COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY REVIEWER Eventually, or perhaps even quite soon, an

antithesis emerges. An antithesis is a statement

that counters a thesis.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
3. A synthesis
 psychology is the study of how people
integrates the viewpoints. Sooner or later, the
perceive, learn, remember, and think
debate between the thesis and the antithesis
about information. A cognitive
leads to a synthesis, which integrates the most
psychologist might study how people
credible features of each of two (or more)
perceive various shapes, why they
views.
remember some facts but forget others,
or how they learn language.

Heuristics Philosophical Origins of Psychology:

Rationalism versus Empiricism
 are mental shortcuts we use to process
information. Where and when did the study of cognitive
psychology begin?
Why study the history of cognitive psychology?
If we know where we came from, we may Historians of psychology usually trace the
better understand where we are heading. In earliest roots of psychology to two approaches
addition, we can learn from past mistakes. to understanding the human mind:

The fundamental questions in cognitive  philosophy, which seeks to understand

psychology remain the same, but the ways of the general nature of many aspects of
addressing these issues have changed. the world, in part through
Ultimately, cognitive psychologists hope to introspection, the examination of inner
learn how people think by studying how people ideas and experiences (from intro,
have thoughts about thinking. “inward, within,” and spect, “look”)
 physiology, which seeks a scientific
Dialectic
study of life-sustaining functions in
 is a developmental process whereby living matter, primarily through
ideas evolve over time through a back- empirical (observation based) methods
and-forth exchange of ideas; in a way, it
Plato and Aristotle disagreed regarding how to
is like a discussion spread out over an
investigate ideas.
extended period of time.

The dialectical process looks like this:

Plato was a rationalist. A rationalist believes
1. A thesis is proposed.
that the route to knowledge is through thinking
A thesis is a statement of belief 1999). After a and logical analysis. That is, a rationalist does
while, however, certain individuals notice not need any experiments to develop new
apparent flaws in the thesis. knowledge. A rationalist who is interested in
cognitive processes would appeal to reason as a
2. An antithesis emerges. source of knowledge or justification.
In contrast, Aristotle (a naturalist and biologist human mind. He believed that there are
as well as a philosopher) was an empiricist. An no innate ideas.
empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge
In the eighteenth century, German philosopher
via empirical evidence—that is, we obtain
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) synthesized the
evidence through experience and observation
views of Descartes and Locke, arguing that both
In contrast, rationalism is important in theory rationalism and empiricism have their place.
development. Rationalist theories without any
 Both must work together in the quest
connection to observations gained through
for truth. Most twenty-first-century
empiricist methods may not be valid; but
psychologists accept Kant’s synthesis.
mountains of observational data without an
organizing theoretical framework may not be
meaningful. Psychological Origins of Cognitive Psychology
The contrasting ideas of rationalism and Cognitive psychology has roots in many
empiricism became prominent with the French different ideas and approaches (see, e.g., King,
rationalist René Descartes (1596–1650) and the Woody, & Viney, 2013; Leahey, 2012). The
British empiricist John Locke (1632–1704). approaches that will be examined include early
approaches such as structuralism and
Descartes viewed the introspective, reflective
functionalism, followed by a discussion of
method as being superior to empirical methods
associationism, behaviorism, and Gestalt
for finding truth.
psychology.
 The famous expression cogito, ergo sum
Schools of Psychology
(I think, therefore I am) stems from
Descartes.  “Structuralism”
 He maintained that the only proof of his
existence is that he was thinking and Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832–1920)
doubting. German Psychologist
 Descartes felt that one could not rely on
one’s senses because those very senses  He was the founder of structuralism
have often proven to be deceptive (e.g.,  First major school of thought in
think of optical illusions). psychology
 Goal is to identify the basic elements
Locke, in contrast, had more enthusiasm for (structure) of psychological experience
empirical observation (Leahey, 2003). (affection, attention, memory, and
 Locke believed that humans are born sensation) Introspection method
without knowledge and therefore must CHALLENGES IN USING INTROSPECTION
seek knowledge through empirical METHOD
observation.
 Locke’s term for this view was tabula 1. People may not always be able to say
rasa (meaning “blank slate” in Latin). exactly what goes through their mind or
 The idea is that life and experience may not be able to put it into adequate
“write” knowledge on us. words.
 For Locke, then, the study of learning
was the key to understanding the
 2. What they say may not be accurate. Associations may result from:

 Contiguity (associating things that tend

3. The fact that people are asked to pay
to occur together at about the same
attention to their thoughts or to speak
time);
out loud while they are working on a
 Similarity (associating things with
task may itself alter the processes that
similar features or properties); or
are going on.
 Contrast (associating things that show
Other early psychologists criticized both the polarities, such as hot/cold, light/dark,
method (introspection) and the focus day/night).
(elementary structures of sensation) of
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)
structuralism. These critiques gave rise to a new
movement—functionalism.  Associationist
 Principle of law of effect
“Functionalism” William James
 Satisfaction serves as stimulus for
American psychologist (1842-1910) future actions
 His ideas were the predecessors of the
 School of psychology that focus on the
development of behaviorism.
processes of thought rather than on its
“Associationism to Behaviorism”
contents.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
 Pragmatism
 Principles of Psychology (1890/1970)  Classical conditioning (involuntary
learning behavior)
John Dewey (1859–1952)
 His ideas paved the way to the
 another early pragmatist who development of behaviorism.
profoundly influenced contemporary
“Behaviorism”
thinking in cognitive psychology
 pragmatic approach to thinking and  School of psychology which believes
schooling that behavior is shaped by
environmental factors.
Although functionalists were interested in
 Extreme version of associationism
how people learn, they did not really specify
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
a mechanism by which learning takes place.
 Father of “radical” behaviorism
This task was taken up by another group,  Concentrate only on the study of
observable behavior
associationists.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1958-1974)
“ASSOCIATIONISM” Hermann Ebbinghaus
 Operant Conditioning: Positive and
 he was the first experimenter to apply Negative reinforcement or punishment
associationist principles
 A study of how elements of the mind
associate with one another that result
in a form of learning
 “Cognitive Revolution” - early 1950’s

 movement in response to behaviorism

Cognitivism

 belief that most human behavior

explains how people think
 a synthesis of Behaviorism and
Criticisms of Behaviorism
Gestaltism
Behaviorism was challenged on many fronts
such as language acquisition, production, and
Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
comprehension.
 laboratory or other controlled
 First, although it seemed to work well
experiments
to account for certain kinds of learning,
 neuroscientific research
behaviorism did not account as well for
 self-reports
complex mental activities, such as
 case studies
language learning and problem solving.
 naturalistic observation, and;
 Second, more than understanding
 computer simulations and AI
people’s behavior, some psychologists
wanted to know what went on inside Fundamental Ideas in Cognitive Psychology
the head.
 Third, using the techniques of  Empirical data and theories are both
behaviorism to study nonhuman important—data in cognitive
animals was often easier than studying psychology can be fully understood only
human ones. Nonetheless, behaviorism in the context of an explanatory theory,
continues as a school of psychology, and theories are empty without
although not one that is particularly empirical data.
sympathetic to the cognitive approach,  Cognition is generally adaptive, but not
which involves metaphorically and in all specific instances.
sometimes literally peering inside  Cognitive processes interact with each
people’s heads to understand how they other and with non-cognitive processes.
learn, remember, think, and reason.  Cognition needs to be studied through a
variety of scientific methods.
“GESTALT APPROACH”  All basic research in cognitive
psychology may lead to applications,
 The whole is greater than the sum of its
and all applied research may lead to
parts.
basic understandings.
MAX WERTHEIMER (1880-1943)

Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967)

Cognitive Neuroscience
Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
 studies how the brain and other aspects
of the nervous system are linked to
cognitive processing and, ultimately, to
Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
behavior.
  The brain is the organ in our bodies that Limbic System
most directly controls our thoughts,
 is important to emotion, motivation,
emotions, and motivations
memory, and learning.
 Localization of function refers to the
 comprises three central interconnected
specific areas of the brain that control
cerebral structures: the septum, the
specific skills or behaviors.
amygdala, and the hippocampus.
Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and
The septum
Mechanisms of the Brain
 is involved in anger and fear
Nervous system
Amygdala
 is the basis for our ability to perceive,
adapt to, and interact with the world  plays an important role in emotion as
around us. well, especially in anger and aggression
 Stimulation of the amygdala commonly
Brain
results in fear. It can be evidenced in
 is the supreme organ of the nervous various ways, such as through
system. palpitations, fearful hallucinations, or
frightening flashbacks in memory
Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain,
Midbrain, and Hindbrain Damage to (lesions in) or removal of the
amygdala can result in maladaptive lack of fear.
Forebrain
In the case of lesions to the animal brain, the
 the region of the brain located toward animal approaches potentially dangerous
the top and front of the brain. objects without hesitation or fear, or can no
 It includes the cerebral cortex, the basal longer adequately learn fear reactions when it
ganglia, the limbic system, the encounters dangerous situations
thalamus, and the hypothalamus
Hippocampus
Cerebral Cortex
 essential in memory formation
 receiving and processing sensory  from the Greek word “seahorse,” its
information, approximate shape.
 thinking and other cognitive processing,  Essential for flexible learning, seeing
and relationships among items learned and
 planning and sending motor spatial memory
information
People who have suffered damage to or
Basal Ganglia removal of the hippocampus still can recall
existing memories—for example, they can
 are collections of neurons crucial to recognize old friends and places—but they are
motor function. Dysfunction of the unable to form new memories
basal ganglia can result in motor
deficits. These deficits include tremors, Korsakoff ’s syndrome.
involuntary movements, changes in
 A disease that produces loss of memory
posture and muscle tone, and slowness
function
of movement.
Thalamus  connects the forebrain to the spinal
cord.
 relays incoming sensory information
through groups of neurons that project Gray matter, red nucleus, substantia nigra, and
to the appropriate region in the cortex. ventral region
 Most of the sensory input into the brain
 Important in controlling movement
passes through the thalamus, which is
approximately in the center of the The Hindbrain
brain, at about eye level.
 When the thalamus malfunctions, the Medulla Oblongata
result can be pain, tremor, amnesia,  Nerves cross here from one side of the
impairment of language, and body to opposite side of the brain;
disruptions in waking and sleeping involved in cardiorespiratory function,
Hypothalamus digestion, and swallowing

 regulates behavior related to species Pons (also contains part of the reticular
survival: fighting, feeding, fleeing, and activating system)
mating.  pass signals from one part of the brain
 also helps regulate emotions and react to another.
to stress and plays a role in sleep  Involved in consciousness, facial nerves,
 The small size of the hypothalamus and bridging neural transmissions from
(from Greek hypo-, “under”; located at one part of the brain to another.
the base of the forebrain, beneath the
thalamus) Cerebellum (from Latin, “little brain”)

The Midbrain  Essential to balance, coordination, and

muscle tone, as well as some aspects of
 helps to control eye movement and memory involving procedure-related
coordination. movements
Superior colliculi (on top) Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function
 Involved in vision (especially visual  plays an extremely important role in
reflexes) human cognition. It enables us to think.
Inferior colliculi (below) Because of it, we can plan, coordinate
thoughts and actions, perceive visual
 Involved in hearing and sound patterns, and use language.
Reticular Activating System (RAS) (the Three Elements:
“reticular formation,”)
 Sulci (singular: sulcus) are small
 a network of neurons essential to grooves.
regulating consciousness, including  Fissures are large grooves.
sleep; wakefulness; arousal; attention  Gyri (singular: gyrus) are bulges
to some extent; and vital functions, between adjacent sulci or fissures.
such as heartbeat and breathing
Gray matter
Brainstem
  includes the grayish neural-cell bodies  In 1861, French scientist Paul Broca
that process the information that the (1824–1880) claimed that an autopsy
brain receives and sends. revealed that an aphasic stroke patient
had a lesion in the left cerebral
White Matter
hemisphere of the brain.
 of the brain’s interior includes mostly  By 1864, Broca was convinced that the
white, myelinated axons. left hemisphere of the brain is critical in
speech, a view that has held up over
TWO HEMISPHERES: time. The specific part of the brain that
 The left cerebral hemisphere Broca identified.

The receptors on the left side generally Wernicke’s area

transmit information to the right hemisphere.  researcher, German neurologist Carl
 The right cerebral hemisphere Wernicke, studied language-deficient
patients who could speak but whose
Directs responses on the left side of the body. speech made no sense. Like Broca,
 contralateral—from one side to he traced language ability to the left
another (contra-, “opposite”; lateral, hemisphere. He studied a different
“side”). precise location, now known as
 ipsilateral transmission—on the same Wernicke’s area, which contributes to
side—occurs as well. language comprehension

The corpus callosum Karl Spencer Lashley, often described as the

father of neuropsychology, started studying
 dense aggregate of neural fibers localization in 1915. He found that
connecting the two cerebral implantations of crudely built electrodes in
hemispheres apparently identical locations in the brain
 It transmits information back and forth. yielded different results. Different locations
sometimes paradoxically yielded the same
If the corpus callosum is cut, the two cerebral
results (e.g., see Lashley, 1950).
hemispheres—the two halves of the brain
cannot communicate with each other Despite the valuable early contributions by
Broca, Wernicke, and others, the individual
most responsible for modern theory and
Hemispheric Specialization research on hemispheric specialization was
Nobel Prize–winning psychologist Roger Sperry.
The study of hemispheric specialization in the
Sperry (1964) argued that each hemisphere
human brain can be traced back to Marc Dax, a
behaves in many respects like a separate brain.
country doctor in France. By 1836, Dax had
In a classic experiment that supports this
treated more than 40 patients suffering from
contention, Sperry and his colleagues severed
aphasia—loss of speech—as a result of brain
the corpus callosum connecting the two
damage. Dax noticed a relationship between
hemispheres of a cat’s brain. They then proved
the loss of speech and the side of the brain in
that information presented visually to one
which damage had occurred.
cerebral hemisphere of the cat was not
Broca’s area recognizable to the other hemisphere. Similar
Split-brain Patients temporal, and occipital lobes. The lobes are
involved in numerous functions.
 functions. Patients who have
undergone an operation severing the Frontal Lobe
corpus callosum
 toward the front of the brain
Spatial visualization ability  is associated with motor processing and
higher thought processes, such as
 the ability to mentally manipulate two-
abstract reasoning, problem solving,
or three-dimensional objects)
planning, and judgment
Spatial-orientation tasks also seem to be
The prefrontal cortex
localized in the right hemisphere
 the region toward the front of the
Apraxia
frontal lobe, is involved in complex
 disorders of skilled movements—often motor control and tasks that require
have had damage to the left integration of information over time
hemisphere. These people have lost the
Primary Motor Cortex
ability to carry out familiar purposeful
movements such as forming letters  specializes in the planning, control, and
when writing by hand execution of movement, particularly of
movement involving any kind of
Gazzaniga (1985, 2011) has argued that the
delayed response.
brain, and especially the right hemisphere of
the brain, is organized into relatively Homunculi (Homunculus is Latin for “little
independent functioning units that work in person”)
parallel. According to Gazzaniga, each of the
 they depict the body parts of a person
many discrete units of the mind operates
mapped on the brain.
relatively independently of the others. These
operations are often outside of conscious Parietal Lobe (TOUCH)
awareness. Although these various independent
and often subconscious operations are taking  the upper back portion of the brain, is
place, the left hemisphere tries to assign associated with somato- sensory
interpretations to these operations. processing.

Primary Somato-Sensory Cortex

Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres  receives information from the senses

about pressure, texture, temperature,
The cerebral hemispheres and cortex can be and pain.
divided into four parts. They are not distinct  located right behind the frontal lobe’s
units. Rather, they are largely arbitrary primary motor cortex.
anatomical regions divided by fissures.
Particular functions have been identified with Temporal Lobe
each lobe, but the lobes also interact. The four  located below the parietal lobe, directly
lobes, named after the bones of the skull lying under your temples.
directly over them, are the frontal, parietal,  It is associated with auditory processing
Occipital Lobe  neurons, transmit electrical signals from
one location to another in the nervous
 associated with visual processing
system
Projection areas
The soma
 the areas in the lobes in which sensory
 contains the nucleus of the cell
processing occurs.
 It is responsible for the life of the
 These areas are referred to as
neuron and connects the dendrites
projection areas because the nerves
to the axon.
contain sensory information going to
(projecting to) the thalamus. Dendrites

Visual Cortex  are branchlike structures that receive

information from other neurons, and
 Some neural fibers carrying visual
the soma integrates the information.
information travel ipsilaterally from the
left eye to the left cerebral hemisphere Axon
and from the right eye to the right
 long, thin tube that extends (and
cerebral hemisphere.
sometimes splits) from the soma and
Optic Chiasma responds to the information, when
appropriate, by transmitting an
 (from Greek, “visual X” or “visual
electrochemical signal, which travels to
intersection”) and go contra laterally to
the terminus (end), where the signal
the opposite hemisphere
can be transmitted to other neurons.
These are the words rostral, ventral, caudal,
Axons are of two basic, roughly equally
and dorsal. They are all derived from Latin
occurring kinds, distinguished by the presence
words and indicate the part of the brain with
or absence of myelin.
respect to other body parts.
Myelin
 Rostral refers to the front part of the
brain (literally the “nasal region”).  a white, fatty substance that surrounds
 Ventral refers to the bottom surface of some of the axons of the nervous
the body/brain (the side of the system, which accounts for some of the
stomach). whiteness of the white matter of the
 •Caudal literally means “tail” and refers brain.
to the back part of the body/brain.  The more an axon is myelinated, the
 Dorsal refers to the upside of the brain faster signals can be transmitted – the
(it literally means “back,” and in animals speed can reach 100 meters per second
the back is on the upside of the body).
Nodes of Ranvier
Neuronal Structure and Function
 Are small gaps in the myelin coating
Neurons along the axon, which increase
conduction speed even more by helping
 Individual neural cells
to create electrical signals, also called
 action potentials, which are then  Schizophrenics show high levels of
conducted down the axon. dopamine.

Terminal buttons This fact has led to the “dopamine theory of

schizophrenia,” which suggests that high levels
 are small knobs found at the ends of
of dopamine may be partially responsible for
the branches of an axon that do not
schizophrenic conditions.
directly touch the dendrites of the next
neuron. In contrast, patients with Parkinson’s disease
show low dopamine levels, which leads to the
Synapse
typical trembling and movement problems
 serves as a juncture between the associated with Parkinson’s.
terminal buttons of one or more
Serotonin
neurons and the dendrites (or
sometimes the soma) of one or more  plays an important role in eating
other neurons behavior and body-weight regulation.

Neurotransmitters

 are chemical messengers that transmit Viewing the Structures and Functions of the
information across the synaptic gap to Brain
the receiving dendrites of the next
Postmortem Studies
neuron
Studying Live Nonhuman Animals
Three types of chemical substances appear to
be involved in neurotransmission: To obtain single-cell recordings, researchers
insert a thin electrode next to a single neuron in
1. monoamine neurotransmitters
the brain of an animal (usually a monkey or cat).
2. amino-acid neurotransmitters
They then record the changes in electrical
3. neuropeptides
activity that occur in the cell when the animal is
Acetylcholine exposed to a stimulus. In this way, scientists can
measure the effects of certain kinds of stimuli,
 plays an important role in sleep and
such as visually presented lines, on the activity
arousal.
of individual neurons.
 associated with memory functions, and
the loss of acetylcholine through A second group of animal studies includes
Alzheimer’s disease has been linked to selective lesioning—surgically removing or
impaired memory functioning in damaging part of the brain—to observe
Alzheimer’s patients resulting functional. Researchers recently have
found neurochemical ways to induce lesions in
Dopamine
animals’ brains by administering drugs that
 associated with attention, learning, and destroy only those cells that use a particular
movement coordination. neurotransmitter. Some drugs’ effects are
 Dopamine also is involved in reversible, so that conductivity in the brain is
motivational processes, such as reward disrupted only for a limited amount of time.
and reinforcement.
A third way of conducting research with attention have investigated individual
animals is by employing genetic knock- out differences by using ERPs
procedures. By using genetic manipulations,  ERP can be used to examine
animals can be created without certain kinds of developmental changes in cognitive
brain cells or receptors. Comparisons with abilities.
normal animals then indicate what the function
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
of the missing receptors or cells may be.
 were used to pinpoint areas
Studying Live Humans
involved in word association
An array of less-invasive imaging techniques for
Static Imaging Techniques
use with humans has been developed. These
techniques—electrical recordings, static (a) Brain angiogram: A brain angiogram
imaging, and metabolic imaging—are described highlights the blood vessels of the brain.
in this section. (b) CT scan: A CT image of a brain uses a
series of rotating scans to produce a
Electrical Recordings
three-dimensional view of brain
 The brain transmits signals through structures.
electrical potentials. When recorded, (c) MRI scan: A rotating series of MRI scans
this activity appears as waves of various shows a clearer three-dimensional
widths (frequencies) and heights picture of brain structures than CT
(intensities). scans show.
(d) PET scan: These still photographs of PET
Electroencephalograms (EEGs)
scans of a brain show different
 are recordings of the electrical metabolic processes during different
frequencies and intensities of the living activities. PET scans permit the study of
brain, typically recorded over relatively brain physiology.
long periods (e) TMS (Transcranial magnetic
 Through EEGs, it is possible to study stimulation): TMS temporarily disrupts
brainwave activity indicative of normal brain activity to investigate
changing mental states such as deep cognitive functioning when particular
sleep or dreaming. areas are disrupted.

Event-Related Potential (ERP) Cognitive Neuropsychological Methods for

Studying Brain Functioning
 is the record of a small change in the
brain’s electrical activity in response to Single-cell recording
a stimulating event. The fluctuation
Electroencephalograms (EEG)
typically lasts a mere fraction of a
second. Event-related
 ERPs provide good information about
Positron emission tomography (PET) potential
the time course of task-related brain
(ERP)
activity.
 The ERP technique has been used in a Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
wide variety of studies. Some studies of
mental abilities such as selective Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) The distal (far) object is the object in the external
world (e.g., a falling tree). A tree falling creates a
Functional transcranial Doppler sonography
pattern on an informational medium. The
(fTCD)
informational medium could be sound waves, as
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in the sound of the falling tree or reflected light,
chemical molecules, or tactile information
coming from the environment. For example,
MRI also facilitates the detection of lesions, when the information from light waves comes
such as lesions associated with particular into contact with the appropriate sensory
disorders of language use, but it does not receptors of the eyes, proximal (near)
provide much information about physiological stimulation occurs (i.e., the cells in your retina
processes. absorb the light waves). Perception occurs when
a perceptual object (i.e., what you see) is created
CHAPTER 3: VISUAL PERCEPTION in you that reflects the properties of the external
Perception - is the set of processes by which we world. That is, an image of a falling tree is created
recognize, organize, and make sense of the on your retina that reflects the falling tree that is
sensations we receive from environmental in front of you.
stimuli (Goodale, 2000a, 2000b; Kosslyn &
Osherson, 1995; Marr, 1982; Pomerantz, 2003).

Visual Perception - It is the most widely

recognized and the most widely studied
perceptual modality (i.e., system for a particular
sense, such as touch or smell).

From Sensation to Perception

Perception does not consist of just seeing what

is being projected onto your retina; the process
is much more complex. Your brain processes the
visual stimuli, giving the stimuli meaning and
interpreting them.

Some Basic Concepts of Perception

James Gibson (1966, 1979) ❖ Where does perception end and

cognition begin? Furthermore, where
-provided a useful framework for studying does sensation end and perception
perception in his influential work.
begin? Answers to both questions are
-He introduced the concepts of distal (external) debatable. Instead we should view these
object, informational medium, proximal processes as part of a continuum.
stimulation, and perceptual object. ➢ Information flows through the
system. Different processes
address different questions.
Questions of sensation focus on qualities of Light is electromagnetic radiation that can be
stimulation. Is that shade of red brighter than the described in terms of wavelength. Humans can
red of a Red Delicious apple? Is the sound of that perceive only a small range of the wavelengths
falling tree louder than the sound of thunder? that exist; the visible wavelengths are from 380
How well do your impressions of color or sound to 750 nanometers.
match your friends’ impressions of the same? Vision begins when light passes through the
protective covering of the eye
Perception questions typically relate to identity
This covering, the cornea, is a clear dome that
and form, pattern, and movement.
protects the eye. The light then passes through
Is that red thing an apple? Did I just hear a tree
the pupil, the opening in the center of the iris. It
falling? Cognition occurs when this information
continues through the crystalline lens and the
is used to determine further goals. Is that apple
vitreous humor. The vitreous humor is a gel-like
edible? Should I get out of this forest?
substance that makes up the majority of the eye.
Eventually, the light focuses on the retina where
electromagnetic light energy is transduced—that
❖ One fundamental question for
is, converted—into neural electrochemical
perception is “How do we achieve impulses (Blake, 2000). Vision is most acute in
perceptual stability when there is so the fovea, which is a small, thin region of the
much instability at the level of sensory retina, the size of the head of a pin. When you
receptors?” Given the nature of our look straight at an object, your eyes rotate so
sensory receptors, variation is necessary that the image falls directly onto the fovea. The
for perception! In sensory adaptation, retina contains the photoreceptors, which
receptor cells adapt to constant convert light energy into electrochemical energy
stimulation by not firing until there is a that is transmitted by neurons to the brain.
change in stimulation. Through sensory There are two kinds of photoreceptors—rods
adaptation, we may stop detecting the and cones. Each eye contains roughly 120 million
presence of a stimulus. rods and 8 million cones. Rods and cones differ
not only in shape but also in their compositions,
❖ Sensory adaptation ensures that sensory
locations, and responses to light. Within the rods
information is changing constantly.
and cones are photo pigments, chemical
Because of the dulling effect of sensory
substances that react to light and transform
adaptation in the retina (the receptor
physical electromagnetic energy into an
surface of the eye), our eyes constantly electrochemical neural impulse that can be
are making tiny rapid movements. understood by the brain.
❖ Stimulus variation is an essential
attribute for perception. It paradoxically The rods are long and thin photoreceptors. They
makes the task of explaining perception are more highly concentrated in the periphery of
the retina than in the foveal region. The rods are
more difficult.
responsible for night vision and are sensitive to
light and dark stimuli. The cones are short and
How Does Our Visual System Work? thick photoreceptors and allow for the
perception of color. They are more highly
The precondition for vision is the existence of
concentrated in the foveal region than in the
light.
periphery of the retina (Durgin, 2000).The rods
and cones are connected to the brain. The Why are there two pathways?
neurochemical messages processed by the rods
The information from the primary visual cortex
and cones of the retina travel via the bipolar cells
in the occipital lobe is forwarded through two
to the ganglion cells (see Goodale, 2000a,
fasciculi (fiber bundles): One ascends toward the
2000b). The axons of the ganglion cells in the eye
parietal lobe (along the dorsal pathway), and one
collectively form the optic nerve for that eye. The
descends to the temporal lobe (along the ventral
optic nerves of the two eyes join at the base of
pathway).
the brain to form the optic chiasma. At this point,
the ganglion cells from the inward, or nasal, part Two pathways:
of the retina—the part closer to your nose—
cross through the optic chiasma and extend to 1. Dorsal pathway ( where pathway ) -
the opposite hemisphere of the brain. The responsible for processing location and
ganglion cells from the outward, or temporal motion information
area of the retina closer to your temple go to the 2. Ventral pathway ( what pathway ) -
hemisphere on the same side of the body. The responsible for processing the color,
lens of each eye naturally inverts the image of shape, and identity of visual stimuli
the world as it projects the image onto the What–where hypothesis
retina. In this way, the message sent to your
In particular, a group of monkeys with
brain is literally upside-down and backward.
lesions in the temporal lobe were able to
After being routed via the optic chiasma, about
indicate where things were but seemed
90% of the ganglion cells then go to the lateral
unable to recognize what they were. In
geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. From the
contrast, monkeys with lesions in the
thalamus, neurons carry information to the
parietal lobe were able to recognize
primary visual cortex (V1 or striate cortex) in the
what things were but not where they
occipital lobe of the brain. The visual cortex
were.
contains several processing areas. Each area
handles different kinds of visual information What–how hypothesis
relating to intensity and quality, including color,
location, depth, pattern, and form. An alternative interpretation of the
visual pathways. This hypothesis suggests the
Pathways to Perceive the What and the Where two pathways refer not to what things are and to
where they are, but rather to what they are and
What are the visual pathways in the brain?
to how they function. According to the what–
A pathway in general is the path the visual how hypothesis, spatial information about
information takes from its entering the human where something is located in space is always
perceptual system through the eyes to its being present in visual information processing. What
completely processed. Generally, researchers differs between the two pathways is whether the
agree that there are two pathways. Work on emphasis is on identifying what an object is or,
visual perception has identified separate neural instead, on how we can situate ourselves so as to
pathways in the cerebral cortex for processing grasp the object.
different aspects of the same stimuli (De Haan &
The what pathway can be found in the ventral
Cowey, 2011; De Yoe & Van Essen, 1988; Köhler
stream and is responsible for the identification of
et al., 1995). Perception deficits, such as ataxia
objects. The how pathway is located in the
and agnosia, indicate the existence of different
dorsal stream and controls movements in
pathways.
relation to the objects that have been identified In other words, we do not need higher cognitive
through the what pathway. Ventral and dorsal processes or anything else to mediate between
streams both arise from the same early visual our sensory experiences and our perceptions.
areas (Milner & Goodale, 2008). Existing beliefs or higher-level inferential
thought processes are not necessary for
The what–how hypothesis is best supported by
perception.
evidence of processing deficits: There are deficits
that impair people’s ability to recognize what Gibson (1979) believed that, in the real world,
they see and there are distinct deficits that sufficient contextual information usually exists
impair people’s ability to reach for what they see to make perceptual judgments.
(how).
Neuroscience and Direct Perception
Approaches to Perception: How Do
Neuroscience also indicates that direct
We Make Sense of What We See? perception may be involved in person
perception. About 30 to 100 milliseconds after a
Bottom-up theories - describe approaches in
visual stimulus, mirror neurons start firing.
which perception starts with the stimuli whose
Mirror neurons are active both when a person
appearance you take in through your eye. You
acts and when he or she observes that same act
look out onto the cityscape, and perception
performed by somebody else. So before we even
happens when the light information is
have time to form hypotheses about what we
transported to your brain. Therefore, they are
are perceiving, we may already be able to
data-driven (i.e., stimulus-driven) theories.
understand the expressions, emotions, and
Top-down theories - according to which movements of the person we observe
perception is driven by high-level cognitive (Gallagher, 2008).
processes, existing knowledge, and the prior
Template Theories suggest that our minds store
expectations that influence perception (Clark,
myriad sets of templates.
2003). These theories then work their way down
to considering the sensory data, such as the Templates are highly detailed models for
perceptual stimulus. You perceive buildings as patterns we might recognize. We recognize a
big in the background of the city scene because pattern by comparing it with our set of
you know these buildings are far away and templates.
therefore must be bigger than they appear.
Neuroscience and Template Theories Letters of
Bottom-Up Theories the alphabet are simpler than faces and other
complex stimuli. But how do we recognize
Gibson’s Theory of Direct Perception
letters? And does it make a difference to our
-How do we connect what we perceive to what brain whether we perceive letters or digits?
we have stored in our minds? Experiments suggest that there is indeed a
difference between letters and digits. An area on
Direct perception, the information in our or near the left fusiform gyrus (part of the
sensory receptors, including the sensory context, occipital and temporal lobes) is activated
is all we need to perceive anything. As the significantly more when a person is presented
environment supplies us with all the information with letters than with digits. It is not clear
we need for perception, this view is sometimes whether this “letter area” only processes letters
also called ecological perception. or whether it also plays a more minor role in the
processing of digits (Polk et al., 2002). The notion machines so, at some point, CAPTCHAs might
of the visual cortex specializing in different have to be developed that are more intricate.
stimuli is not new; other areas have been found
Feature-Matching Theories
that specialize in faces, for example (see
Kanwisher, McDermott, & Chun, 1997; McCarthy According to these theories, we attempt to
et al., 1997). match features of a pattern to features stored in
memory, rather than to match a whole pattern
Why Computers Have Trouble Reading
to a template or a prototype (Stankiewicz, 2003).
Handwriting
The Pandemonium Model
Think about how easy it is for you to perceive and
understand someone’s handwriting. In
handwriting, everybody’s numbers and letters
look a bit different. You can still distinguish them - One such feature-matching model has
without any problems (at least in most cases). been called Pandemonium
This is something computers do not do well. For (“pandemonium” refers to a noisy,
computers, reading handwriting is incredibly chaotic place and hell). In this model,
difficult and susceptible to mistakes. When you metaphorical “demons” with specific
deposit a check at an automated teller machine, duties receive and analyze the features
it “reads” your check automatically. In fact, the of a stimulus (Selfridge, 1959).
numbers at the bottom of your check that are - conceived by Oliver Selfridge.
written in a strange-looking font are so distinct - four kinds of demons: image demons,
that a machine cannot mistake them for one feature demons, cognitive demons, and
another. It is much harder, however, for a decision demons.
machine to decipher handwriting. Similarly, a The “image demons” receive a retinal image and
machine also will have trouble determining that
pass it on to “feature demons.” Each feature
all the letters in the right of Figure 3.10 are A’s demon calls out when matches are made
(unless it has a template for each one of the As).
between the stimulus and the given feature.
Therefore, some computers work with These matches are yelled out at demons at the
algorithms that consider the context in which the
next level of the hierarchy, the “cognitive
word is presented, the angular positions of the (thinking) demons.” The cognitive demons in
written letters (e.g., upright or tilted), and other
turn shout out possible patterns stored in
factors. memory that conform to one or more of the
You are probably familiar with CAPTCHAs features noticed by the feature demons. A
(Completely Automated Public Turing Test to Tell “decision demon” listens to the pandemonium
Computers and Humans Apart; see Figure 3.11) . of the cognitive demons. It decides on what has
They are used to tell humans and computers been seen, based on which cognitive demon is
apart so that spamming machines cannot post shouting the most frequently (i.e., which has the
spam on websites or sign up for e-mail accounts most matching features).
and send spam through those accounts. ❖ global precedence effect - slowed down
CAPTCHAs capitalize on the fact that most
if they had to identify local (small) S’s
approaches to machine vision use template
combining to form a global (big) H
matching (Hannagan et al., 2012). But as you can
instead of identifying local (small) H’s
imagine, new approaches are continuously being
developed to improve reading abilities of combining to form a global (big) H.
 ❖ local precedence effect - when letters In contrast to the bottom-up approach to
are more widely spaced, the effect is perception is the top-down, constructive
reversed. approach.
● Neurons that can recognize a complex Constructive perception, the perceiver builds
object are called gnostic units or (constructs) a cognitive understanding
“grandmother cells” because they imply (perception) of a stimulus. The concepts of the
that there is a neuron that is capable of perceiver and his or her cognitive processes
recognizing your grandmother. influence what he or she sees.
● two kinds of visual cortex neurons:
The perceiver uses sensory information as the
simple cells and complex cells, which
foundation for the structure but also uses other
were believed to differ in the complexity
sources of information to build the perception.
of the information about stimuli they
This viewpoint also is known as intelligent
processed. perception because it states that higher-order
Recognition-by-Components Theory thinking plays an important role in perception.
Seeing with the Help of Geons Irving Biederman It also emphasizes the role of learning in
(1987) suggested that we recognize 3-D objects perception (Fahle, 2003).
by manipulating simple geometric shapes called
geons (for geometrical ions). These shapes According to constructivists, during perception,
include objects such as bricks, cylinders, wedges, we quickly form and test various hypotheses
cones, and their curved axis counterparts regarding percepts. The percepts are based on
(Biederman, 1990/1993b). According to the following:
Biederman’s recognition-by-components (RBC) • what we sense (the sensory data)
theory, we quickly recognize objects by
observing the edges of them and then • what we know (knowledge stored in
decomposing the objects into geons. The geons memory)
also can be recomposed into alternative
• what we can infer (using high-level
arrangements. You know that a small set of
cognitive processes)
letters can be manipulated to compose countless
words and sentences. Similarly, a small number One reason for favoring the constructive
of geons can be used to build up many basic approach is that bottom-up (data-driven)
shapes and then myriad basic objects theories of perception do not fully explain
context effects. Context effects are the
According to Biederman (1993a, 2001), his RBC
influences of the surrounding environment on
theory parsimoniously explains how we
perception (e.g., our perception of “THE CAT” in
recognize the general classification for
Figure 3.8).
multitudinous objects quickly, automatically,
and accurately. This recognition occurs despite Configural-superiority effect by which objects
changes in viewpoint. It occurs even when the presented in certain configurations are easier to
stimulus object is degraded in some way. recognize than the objects presented in
isolation, even if the objects in the
Top-Down Theories
configurations are more complex than those in
isolation.
object-superiority effect, in which a target line considering the approaches to be
that forms a part of a drawing of a 3-D object is complementary. Sensory information may be
identified more accurately than a target that more richly informative and less ambiguous in
forms a part of a disconnected 2-D pattern interpreting experiences than the constructivists
would suggest. But it may be less informative
The word-superiority effect indicates that when
than the direct-perception theorists would
people are presented with strings of letters, it is
assert. Similarly, perceptual processes may be
easier for them to identify a single letter if the
more complex than hypothesized by Gibsonian
string makes sense and forms a word instead of
theorists. This would be particularly true under
being just a nonsense sequel of letters.
conditions in which the sensory stimuli appear
The viewpoint of constructive or intelligent only briefly or are degraded. Degraded stimuli
perception shows the central relation between are less informative for various reasons. For
perception and intelligence. According to this example, the stimuli may be partially obscured
viewpoint, intelligence is an integral part of our or weakened by poor lighting. Or they may be
perceptual processing. We do not perceive incomplete, or distorted by illusory cues or other
simply in terms of what is “out there in the visual “noise” (distracting visual stimulation
world.” Rather, we perceive in terms of the analogous to audible noise). We likely use a
expectations and other cognitions we bring to combination of information from the sensory
our interaction with the world. In this view, receptors and our past knowledge to make sense
intelligence and perceptual processes interact in of what we perceive.
the formation of our beliefs about what it is that
Some experimental evidence supports this
we are encountering in our everyday contacts
integrated view (Treue, 2003; van Zoest & Donk,
with the world at large.
2004; Wolfe et al., 2003).
How Do Bottom-Up Theories and Top-Down
Perception of Objects and Forms
Theories Go Together?
Viewer-centered representation, is that the
Both theoretical approaches have garnered
individual stores the way the object looks to him
empirical support (Cutting & Kozlowski, 1977, cf.
or her. Thus, what matters is the appearance of
Palmer, 1975). So how do we decide between
the object to the viewer (in this case, the
the two? On one level, the constructive-
appearance of the computer to the author), not
perception theory, which is more top-down,
the actual structure of the object. The shape of
seems to contradict direct-perception theory,
the object changes, depending on the angle from
which is more bottom-up. Constructivists
which we look at it. A number of views of the
emphasize the importance of prior knowledge in
object are stored, and when we try to recognize
combination with relatively simple and
an object, we have to rotate that object in our
ambiguous information from the sensory
mind until it fits one of the stored images.
receptors. In contrast, direct perception
theorists emphasize the completeness of the Object-centered representation, is that the
information in the receptors themselves. They individual stores a representation of the object,
suggest that perception occurs simply and independent of its appearance to the viewer. In
directly. Thus, there is little need for complex this case, the shape of the object will stay stable
information processing. Instead of viewing these across different orientations (McMullen & Farah,
theoretical approaches as incompatible, we may 1991). This stability can be achieved by
gain deeper insight into perception by establishing the major and minor axes of the
object, which then serve as a basis for defining Gestalt principles
further properties of the object.
Figure-ground—what stands out from, versus
A third orientation in representation is what recedes into, the background. You
landmark-centered. In landmark-centered probably first will notice the light-colored
representation, information is characterized by lettering of the word figure. We perceive this
its relation to a well-known or prominent item. light-colored lettering as the figure against the
Imagine visiting a new city. Each day you leave darker ground. But if you take a closer look, you
your hotel and go on short trips. It is easy to can see that the darker surrounding actually
imagine that you would represent the area you depicts the word ground.
explore in relation to your hotel.
Symmetry requires that features appear to have
The Perception of Groups—Gestalt Laws balanced proportions around a central axis or a
central point.
Perception helps us make sense of the confusing
stimuli that we perceive in the world. One way to
bring order and coherence into our perception is
our ability to group similar things. This way, we
can reduce the number of things that need to be
processed. We can better decide which things
belong together or to the same object. In other
words, we organize objects in a visual array into
coherent groups.The Gestalt approach to form
perception that was developed in Germany in
the early twentieth century is particularly useful
for understanding how we perceive groups of
objects or even parts of objects to form integral
wholes (Palmer, 1999a, 1999b, 2000; Palmer &
Rock, 1994; Prinzmetal, 1995). The approach was
founded by Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), Wolfgang
Köhler (1887–1968), and Max Wertheimer
(1880–1943) and was based on the notion that
the whole differs from the sum of its individual
parts (see Chapter 1).
Recognizing Patterns and Faces
The overarching law of the Gestalt approach is
the law of Prägnanz. We tend to perceive any
given visual array in a way that most simply Two Different Pattern Recognition Systems
organizes the different elements into a stable
and coherent form. Thus, we do not merely
experience a jumble of unintelligible, 1. The first system specializes in
disorganized sensations. For example, we tend recognizing parts of objects and in
to perceive a focal figure and other sensations as
assembling those parts into distinctive
forming a background for the figure on which we
wholes (feature analysis system).
focus.
 2. The second system (configurational perceptual systems are misled by the same
system) specializes in recognizing larger information that usually helps us to achieve size
configurations, not analyzing parts of constancy
objects or the construction of the Shape constancy is the perception that an object
objects. The second system is most maintains the same shape despite changes in the
relevant to recognizing faces. shape of the proximal stimulus (Figure 3.24 ). An
Face recognition occurs, at least in part, in the object’s perceived shape remains the same
fusiform gyrus of the temporal lobe. This brain despite changes in its orientation and hence in
area responds intensely when we look at faces the shape of its retinal image. As the actual
but not when we look at other object. shape of the pictured door changes, some parts
of the door seem to be changing differentially in
Expert-individuation hypothesis -According to
their distance from us.
this theory, the fusiform gyrus is activated when
one examines items with which one has visual Depth Perception
expertise.
Depth is the distance from a surface, usually
Prosopagnosia—the inability to recognize using your own body as a reference surface
faces—implies damage to the configurational when speaking in terms of depth perception.
system This use of depth information extends beyond
the range of your body’s reach. When you drive,
People affected by schizophrenia often have
you use depth to assess the distance of an
trouble recognizing emotions in faces.
approaching automobile. When you decide to
Perceptual Constancies call out to a friend walking down the street, you
determine how loudly to call. Your decision is
Perceptual constancy occurs when our
based on how far away you perceive your friend
perception of an object remains the same even
to be.
when our proximal sensation of the distal object
changes (Gillam, 2000). The physical Depth Cues
characteristics of the external distal object are
Monocular depth cues can be represented in
probably not changing. But because we must be
just two dimensions and observed with just one
able to deal effectively with the external world,
eye. Figure 3.26 illustrates several of the
our perceptual system has mechanisms that
monocular depth cues defined in Table 3.3 . They
adjust our perception of the proximal stimulus.
include texture gradients, relative size,
Thus, the perception remains constant although
interposition, linear perspective, aerial
the proximal sensation changes. Here we
perspective, location in the picture plane, and
consider two of the main constancies: size and
motion parallax.
shape constancies.
Binocular depth cues, based on the receipt of
Size constancy is the perception that an object
sensory information in three dimensions from
maintains the same size despite changes in the
both eyes. Binocular depth cues use the relative
size of the proximal stimulus. The size of an
positioning of your eyes. Your two eyes are
image on the retina depends directly on the
positioned far enough apart to provide two kinds
distance of that object from the eye. The same
of information to your brain: binocular disparity
object at two different distances projects
and binocular convergence. In binocular
different-size images on the retina. Some striking
disparity, your two eyes send increasingly
illusions can be achieved when our sensory and
disparate (differing) images to your brain as to see forms and patterns in space. Generally,
objects approach you. Your brain interprets the people with agnosia have normal sensations of
degree of disparity as an indication of distance what is in front of them. They can perceive the
from you. In addition, for objects we view at colors and shapes of objects and persons, but
relatively close locations, we use depth cues they cannot recognize what the objects are. They
based on binocular convergence. In binocular have trouble with the what pathway.
convergence, your two eyes increasingly turn Disturbance in the temporal region of the cortex
inward as objects approach you. Your brain can lead to simultagnosia. In simultagnosia, an
interprets these muscular movements as individual is unable to pay attention to more
indications of distance from you. than one object at a time. A person with
simultagnosia would not see each of the objects
depicted in Figure 3.28 . Rather, the person
might report seeing the hammer but not the
other objects (Williams, 1970).

Prosopagnosia results in a severely impaired

ability to recognize human faces. A person with
prosopagnosia might not recognize her or his
own face in the mirror.

The functioning of the right-hemisphere fusiform

gyrus is strongly implicated in prosopagnosia. In
particular, the disorder is associated with
damage to the right temporal lobe of the brain.
Prosopagnosia, in particular, and agnosia, in
general, are obstacles that persist over time. In
The brain contains neurons that specialize in the
one particular case, a woman who sustained
perception of depth. These neurons, as one
carbon-monoxide toxicity began to suffer from
might expect, are referred to as binocular
agnosia, including prosopagnosia. After 40 years,
neurons. The neurons integrate incoming
this woman was reevaluated and still
information from both eyes to form information
demonstrated these deficits. These findings
about depth. The binocular neurons are found in
reveal the lasting nature of agnosia.
the visual cortex (Parker, 2007)
Difficulties in Knowing the “How”
Deficits in Perception
A different kind of perceptual deficit is
Difficulties Perceiving the “What” Consider first
associated with damage to the how pathway.
the what. People who suffer from an agnosia
This deficit is optic ataxia, which is an impaired
have trouble perceiving sensory information
ability to use the visual system to guide
(Moscovitch, Winocur, & Behrmann, 1997).
movement (Borchers et al., 2013). People with
Agnosias often are caused by damage to the
this deficit have trouble reaching for things. All
border of the temporal and occipital lobes
of us have had the experience of coming home
(Farah, 1990, 1999) or restricted oxygen flow to
at night and trying to find the keyhole in the front
areas of the brain, sometimes as a result of
door. It’s too dark to see, and we have to grope
traumatic brain injury (Zoltan, 1996). There are
with our key for the keyhole, often taking a while
many kinds of agnosias. Not all of them are
to find it. Someone with optic ataxia has this
visual. Here, we focus on a few specific inabilities
problem even with a fully lit visual field. The how with this form of color-blindness have difficulty
pathway is impaired. in distinguishing red from green although they
may be able to distinguish, for example, dark red
Ataxia results from a processing failure in the
from light green (Visual disabilities: Color-
posterior parietal cortex, where sensorimotor
blindness, 2004).
information is processed. It is assumed that
higher-order processes are involved because The extreme form of red-green color blindness is
most patients’ disorders are complex, and they called protanopia. The other types of color
can indeed grasp objects under certain blindness are deuteranopia (trouble seeing
circumstances (Jackson et al., 2009). greens with symptoms similar to protanopia)
and tritanopia (confusion of blues and greens,
People with ataxia can improve their movements
and yellows that disappear or appear as light
toward a visible aim when they hold off with
shades of reds).
their movements for a few seconds. Immediate
movements are executed through dorsal-stream *Ishihara test plates are often used to detect
processing, whereas delayed movements make anomalies in color perception.
use of the ventral system, including the
CHAPTER 4 : ATTENTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS
occipitotemporal and temporoparietal areas
(Himmelbach et al., 2009; Milner et al., 2003; The Nature of Attention and Consciousness
Milner & Goodale, 2008).
[Attention] is the taking possession of the mind,
Anomalies in Color Perception in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem
several simultaneously possible objects or trains
Color perception deficits are much more
of thoughts. . . . It implies withdrawal from some
common in men than in women, and they are
things in order to deal effectively with others. —
genetically linked. However, they can result from
William James, Principles of Psychology
lesions to the ventromedial occipital and
temporal lobes.

There are several kinds of color deficiency, which

are sometimes referred to as kinds of “color
blindness.” Least common is rod
monochromacy, also called achromacy. People
with this condition have no color vision at all. It
is the only true form of pure color blindness. In
this condition the cones are nonfunctional. They
see only shades of gray as a function of their
vision through the rods of the eye.

Most people who suffer from deficits in color

perception can still see some color, despite the
name color blindness. In dichromacy, only two of
the mechanisms for color perception work, and
one is malfunctioning. The result of this
malfunction is one of three types of color
blindness (color-perception deficits). The most
common is red-green color blindness. People
Attention is the means by which we actively any relief from the crowding on the beach—a
select and process a limited amount of throng of people are standing in the water with
information from all of the information captured little space to move unless you move out
by our senses, our stored memories, and our considerably further into the water. The
other cognitive processes (De Weerd, 2003a; lifeguards on duty must constantly monitor the
Rao, 2003). crowds in the water to detect anything that
seems unusual and act fast in case of an
Attention includes both conscious and
emergency. In the short term, they quickly have
unconscious processes (Nobre & Kastner, 2014).
to detect a crucial stimulus among the mass of
In many cases, conscious processes are relatively stimuli on the beach (signal detection), for
easy for researchers to study. Unconscious example, making sure no one is drowning; in the
processes are harder to study, simply because long term, however, they also have to maintain
you are not conscious of them (Jacoby, Lindsay, their attention over a long period (vigilance) to
& Toth, 1992; Merikle, 2000). ensure that nothing is amiss during their entire
working period.
Consciousness includes both the feeling of
awareness and the content of awareness, some Signal Detection: Finding Important Stimuli in a
of which may be under the focus of attention Crowd
(Bourguignon, 2000; Farthing, 1992, 2000;
Signal-detection theory (SDT) is a framework to
Taylor, 2002).
explain how people pick out the important
Conscious attention plays a causal role in stimuli embedded in a wealth of irrelevant,
cognition, and serves three purposes. distracting stimuli. SDT often is used to measure
sensitivity to a target’s presence.
1. It helps monitor our interactions with the
environment. We maintain our awareness of First, in hits (also called “true positives”), the
how well we are adapting to a situation. lifeguard correctly identifies the presence of a
target (i.e., somebody drowning). Second, in
2. It assists us in linking our past (memories) and false alarms (also called “false positives”), he or
our present (sensations) to give us a sense of she incorrectly identifies the presence of a target
continuity of experience. Such continuity may that is actually absent (i.e., the lifeguard thinks
even serve as the basis for personal identity. somebody is drowning who actually isn’t). Third,
3. It helps us control and plan for our future in misses (also called “false negatives”), the
actions based on the information from lifeguard fails to observe the presence of a target
monitoring and from the links between past (i.e., the lifeguard does not see the drowning
memories and present sensations (Posner, 2011) person). Fourth, in correct rejections (also called
“true negatives”), the lifeguard correctly
Attention identifies the absence of a target (i.e., nobody is
Attending to Signals over the Short and Long drowning, and he or she knows that nobody is in
Terms trouble).

Have you ever spent a hot summer day at an

overcrowded beach? People are lying side by
side on the sand, lined up like sardines in a tin.
And although a trip to the water might bring
some relief from the heat, it does not provide
  Sensitivity is measured in terms of hits something when you are not sure where it will
minus false alarms. appear (Mangun, 2012).

SDT can be discussed in the context of attention, Search is made more difficult by distracters,
perception, or memory: nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away
from the target stimulus. In the case of search,
• Attention—paying enough attention to false alarms usually arise when we encounter
perceive objects that are there such distracters while searching for the target
stimulus.
• Perception—perceiving faint signals that may
or may not be beyond your perceptual range Two different kinds of searches:
(such as a high-pitched tone)
Feature search - we look for just one feature
• memory—indicating whether you have or (e.g., color, shape, or size) that makes our search
have not been exposed to a stimulus before, object different from all others (Treisman, 1993;
such as whether the word champagne appeared Weidner & Mueller, 2009)
on a list that was to be memorized
Conjunction search - we have to combine two
Vigilance: Waiting to Detect a Signal or more features to find the stimulus we’re
looking for. Because in conjunction searches we
When you have to pay attention to detect a
look for a combination of features, these
stimulus that can occur at any time over a long
searches are more difficult than feature searches
period of time, you need to be vigilant.
that look for just one feature.
Vigilance refers to a person’s ability to attend to
Feature-Integration Theory
a field of stimulation over a prolonged period,
during which the person seeks to detect the Feature-integration theory explains why it is
appearance of a particular target stimulus of relatively easy to conduct feature searches and
interest. An individual who watchfully waits to relatively difficult to conduct conjunction
detect a signal stimulus that may appear at an searches.
unknown time is being vigilant
Anne Treisman (1986) developed a model of
Neuroscience and Vigilance Both the amygdala how our minds conduct visual searches. She
and thalamus are involved in vigilance. The suggested that two stages are involved when we
amygdala particularly plays a pivotal role in the perceive objects.
recognition of emotional stimuli (for example
when someone is confronted with a threatening First stage, we perceive features of objects,
stimulus; Phelps, 2004, 2006; van Marle et al., including color and size.
2009). An electroencephalogram (EEG) will show - This process is automatic and does not need our
less lowfrequency activity and bigger event- conscious attention. This first stage occurs in
related potentials (ERPs) the more vigilant a feature searches.
person is (Llinas & Steriade, 2006; Oken, Salinsky,
& Elsas, 2006) - We can recognize a stimulus immediately and
do not need additional time for cognitive
Search: Actively Looking processing.
Search refers to a scan of the environment for
particular features—actively looking for
Second stage of object perception involves our Figure 4.6 illustrates how these listening tasks
connecting two or more features with some sort might be presented. You are required to repeat
of “mental glue.” back only one of the messages as soon as
possible after you hear it. In other words, you are
-This stage requires our conscious attention.
to follow one message (think of a detective
“shadowing” a suspect) but ignore the other

Cherry’s participants successfully shadowed

distinct messages in dichotic-listening tasks,
although such shadowing required a significant
amount of concentration. The participants were
also able to notice physical, sensory changes in
the unattended message—for example, when
the message was changed to a tone or the voice
Similarity Theory changed from a male to a female speaker. They
did not, however, notice semantic changes in the
- the more similar target and distracters
unattended message. They failed to notice even
are, the more difficult it is to find the
when the unattended message shifted from
target English to German or was played backward.
Conversely, about one-third of people, when
Selective Attention
their name is presented during these situations,
Colin Cherry (1953; see also Bee & Micheyl, will switch their attention to their name. Some
2008) referred to this phenomenon as the researchers have noted that those who hear
cocktail party problem, the process of tracking their name in the unattended message tend to
one conversation while distracted by other have limited working-memory capacity. As a
conversations. result, they are easily distracted (Conway,
Cowan, & Bunting, 2001). Infants listening to two
Cherry did not actually hang out at numerous
messages also will shift their attention to the one
cocktail parties to study conversations. He
in which their name is said (Newman, 2005)
studied selective attention in a more carefully
controlled experimental setting. He devised a So what helps us to attend only to the message
task known as shadowing. of the target speaker to whom we wish to
listen?
Shadowing - you listen to two different
messages. 1. Distinctive sensory characteristics of the
target’s speech (e.g., high versus low pitch,
Cherry presented a separate message to each
pacing, and rhythmicity)
ear, known as dichotic presentation
2. Sound intensity (loudness)

3. Location of the sound source (Brungard &

Simpson, 2007)

Theories of Selective Attention

Early Filter Model

According to one of the earliest theories of be wrong (e.g., Gray & Wedderburn, 1960).
attention, we filter information right after we Moray (1959) found that even when participants
notice it at the sensory level. That is, all the ignore most other high-level (e.g., semantic)
incoming information is being perceived and aspects of an unattended message, they
stored in sensory memory. frequently still recognize their names in an
unattended ear (Wood & Cowan, 1995). Moray
Sensory memory only stores the information for
suggested that the reason for this effect is that
a split second and then forwards it to a filter that
messages that are of high importance to a
allows only one message to move forward to be
person may break through the filter of selective
processed in more detail.
attention (e.g., Koivisto & Revonsuo, 2007;
That message is distinguished by characteristics Marsh et al., 2007). But other messages may not.
such as loudness, pitch, or accent. The stimuli To modify Broadbent’s metaphor, one could say
that are filtered out at the sensory level may that, according to Moray, the filter blocks out
never reach the level of perception. Except for most information at the sensory level. But some
the one message that will be further processed, personally important messages are so powerful
all other information is being processed. that they burst through the filtering mechanism.

Short-term memory then enables us to respond Attenuation Model

to the message and to store necessary
To explore why some unattended messages
information for future use in long-term memory.
pass through the filter, Anne Treisman
Donald Broadbent’s theory was supported by conducted some experiments. She had
Colin Cherry’s findings that sensory information participants shadowing coherent messages, and
sometimes may be noticed by an unattended ear at some point, she switched the remainder of the
if it does not have to be processed elaborately coherent message from the attended to the
(e.g., you may notice that the voice in your unattended ear. Participants picked up the first
unattended ear switches to a tone). But few words of the message they had been
information requiring higher perceptual shadowing in the unattended ear (Treisman,
processes is not noticed if not attended to (e.g., 1960), so they must have been somehow
you would likely not notice that the language in processing the content of the unattended
your unattended ear switches from English to message. Moreover, if the unattended message
German). was identical to the attended one, all
participants noticed it. They noticed even if one
of the messages was slightly out of temporal
synchronization with the other (Treisman,
1964a, 1964b). Treisman also observed that
some fluently bilingual participants noticed the
identity of messages if the unattended message
was a translated version of the attended one.

Moray’s modification of Broadbent’s filtering

mechanism was clearly not sufficient to explain
Selective Filter Model Treisman’s modification (1960, 1964a, 1964b)
findings. Her findings suggested that at least
Not long after Broadbent’s theory was proposed,
some information about unattended signals is
evidence began to suggest that his model must
being analyzed. Treisman proposed a theory of
selective attention that involves an attenuating models differ only in terms of where they
mechanism (Figure 4.7). Instead of blocking out hypothesize the bottleneck to be positioned.
stimuli, the filter (attenuator) merely weakens
A Synthesis of Early Filter and Late-Filter Models
(attenuates) the strength of all stimuli other than
the target stimulus. So when the stimuli reach us, Both early and late selection theories have data
we analyze them at a low level for target to support them. So what is a researcher to do?
properties such as loudness and pitch. You may In 1967, Ulric Neisser synthesized the early filter
listen for the voice of the person you are talking and the late-filter models and proposed that two
to in a noisy bar, for example. If the stimuli processes govern attention:
possess those target properties, we pass the
signal on to the next stage; if they do not possess • Preattentive processes: These automatic
those target properties, we pass on a weakened processes are rapid and occur in parallel. They
version of the stimulus. In a next step, we can be used to notice only physical sensory
perceptually analyze the meaning of the stimuli characteristics of the unattended message. But
and their relevance to us. If a message from the they do not discern meaning or relationships.
unattended ear contains some information that • Attentive, controlled processes: These
is important to us (e.g., our name), it will be processes occur later. They are executed serially
picked up, even though the signal has been and consume time and attentional resources,
weakened by the attenuator. That is, although such as working memory. Information is
the attenuator weakens some streams of processed in much more detail here.
information to make it easier for us to process
the attended message, we still receive that
information as a weakened signal and thus can
pick up information that is of relevance. Because
the unattended messages are weaker, only parts
will be picked up that are of significance,
whereas the rest will go unnoticed.

Late-Filter Model
A two-step model could account for Cherry’s,
Deutsch and Deutsch (1963; Norman, 1968)
Moray’s, and Treisman’s data. The model also
developed a model in which the location of the
nicely incorporates aspects of Treisman’s signal-
filter is even later in the process (Figure 4.8 ).
attenuation theory and of her subsequent
They suggested that stimuli are filtered out only
feature-integration theory. Remember how
after they have been analyzed for both their
Treisman suggested that we can use two
physical properties and their meaning. This later
different processes during searches: feature
filtering would allow people to recognize
detection and feature integration?
information entering the unattended ear. For
example, they might recognize the sound of their The feature-detection process may be linked to
own names or a translation of attended input preattentive, automatic processing.
(for bilinguals). Proponents of both the early and
the late-filtering mechanisms propose that an The feature-integration process may be linked
attentional bottleneck exists through which only to attentive, conscious processing.
a single source of information can pass. The two Unfortunately, however, the two-step model
does not do a good job of explaining the
continuum of processes from fully automatic in an attended region of the visual field, the
ones to fully controlled ones. Recall, for example, occipital P1 (a wave of positive polarity) is larger
that fully controlled processes appear to be at than when the target appears in an unattended
least partially automatized (Spelke, Hirst, & region (Eason, Harter, & White, 1969; Van
Neisser, 1976). How does the two-process model Voorhis & Hillyard, 1977). The P1 effect also
explain the automatization of processes in occurs when participants’ attention is drawn to a
divided-attention phenomena? For example, particular location by a sensory cue, and the
how can one read for comprehension while target subsequently appears in just that location.
writing dictated, categorized words? We will If the interval between the appearance of the
discuss this in the section on divided attention. cue and the target is small, the P1 wave is
enlarged and the reaction time is faster than for
Neuroscience and Selective Attention
targets that appear with a significant delay after
As early as in the 1970s, researchers employed the cue. In fact, a delay between cue and target
ERPs to study attention. A groundbreaking study can even lead to a delay in reaction time and
was conducted by Hillyard et al. (1973), when decreased size of P1 wave (Hopfinger & Mangun,
they exposed their participants to two streams 1998, 2001).
of tones, one in each ear (the streams differed in
Investigating Divided Attention in the Lab
pitch). The participants had to detect
occasionally occurring target stimuli. When the When people try to perform two overlapping
target stimuli occurred in the attended ear, the speeded tasks (ones that large numbers of
first negative component of the ERP was larger people cannot finish on time), the responses for
than when the target occurred in the unattended one or both tasks are almost always slower
ear. N1 is a negative wave that appears about 90 (Pashler, 1994). When a second task begins soon
milliseconds after the onset of the target after the first task has started, speed of
stimulus. The researchers hypothesized that the performance usually suffers. This slowing is the
N1 wave was a result of the enhancement of the psychological refractory period (PRP) effect, also
target stimulus. At the same time, the other called attentional blink.
stimuli were suppressed. This result is consistent
An entirely different approach to studying
with filter theories. Later studies (Woldorff &
divided attention has focused on extremely
Hillyard, 1991) found an even earlier reaction to
simple tasks that require speedy responses.
the target stimulus in the form of a positive wave
When people try to perform two overlapping
that occurs about 20–50 milliseconds after the
speeded tasks (ones that large numbers of
onset of a target. The wave originates in the
people cannot finish on time), the responses for
Heschl’s gyri, which are located in the auditory
one or both tasks are almost always slower
cortex (Woldorff et al., 1993). Twenty-first-
(Pashler, 1994). When a second task begins soon
century studies still use these methods to
after the first task has started, speed of
explore topics as diverse as the influence of
performance usually suffers. This slowing is the
mothers’ socioeconomic status on children’s
psychological refractory period (PRP) effect, also
selective attention (Stevens, Lauinger, & Neville,
called attentional blink. Findings from PRP
2009). They have found that children of mothers
studies indicate that people fairly easily process
with lower levels of education show reduced
physical properties of incoming information
effects of selective attention on neural
while engaged in another speeded task (Miller,
processing. Similar effects also have been found
Ulrich, & Rolke, 2009; Pashler, 1994). However,
for visual attention. If a target stimulus appears
when they need to engage in more elaborate
processing such as choosing a response or least some attentional resources may be specific
retrieving information from memory, their speed to the modality (e.g., verbal or visual) in which a
will decline and one or both tasks will show the task is presented. For example, most people can
PRP effect. easily listen to music and concentrate on writing
simultaneously. But it is harder to listen to the
Theories of Divided Attention
news station and concentrate on writing at the
To understand our ability to divide our attention, same time. The reason is that both are verbal
researchers have developed capacity models of tasks. The words from the news interfere with
attention. These models help to explain how we the words you are thinking about. Similarly, two
can perform more than one attention- visual tasks are more likely to interfere with each
demanding task at a time. They posit that people other than are a visual task coupled with an
have a fixed amount of attention that they can auditory one.
choose to allocate according to what the task
Divided Attention in Everyday Life
requires.
Divided attention plays an important role in our
Two different kinds of models differ in terms of lives. How often are you engaged in more than
what the source of attention is (Kahneman, one task at a time? Consider driving a car, for
1973, McDowd, 2007): example. You need to be constantly aware of
threats to your safety. Suppose you fail to select
• One model suggests that one single pool of
one such threat, such as a car that runs a red light
attentional resources can be divided freely.
and is headed directly toward you as you enter
an intersection. The result is that you may
become an innocent victim of a horrible car
accident. Moreover, if you are unsuccessful in
dividing your attention, you may cause an
accident.

Factors That Influence Our Ability to Pay

Attention

The existing theoretical models of attention may

be too simplistic and mechanistic to explain the
• Another model suggests multiple sources of
complexities of attention. Many other variables
attention are available, one for each modality
have an impact on our ability to concentrate and
(e.g., verbal or visual). pay attention. Here are some of them:
Figure 4.9 shows examples of the two kinds of
models. In Figure 4.9(a), the system has a single • Anxiety: Being anxious, either by nature (trait-
based anxiety) or by situation (state-based
pool of resources that can be divided among
anxiety), places constraints on attention
multiple tasks (Kahneman, 1973). Figure 4.9(b)
(Eysenck & Byrne, 1992; Reinholdt-Dunne,
shows a model that has several pools of Mogg, & Bradley, 2009).
attention for different modalities (Navon &
Gopher, 1979). Single-pool models likely • Arousal: Your overall state of arousal affects
oversimplify what is going on. People are much attention as well. You may be tired, drowsy, or
better at dividing their attention when drugged, which may limit attention. Being
competing tasks are in different modalities. At excited sometimes enhances attention
(MacLean et al., 2009).
 anterior cingulate, lateral ventral, and prefrontal
• Task difficulty: If you are working on a task that cortex as well as the basal ganglia. The
is difficult or novel for you, you’ll need more neurotransmitter most involved in the executive
attentional resources than when you work on an attention process is dopamine. Dysfunction
easy or highly familiar task. Task difficulty within this system is associated with Alzheimer’s
particularly influences performance during disease, borderline personality disorder, and
divided attention. schizophrenia.

• Skills: The more practiced and skilled you are in When Our Attention Fails Us
performing a task, the more your attention is
enhanced (Spelke, Hirst, & Neisser, 1976). Attention deficits have been linked to lesions in
the frontal lobe and in the basal ganglia.
Neuroscience and Attention: A Network Model
Visual attentional deficits have been linked to
Alerting: Alerting is defined as being prepared to the posterior parietal cortex and the thalamus,
attend to some incoming event, and maintaining as well as to areas of the midbrain related to eye
this attention. Alerting also includes the process movements
of getting to this state of preparedness. The
brain areas involved in alerting are the right Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
frontal and parietal cortexes as well as the locus
coeruleus. The neurotransmitter norepinephrine People with ADHD have difficulties in focusing
is involved in the maintenance of alertness. If the their attention in ways that enable them to
alerting system does not work properly, people adapt in optimal ways to their environment.
develop symptoms of ADHD; in the process of
regular aging, dysfunctions of the alerting The condition was first described by Dr. Heinrich
system may develop as well. Hoffman in 1845.

Orienting: Orienting is defined as the selection Three primary symptoms:

of stimuli to attend to. This kind of attention is 1. Inattention
needed when we perform a visual search. You 2. Hyperactivity
may be able to observe this process by means of 3. Impulsiveness
a person’s eye movements, but sometimes
attention is covert and cannot be observed from Three main types of ADHD:
the outside. The orienting network develops
during the first year of life. The brain areas (1) hyperactive-impulsive
involved in the orienting function are the (2) Inattentive, and
superior parietal lobe, the temporal parietal (3) A combination of hyperactive-impulsive and
junction, the frontal eye fields, and the superior inattentive behavior
colliculus. The modulating neurotransmitter for
orienting is acetylcholine. Dysfunction within Children with the inattentive type of ADHD show
this system can be associated with autism. several distinctive symptoms:
• They are easily distracted by irrelevant sights
Executive Attention: Executive attention and sounds.
includes processes for monitoring and resolving • They often fail to pay attention to details.
conflicts that arise among internal processes. • They are susceptible to making careless
These processes include thoughts, feelings, and mistakes in their work.
responses. The brain areas involved in this final • They often fail to read instructions completely
and highest order of attentional process are the or carefully.
• They are susceptible to forgetting or losing hemisphere, they neglect stimuli in the
things they need for tasks, such as pencils or left visual field). This phenomenon is
books. called extinction.
• They tend to jump from one incomplete task to
another. Automatic and Controlled Processes in
Attention
Change Blindness and Inattentional Blindness
Automatic processes such as writing your name
Adaptive behavior requires us to be attentive to involve no conscious control (Palmeri, 2003). For
changes in our environment because changes the most part, they are performed without
cue us to both opportunities and dangers. conscious awareness. Nevertheless, you may be
aware that you are performing them. They
Change blindness - that is, an inability to detect demand little or no effort or even intention.
changes in objects or scenes that are being
viewed.  Multiple automatic processes may occur
at once, or at least quickly, and in no
inattentional blindness - which is a particular sequence. Thus, they are
phenomenon in which people are not able to see
termed parallel processes.
things that are actually there.
Controlled processes are accessible to conscious
Spatial Neglect—One Half of the World Goes
control and even require it. Such processes are
Amiss
performed serially, for example, when you want
Spatial neglect or hemineglect - It is an to compute the total cost of a trip you are about
attentional dysfunction in which participants to book online. In other words, controlled
ignore the half of their visual field that is processes occur sequentially, one step at a time.
contralateral to (on the opposite side of) the They take a relatively long time to execute, at
hemisphere of the brain that has a lesion. least as compared with automatic processes.

It is a result mainly of unilateral lesions in the

parietal and frontal lobes, most often in the right
hemisphere. To test those for spatial neglect,
patients are given a sheet of paper with a
number of horizontal lines.

 When patients are presented with

stimuli only to their right or their left
side, they often can perceive the stimuli,
no matter which side they are on. This
means that they have no major visual-
field defects. When stimuli are present
in both sides of the visual field, people
 Automatization - Many tasks that start
with hemi-neglect suddenly ignore the
off as controlled processes eventually
stimuli that are contralateral to their
lesion (i.e., if the lesion is in the right
 become automatic ones as a result of Consciousness
practice.
The Consciousness of Mental Processes
How Does Automatization Occur? One view (Ericsson & Simon, 1984) is that people
An alternative explanation, called instance have good access to their complex mental
theory, was proposed by Logan (1988). Logan processes. Simon and his colleagues, for
suggested that automatization occurs because example, have used protocol analysis in
we gradually accumulate knowledge about analyzing people’s solving of problems, such as
specific responses to specific stimuli. chess problems and so-called cryptarithmetic
problems, in which one has to figure out what
Automatization in Everyday Life numbers substitute for letters in a mathematical
Stroop effect, which is named after John Ridley computation problem. These investigations have
Stroop (1935), demonstrates the psychological suggested to Simon and his colleagues that
people have good conscious access to their
difficulty in selectively attending to the color of
the ink and trying to ignore the word that is complex information processes. A second view is
printed with the ink of that color. that people’s access to their complex mental
processes is not very good (e.g., Nisbett &
Mistakes We Make in Automatic Processes Wilson, 1977). In this view, people may think
they know how they solve complex problems,
Mistakes are errors in choosing an objective or
but their thoughts are frequently erroneous.
in specifying a means of achieving it.
According to Nisbett and Wilson, we typically are
Slips are errors in carrying out an intended conscious of the products of our thinking, but
means for reaching an objective. Suppose you only vaguely conscious, if at all, of the processes
decided that you did not need to study for an of thinking.
examination.
Preconscious Processing

Information that is available for cognitive

processing but that currently lies outside
conscious awareness exists at the preconscious
level of awareness.

Preconscious information includes stored

memories that we are not using at a given time
but that we could summon when needed.

Studying the Preconscious—Priming

In priming, participants are presented with a first

stimulus (the prime), followed by a break that
can range from milliseconds to weeks or months.
Then, the participants are presented with a
second stimulus and make a judgment (e.g., are
both the first and the second stimulus the
same?) to see whether the presentation of the
first stimulus affected the perception of the
second (Neely, 2003).

 The thought behind this procedure is

that the presentation of the first
stimulus may activate related concepts
in memory that are then more easily
accessible.

What’s That Word Again? The Tip-of-the-

Tongue Phenomenon

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, in which

you try to remember something that is stored in
memory but that cannot readily be retrieved.

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is

apparently universal. It is seen in speakers of
many different languages. Bilingual people
experience more tip-of-the-tongues than
monolingual speakers, which may be because
bilinguals use either one of their languages less
frequently than do monolinguals (Pyers, Gollan,
& Emmorey, 2009). It also is seen in people with
limited or no ability to read (Brennen, Vikan, &
Dybdahl, 2007). Older adults have more tip-of-
the-tongue experiences compared with younger
adults (GaldoAlvarez, Lindin, & Diaz, 2009;
Gollan & Brown, 2006). The anterior cingulate-
prefrontal cortices are involved when one is
experiencing the tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon. This likely is due to high-level
cognitive mechanisms being activated to resolve
the retrieval failure (Maril, Wagner, & Schacter,
2001).