Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.

10 Page 1 of 10

Problem 2.10
(a) Construct ψ2 (x).

(b) Sketch ψ0 , ψ1 , and ψ2 .

(c) Check the orthogonality of ψ0 , ψ1 , and ψ2 , by explicit integration. Hint: If you exploit the
even-ness and odd-ness of the functions, there is really only one integral left to do.

Solution

Here we will solve the Schrödinger equation on the whole line with V (x) = (1/2)mω 2 x2 ,

∂Ψ ℏ2 ∂ 2 Ψ 1
iℏ =− + mω 2 x2 Ψ(x, t), −∞ < x < ∞,
∂t 2m ∂x2 2
with the usual boundary conditions: Ψ(x, t) and its derivatives tend to zero as x → ±∞. Because
the Schrödinger equation is linear and homogeneous, the method of separation of variables can be
applied. Assume a product solution of the form Ψ(x, t) = ψ(x)ϕ(t) and plug it into the PDE.

∂ ℏ2 ∂ 2 1
iℏ [ψ(x)ϕ(t)] = − 2
[ψ(x)ϕ(t)] + mω 2 x2 [ψ(x)ϕ(t)]
∂t 2m ∂x 2
Evaluate the derivatives.
ℏ2 ′′ 1
iℏψ(x)ϕ′ (t) = − ψ (x)ϕ(t) + mω 2 x2 ψ(x)ϕ(t)
2m 2
Divide both sides by ψ(x)ϕ(t) to separate variables.

ϕ′ (t) ℏ2 ψ ′′ (x) 1
iℏ =− + mω 2 x2
ϕ(t) 2m ψ(x) 2
The only way a function of t can be equal to a function of x is if both are equal to a constant E.

ϕ′ (t) ℏ2 ψ ′′ (x) 1
iℏ =− + mω 2 x2 = E
ϕ(t) 2m ψ(x) 2
As a result of applying the method of separation of variables, Schrödinger’s equation has reduced
to two ODEs—one in each of the independent variables, x and t.

ϕ′ (t)

iℏ = E
ϕ(t) 
ℏ2 ψ ′′ (x) 1
+ mω 2 x2 = E 

− 
2m ψ(x) 2
Values of E for which the boundary conditions of this second equation are satisfied are known as
eigenvalues (or eigenenergies in this context), and the nontrivial solutions ψ(x) that satisfy this
second equation are known as eigenfunctions (or eigenstates in this context). This ODE in x is
known as the time-independent Schrödinger equation (TISE). Multiply both sides of it by ψ(x).

ℏ2 ′′ 1
− ψ + mω 2 x2 ψ = Eψ
2m 2

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10

Since −∞ < x < ∞, the method of operator factorization will be used to solve the TISE.
2
 
1 2d ψ 2 2 2
−ℏ + m ω x ψ = Eψ
2m dx2
" #
d 2

1 2 2 2
−iℏ ψ + (m ω x )ψ = Eψ
2m dx
1
p̂2 + m2 ω 2 x̂2 ψ = Eψ


(1)
2m
Because the position and momentum operators don’t commute,

[x̂, p̂]f (x) = (x̂p̂ − p̂x̂)f (x)

= x̂p̂f (x) − p̂x̂f (x)
   
d d
= x −iℏ f (x) − −iℏ xf (x)
dx dx
df d
= −iℏx + iℏ [xf (x)]
dx dx
df
 df


= −iℏx
  + iℏf (x) + iℏx 
 dx  dx
= iℏf (x) ⇒ [x̂, p̂] = iℏ

there are two equivalent ways of writing the Hamiltonian operator in equation (1).
1 1
p̂2 + imω[x̂, p̂] + m2 ω 2 x̂2 − imω[x̂, p̂] ψ = Eψ p̂2 − imω[x̂, p̂] + m2 ω 2 x̂2 + imω[x̂, p̂] ψ = Eψ



2m 2m
1  2 1  2
p̂ + imω(x̂p̂ − p̂x̂) + m2 ω 2 x̂2 − imω(iℏ) ψ = Eψ p̂ − imω(x̂p̂ − p̂x̂) + m2 ω 2 x̂2 + imω(iℏ) ψ = Eψ
 
2m 2m
1 1
p̂2 + imωx̂p̂ − imω p̂x̂ + m2 ω 2 x̂2 + ℏmω ψ = Eψ p̂2 − imωx̂p̂ + imω p̂x̂ + m2 ω 2 x̂2 − ℏmω ψ = Eψ



2m 2m
1 1
[(−ip̂ + mωx̂)(ip̂ + mωx̂) + ℏmω] ψ = Eψ [(ip̂ + mωx̂)(−ip̂ + mωx̂) − ℏmω] ψ = Eψ

Page 2 of 10
2m   2m  
−ip̂ + mωx̂ ip̂ + mωx̂ 1 ip̂ + mωx̂ −ip̂ + mωx̂ 1
ℏω √ √ + ψ = Eψ ℏω √ √ − ψ = Eψ
2mℏω 2mℏω 2 2mℏω 2mℏω 2
Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 3 of 10

Introducing the operators,

1
â+ = √ (−ip̂ + mωx̂)
2mℏω
1
â− = √ (ip̂ + mωx̂),
2mℏω
the TISE can be written as
   
1 1
ℏω â+ â− + ψ = Eψ or ℏω â− â+ − ψ = Eψ.
2 2
According to Problem 2.3, E must be positive for there to be legitimate eigenstates. Expanding
the left side of this first equation,
ℏω
ℏωâ+ (â− ψ) + ψ = Eψ,
2
we see that the smallest positive energy is E0 = ℏω/2 and that the eigenstate associated with it
(the ground state) satisfies
â− ψ0 = 0.
Solve the resulting ODE for ψ0 .
1
√ (ip̂ + mωx̂)ψ0 = 0
2mℏω
   
1 d
√ i −iℏ + mωx ψ0 = 0
2mℏω dx
 
1 d
√ ℏ + mωx ψ0 = 0
2mℏω dx
dψ0
ℏ + mωxψ0 = 0
dx
dψ0
mωdx
x =−
ψ0
ℏ
d mω
ln ψ0 = − x
dx ℏ
mω 2
ln ψ0 = − x + C0
2ℏ
 mω 
ψ0 (x) = A0 exp − x2
2ℏ
A0 is a normalization constant, which is chosen so that the integral of |ψ0 (x)|2 over the whole line
is 1.
 ∞
1= |ψ0 (x)|2 dx
−∞
∞  mω 
= A20 exp − x2 dx
−∞ ℏ
 

q 
∞ 2 ℏ
 x  √ mω
= 2A20 exp − q 2  dx = 2A20 π 
  
0  ℏ
 2
mω

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 4 of 10

Solve for A0 . r
πℏ
A20 =1
mω
 mω 1/4
A0 =
πℏ
Therefore, the ground state of the harmonic oscillator is
 mω 1/4  mω 
ψ0 (x) = exp − x2 .
πℏ 2ℏ

Since the left sides of the TISE are equivalent,

1 1
â+ â− + = â− â+ −
2 2
â− â+ − â+ â− = 1
[â− , â+ ] = 1.
â+ and â− are known as the promotion and demotion operators, respectively, because they raise
or lower a given eigenstate by 1 level. The energy of this new state can be calculated.
   
1 1
Ĥ(â+ ψ) = ℏω â+ â− + â+ ψ Ĥ(â− ψ) = ℏω â− â+ − â− ψ
2 2
   
1 1
= ℏω â+ â− â+ + â+ ψ = ℏω â− â+ â− − â− ψ
2 2
   
1 1
= ℏωâ+ â− â+ + ψ = ℏωâ− â+ â− − ψ
2 2
   
1 1
= ℏωâ+ â+ â− + 1 + ψ = ℏωâ− â− â+ − 1 − ψ
2 2
       
1 1
= â+ ℏω â+ â− + + ℏω ψ = â− ℏω â− â+ − − ℏω ψ
2 2
       
1 1
= â+ ℏω â+ â− + ψ + ℏωψ = â− ℏω â− â+ − ψ − ℏωψ
2 2
= â+ (Eψ + ℏωψ) = â− (Eψ − ℏωψ)
= â+ (E + ℏω) ψ = â− (E − ℏω) ψ
= (E + ℏω) â+ ψ = (E − ℏω) â− ψ

The energy of the first excited state is then

ℏω 3
E1 = + ℏω = ℏω,
2 2

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 5 of 10

and the eigenstate associated with it is

ψ1 (x) = A1 (â+ ψ0 )
A1
=√ (−ip̂ + mωx̂)ψ0 (x)
2mℏω
   
A1 d
= √ −i −iℏ + mωx ψ0 (x)
2mℏω dx
 
A1 dψ0
=√ −ℏ + mωxψ0
2mℏω dx
   mω    mω 
A1 d  mω 1/4 2 mω 1/4
=√ −ℏ exp − x + mωx exp − x2
2mℏω dx πℏ 2ℏ πℏ 2ℏ
   mω 
A1 mω 1/4  mω   mω 
2
 mω 1/4
=√ −ℏ exp − x − x + mωx exp − x2
2mℏω πℏ 2ℏ ℏ πℏ 2ℏ
   mω 1/4 
A1 mω 1/4  mω   mω 
=√ −ℏ − + mω x exp − x2
2mℏω πℏ ℏ πℏ 2ℏ
  mω 1/4 
A1  mω 
=√ 2mω x exp − x2
2mℏω πℏ 2ℏ
r
2mω  mω 1/4  mω 
= A1 x exp − x2
ℏ πℏ 2ℏ
 3 3 1/4
4m ω  mω 
= A1 x exp − x2 .
πℏ3 2ℏ

A1 is a normalization constant, which is chosen so that the integral of |ψ1 (x)|2 over the whole line
is 1.
 ∞
1= |ψ1 (x)|2 dx
−∞
 ∞ 1/2
4m3 ω 3
  mω 
= A21 x2 exp − x2 dx
−∞ πℏ3 ℏ
 
1/2  ∞
4m3 ω 3 x2
  
= 2A21 2
x exp − q 2  dx
 
πℏ3 0  ℏ

mω
q 3
1/2 ℏ
4m3 ω 3 √ 2!

mω
= 2A21 · π  
πℏ3 1! 2

= A21

Solve for A1 .
A1 = 1
Therefore, the first excited state of the harmonic oscillator is
1/4
4m3 ω 3
  mω 
ψ1 (x) = x exp − x2 .
πℏ3 2ℏ

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 6 of 10

The energy of the second excited state is

3 5
E2 = ℏω + ℏω = ℏω,
2 2
and the eigenstate associated with it is

ψ2 (x) = A2 (â+ ψ1 )
A2
=√ (−ip̂ + mωx̂)ψ1 (x)
2mℏω
   
A2 d
=√ −i −iℏ + mωx ψ1 (x)
2mℏω dx
 
A2 dψ1
=√ −ℏ + mωxψ1
2mℏω dx
( " 1/4 # " 1/4 #)
A2 d 4m3 ω 3  mω 
2 4m3 ω 3  mω 
2
=√ −ℏ x exp − x + mωx x exp − x
2mℏω dx πℏ3 2ℏ πℏ3 2ℏ
(  1/4 h
A2 4m3 ω 3  mω 
2
 mω   mω i
=√ −ℏ exp − x + x exp − x2 − x
2mℏω πℏ3 2ℏ 2ℏ ℏ
 3 3 1/4 )
4m ω  mω 
+mω x2 exp − x2
πℏ3 2ℏ
 3 3 1/4 h
A2 4m ω  mω 
2 2
 mω 
2 2
 mω i
=√ 3
−ℏ exp − x + mωx exp − x + mωx exp − x2
2mℏω πℏ 2ℏ 2ℏ 2ℏ
 3 3 1/4
A2 4m ω 2
 mω 
=√ (2mωx − ℏ) exp − x2
2mℏω πℏ3 2ℏ
r  3 3 1/4  
ℏ 4m ω 2mω 2  mω 
= A2 x − 1 exp − x2
2mω πℏ3 ℏ 2ℏ
 mω 1/4  2mω   mω 
2
= A2 x − 1 exp − x2 .
πℏ ℏ 2ℏ

A2 is a normalization constant, which is chosen so that the integral of |ψ2 (x)|2 over the whole line
is 1.
 ∞
1= |ψ2 (x)|2 dx
−∞
 ∞  mω 1/2  2mω 2  mω 
= A22 2
x − 1 exp − x2 dx
−∞ πℏ ℏ ℏ
 mω 1/2  ∞  2mω 2  mω 
= 2A22 x2 − 1 exp − x2 dx
πℏ 0 ℏ ℏ
Make the following substitution.
r
mω
ξ= x
ℏ
r r
mω ℏ
dξ = dx → dx = dξ
ℏ mω

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 7 of 10

Consequently,
 mω 1/2  r !
∞
2 −ξ 2 ℏ
1= 2A22 2
(2ξ − 1) e dξ
πℏ 0 mω

2A2 ∞ 2 2
= 1/22 (2ξ − 1)2 e−ξ dξ
π
0
2A22 ∞ 4 2
= 1/2 (4ξ − 4ξ 2 + 1)e−ξ dξ
π
0  ∞ ∞ ∞
2A22

4 −ξ 2 2 −ξ 2 −ξ 2
= 1/2 4 ξ e dξ − 4 ξ e dξ + e dξ
π 0 0 0
"  #
2A22 √ 4! 1 5 √ 2! 1 3 √
   
1
= 1/2 4 · π −4· π + π
π 2! 2 1! 2 2
= 2A22 .

Solve for A2 .
1
A2 = √
2
Therefore, the second excited state of the harmonic oscillator is
 mω 1/4  2mω   mω 
ψ2 (x) = x2 − 1 exp − x2 .
4πℏ ℏ 2ℏ

We could keep using the promotion operator to get ψ3 (x), ψ4 (x), and so on if we wanted to.
Below are plots of the first three eigenstates versus x for the special case that mω/ℏ = 1.

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 8 of 10

ψ0 (x) and ψ1 (x) are orthogonal because the integral of an odd function over a symmetric interval
is zero.
∞ ∞  mω   4m3 ω 3 1/4
∗ mω 1/4  mω 
ψ0 (x)ψ1 (x) dx = exp − x2 x exp − x2 dx
−∞ −∞ πℏ 2ℏ πℏ3 2ℏ

2 mω ∞
r  mω 
= x exp − x2 dx
π ℏ −∞ ℏ
=0

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 9 of 10

ψ1 (x) and ψ2 (x) are orthogonal because the integral of an odd function over a symmetric interval
is zero.
∞  ∞  3 3 1/4  mω   mω 1/4  2mω 
4m ω  mω 
ψ1∗ (x)ψ2 (x) dx = 3
x exp − x 2
x2
− 1 exp − x2 dx
−∞ −∞ πℏ 2ℏ 4πℏ ℏ 2ℏ

1 mω ∞
 
2mω 2  mω 
=√ x x − 1 exp − x2 dx
π ℏ −∞ ℏ ℏ
=0

Now check the orthogonality of ψ0 (x) and ψ2 (x).

 ∞  ∞  mω   mω 1/4  2mω
 mω 1/4   mω 
ψ0∗ (x)ψ2 (x) dx = exp − x 2 2
x − 1 exp − x2 dx
−∞ −∞ πℏ 2ℏ 4πℏ ℏ 2ℏ
 
mω ∞ 2mω 2
r   mω 
= x − 1 exp − x2 dx
2πℏ −∞ ℏ ℏ
 
mω ∞ 2mω 2
r   mω 
=2 x − 1 exp − x2 dx
2πℏ 0 ℏ ℏ

Make the following substitution.

r
mω
ξ= x
ℏ
r r
mω ℏ
dξ = dx → dx = dξ
ℏ mω
Consequently,
 ∞  r !
mω ∞ 2
r
−ξ 2 ℏ
ψ0∗ (x)ψ2 (x) dx =2 (2ξ − 1)e dξ
−∞ 2πℏ 0 mω
r  ∞
2 2
= (2ξ 2 − 1)e−ξ dξ
π 0
r   ∞ ∞ 
2 2 2
= 2 ξ 2 e−ξ dξ − e−ξ dξ
π 0 0
r "  3  #
2 √ 2! 1 √ 1
= 2· π − π
π 1! 2 2
r √ √ 
2 π π
= −
π 2 2
= 0,

which means ψ0 (x) and ψ2 (x) are orthogonal as well. With the eigenenergies of the first three
eigenstates known, the ODE in t can be solved to determine the corresponding ϕ(t) in each case.

ϕ′0 (t) ℏω ϕ′1 (t) 3 ϕ′2 (t) 5

iℏ = iℏ = ℏω iℏ = ℏω
ϕ0 (t) 2 ϕ1 (t) 2 ϕ2 (t) 2
ϕ0 (t) = D0 e−iωt/2 ϕ1 (t) = D1 e−3iωt/2 ϕ2 (t) = D2 e−5iωt/2

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.10 Page 10 of 10

According to the principle of superposition, the general solution to Schrödinger’s equation is a

linear combination of the product solutions (or stationary states in this context)
Ψn (x, t) = ψn (x)ϕn (t) over all the eigenvalues.
∞
X
Ψ(x, t) = Bn Ψn (x, t)
n=0
= B0 Ψ0 (x, t) + B1 Ψ1 (x, t) + B2 Ψ2 (x, t) + · · ·
= B0 ψ0 (x)ϕ0 (t) + B1 ψ1 (x)ϕ1 (t) + B2 ψ2 (x)ϕ2 (t) + · · ·
 mω 1/4  mω 
= B0 exp − x2 e−iωt/2
πℏ 2ℏ
 3 3 1/4
4m ω  mω 
+ B1 x exp − x2 e−3iωt/2
πℏ3 2ℏ
 mω 1/4  2mω   mω 
+ B2 2
x − 1 exp − x2 e−5iωt/2 + · · ·
4πℏ ℏ 2ℏ

With a provided initial condition Ψ(x, 0) for the wave function, these coefficients Bn could be
determined.

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