A valve has a stem movement at full travel of 30 nun and an equal percentage plug. This gives a
flow rate of 2 m3/s when the stem position is 0. When the stem is at full travel there is a maximum
flow rate of 20 m3/s. What will be the flow rate when the stem movement is 15 mm?
Using the equation:
𝑆
𝑄 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑄 20 15/30
=( ) → =( ) → 𝑄 = 6.3 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 2

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Instrumentation and Control

7.5.4 Control Valve Sizing

• Procedure of determining the correct size, i.e. diameter, of the valve body.
A control valve changes the flow rate by introducing a constriction in the flow path. But
introducing such a constriction introduces a pressure difference between the two sides of the
constriction. The basic equation (from an application of Bernoulli's equation) relating the rate of
flow and pressure drop is:
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑄 = 𝑘√𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
For liquid:
∆𝑝
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣√ 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝜌
Where Av is valve flow coefficient, ∆p is pressure drop in Pa across the valve and ρ the density
in kg/m3 of the fluid.
With flow coefficient Cv and SI units,

or

Where G is specific gravity (relative density) and ∆p the pressure difference.

For gases:

Where T is the temperature on the Kelvin scale and p the inlet pressure.

For steam:

Where V is the specific volume of the steam in m3/kg, the specific volume being the volume
occupied by 1 kg. Table shows some typical values of Av, Cv and related valve sizes.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 79

Instrumentation and Control

Example
Determine the valve size for a valve that is required to control the flow of water when the maximum
flow rate required is 0.012 m3/s and the permissible pressure drop across the valve at this flow rate
is 300 kPa.
Taking the density of water as 1000 kg/m3 we have:

Thus, using the table, this value of coefficient indicates that the required valve size is 960 mm.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 80

Instrumentation and Control

REFERENCES

Bolton W. (2004), Instrumentation and Control Systems, Elsevier Science & Technology Books
Publishers, 339 pp. ISBN: 0750664320

Dunn, W. C. (2018), Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control, 2nd

Edition, McGraw Hill Education, 477 pp. ISBN: 978-1-26-012226-8

GSA (2019), “Catalogue of Ghana Standards 2019”, https://gsa.gov.gh/wp-

content/uploads/2019/06, Assessed: May 09, 2020.

Johnson, C. D. (2007), Process Control and Instrumentation Technology, Prentice Hall of India,
8th Edition, 704pp. ISBN-13: 978-8120330290.

Kirk, W. F. (2014), Instrumentation and Process Control, American Technical Publishers, 6th
Edition, 690 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0826934420.

McMillan, G. K. and Considine, D. M. (1999), Process / Industrial Instruments and Controls

Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 5th Edition, 1331 pp. USA. ISBN 0-07-012582-1

Patranabis, D. (2011), Instrumentation and Control, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd., India, 392 pp.

Tooley, M. (2005), PC Based Instrumentation and Control, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann,

3rd Edition, 496 pp. Great Britain. ISBN 0 7506 4716 7

US Department of Energy (2010), DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Instrumentation and Control,

Volumes 1&2, Knowledge Publications, 300 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1603220095.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 81