Unit 4 NANOTECHNOLOGY

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to.
Apply the knowledge of nanotechnology for societal applications

UNIT-IV Nanotechnology Nanoscale, quantum confinement, surface to volume ratio,

bottom-up fabrication: sol-gel, precipitation, combustion methods-top-down fabrication:
Ball milling, physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD),
characterization techniques – basic principles of XRD, SEM, TEM; applications of
nanomaterials.

Introduction to nanotechnology:
The prefix ‘nano’ is referred to a Greek prefix meaning ‘dwarf’ or something very small and
depicts one thousand millionth of a meter (10−9 m).
As a comparison, a single human hair is 80,000 nm diameter and the DNA has a radius of 1
nm.
Nanoscale: 1-100 nm. A nanometer (10-9m) is one billionth of a meter, roughly the width of
three or four atoms. The diameter of average human hair is about 80 μm (80,000 nanometers)

Nanomaterials: Materials in which a single unit is between 1 and 100 nm (in at least one
dimension). These materials can be synthesized to play a specific role making them useful in
various industries, from healthcare and cosmetics to environmental preservation and air
purification.

Nanoscience is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100

nanometers. Nanoscience is the study of structures and molecules on the scales of nanometers
ranging between 1 and 100 nm.

Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is the technology that utilizes nanoscience in practical

applications such as devices etc.

Origin of Nanotechnology

The idea of nanotechnology was first discussed in 1959 by Richard Feynman in his talk
“There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom”, in which he described the possibility of synthesis via
direct manipulation of atoms.
The term "nano-technology" was first used by Taniguchi in 1974. Inspired by Feynman's
concepts, Drexler used the term "nanotechnology" in his 1986 book Engines of Creation: The
Coming Era of Nanotechnology. Also in 1986, Drexler co-founded “The Foresight Institute”
to help increase public awareness and understanding of nanotechnology concepts.
Surface area to volume ratio (SA/V)

The Surface Area /volume (SA/V) ratio increases as side length reduces (particle size
decreases).

Cube 1 : Side length = 1m

Surface Area: 6 x 1 x 1 = 6
Volume : 1 x 1 x 1 =1
SA/V ratio = 6

Cube 2: Side length = 2m

Surface area : 6 x 2 x 2 = 24
Volume : 2 x 2 x 2 = 8
SA/V ratio = 3

Cube 3: Side length = ½ m

Surface area : 6 x 1/2 x1/ 2 = 3/2
Volume : 1/2 x1/ 2 x1/ 2 = 1/8
SA/V ratio = 12

There is change in properties of materials due to increased surface area to volume ratio.
Reactions take place at the surface of a material. A particle with a high surface area has a
greater number of reaction sites than a particle with low surface area, and thus, results in higher
chemical reactivity.
6𝑎2 6
SA/V ratio of cube = =𝑎
𝑎3

4𝜋𝑟 2 3
SA/V ratio of Sphere = 4 =𝑟
𝜋𝑟 3
3

2𝜋𝑟 2 +2𝜋𝑟ℎ 2 2
SA/V ratio of cylinder = =𝑟+ℎ
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
 Numerical examples:

1.

2. Compare SA/V ratio for a cube with 3 cm and 1 cm on each side

6
SA/V ratio of cube = 𝑎

For Cube with 3 cm each side

6
SA/V = 3

SA/V = 2

Reduce side to 1 cm
6
SA/V = 1

SA/V = 6

As the cube side reduced from 3cm to 1 cm, the SA/V ratio increased from 2 to 6.

Classification of Nano-structured materials

The classification of nanomaterials is based on the number of dimensions.

Nanostructured materials are classified as:
1. zero-dimensional (0D),
2. one-dimensional (1D),
3. two-dimensional (2D) and
4. three-dimensional (3D) nanomaterials.

(i) Zero-dimensional nanomaterials: In 0-D nanomaterials, all dimensions (x, y, z) are

at nanoscale, i.e., no dimensions are greater than 100 nm. It includes nanospheres
and nanoclusters.
 (ii) One-dimensional nanomaterials: In 1-D nanomaterials, two dimensions (x, y) are at
nanoscale and the other is outside the nanoscale. This leads to needle shaped
nanomaterials. It includes nanofibres, nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires.
(iii) Two-dimensional nanomaterials: In 2-D nanomaterials, one dimension (x) is at
nanoscale and the other two are outside the nanoscale. The 2D nanomaterials exhibit
platelike shapes. It includes nanofilms, nanolayers and nanocoatings with
nanometre thickness.
(iv) Three-dimensional nanomaterials: 3-D are the nanomaterials that are not confined
to the nanoscale in any dimension. These materials have three arbitrary dimensions
above 100 nm.

Examples:

Carbon-based materials: These are composed of carbon, taking the form of hollow spheres,
ellipsoids or tubes etc.
3-D carbon-based material: Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon with its
atoms arranged in a hexagonal structure.

Uses of graphite:

• Pencil lead
• Lubricant
• Electrodes in batteries
• Brake linings for heavy vehicles

2-D Carbon-based material: Graphene is an allotrope of carbon consisting of a single layer

of atoms arranged in a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice nanostructure.
Layers of graphene stacked on top of each other form graphite. Graphene is the thinnest,
lightest and strongest compound known at one atom thick, between 100-300 times stronger
than steel.
Graphene application areas: composites, energy, telecommunications, imaging, biomedical
technologies, anti-corrosion coatings and paints, efficient and precise sensors, faster and
efficient electronics, flexible displays, efficient solar panels, faster DNA sequencing, drug
delivery.

1-D Carbon-based material: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical molecules that
consist of rolled-up sheets of single-layer carbon atoms (graphene). They can be single-walled
(SWCNT) with a diameter of less than 1 nm or multi-walled (MWCNT), with diameters more
than 100 nm and length several micrometers or even millimeters.

Carbon nanotubes rope together via van der Waals forces, and form ultra-high strength, low-
weight materials that possess highly conductive electrical and thermal properties. This makes
them highly attractive for numerous applications.

Carbon Nanotubes Properties:

• CNTs have high thermal and electrical conductivity

• CNTs are very elastic
• CNTs are highly flexible
• CNTs have high tensile strength

CNT Applications:

• Energy Storage- as electrodes in capacitors and batteries

• CNTs Conductive Adhesives and Connectors, electronics packaging
• Woven fabrics and textiles, transmission line cables, and body and vehicle armor.
• CNTs Air and Water Filtration

0-D Carbon-based material: Quantum dot is a nanoparticle made of any semiconductor

material such as silicon, cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, or indium arsenide.

Quantum dots can increase the efficiency of solar cells. In normal solar cells, a photon of
light generates one electron. Experiments with both silicon quantum dots and lead sulfide
quantum dots can generate two electrons for a single photon of light. Therefore, using
quantum dots in solar cells could significantly increase their efficiency in producing electric
power.

Applications of quantum dots:

• Single-electron transistors
• solar cells
• LEDs
• Lasers
• quantum computing
• medical imaging.
 Quantum Confinement

Quantum Confinement is the spatial confinement of electron-hole pairs in one or more

dimensions within a material resulting in discrete energy levels. The quantum confinement
effect is observed when the size of the particle is too small as compared to the wavelength of
the electron.

1D confinement: Free carrier can move in a plane. e.g. Quantum Wells

Confined in 1 Direction: Quantum well (thin film)

Two-dimensional electrons

nz
2D confinement: carriers are free to move in one direction e.g. Quantum Wire

ny
Confined in 2 Directions: Quantum wire

One-dimensional electrons nz
3D-confinement: carriers are confined in all directions e.g. C-60

Confined in 3 Directions: Quantum dot

nz
Zero-dimensional electrons nx
ny
The energy levels of electrons will not remain continuous as in the case of bulk materials. The
energy is discrete for nanomaterials.

Quantum confinement influences the nanomaterial properties such as electrical, optical and
mechanical behaviour of material.

Nanomaterials-Synthesis
There are two ways to produce nanomaterials.

Top-down approach: To start with a bulk material and then break it into smaller pieces using
mechanical, chemical or other form of energy. Top-down approach refers to slicing or
successive cutting of a bulk material to get nano sized particle. Example: Attrition or Ball
Milling.

Bottom-up approach: To synthesize the material from atomic or molecular species via
chemical reactions, allowing particles to grow in size. Bottom-up approach refers to the buildup
of a material from the bottom: atom by atom, molecule by molecule or cluster by cluster.
Example: colloidal dispersion, sol-gel processing, Chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer
deposition, Electrodeposition and electroless deposition, Pulsed laser deposition.

Bottom-up methods
 Sol-Gel method

The sol-gel process is a wet-chemical technique for the fabrication of materials by

preparation of a sol, gelation of the sol and removal of the solvent. A sol is a colloidal
suspension of solid particles dispersed in a liquid.
Gel where one molecule reaches macroscopic dimensions and extends throughout the
solution.

The process starts with a chemical solution which acts as the precursor for a gel of particles.
Precursors are raw materials which undergo various forms reactions. The sol evolves towards
the formation of a gel-like system containing both a liquid phase and solid phase.
Fluid may be removed by allowing time for sedimentation to occur, and then pouring off the
remaining liquid. Centrifugation can also be used to accelerate the process of phase separation.
Removal of the remaining liquid requires a drying process. Afterwards, final sintering, a
thermal treatment is necessary to enhance mechanical properties, for densification and grain
growth. One of the advantages of using this method is that densification is achieved at a much
lower temperature.

Precipitation

Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution during a chemical reaction. When the
reaction occurs in a liquid, the solid formed is called the precipitate, and the liquid remaining
above the solid is called the supernate. Powders derived from precipitation are also known as
flowers.
During chemical reactions, precipitation occurs if an insoluble substance is introduced into a
solution and the density happens to be greater. With soluble substances, precipitation is
accelerated once the solution becomes supersaturated.
An important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of nucleation. Nucleation is the first
step in the formation of a new structure via self-assembly.
Methods of precipitation include settling or sedimentation, where solid forms over a period of
time due to gravity or centrifugation.
Finally, the solution is filtered and the resultant nano-powder is calcined.
 Combustion

Combustion process is the synthesis of nanoscale materials involving exothermic reactions

in a sol–gel media. Combustion synthesis is a low cost, simple, fast and energy efficient
method to produce nanomaterials.
A uniformly mixed solution of precursors is taken and heated while stirring continuously. A
viscous gel is formed after water evaporation. On heating further vaporization is followed by
vigorous ignition with a flame. The ash is calcined to finally get nanoparticles.
 Physical Vapour Deposition PVD

In the physical vapour deposition method atoms transfer from a target to vapour to substrate.

The starting materials called precursors are solids.

The process involved four steps:

· Evaporation
· Transportation
· Reaction
· Deposition
Evaporation:
A target, consisting of the material to be deposited is bombarded by a high energy source such
as a beam of electrons or ions. This dislodges atoms from the surface of the target, ‘vaporising’
them.
Transport:
The ‘vaporised’ atoms move from the target to the substrate in a highly directional manner.
Reaction
The atoms then react with the appropriate gas during the transport stage. The reactive gases
may be oxygen, nitrogen and methane.
Deposition
This is the process of coating build up on the substrate surface.

PVD coatings have:

· Improved hardness and wear resistance
· Reduced friction
· Improved oxidation resistance

Chemical vapour deposition or CVD

In CVD, starting Materials called precursors are in gaseous phase.

Precursor gases are delivered into the reaction chamber, as they come into contact with a heated
substrate; they react forming a solid phase which is deposited onto the substrate.

The steps are as follows:

A CVD apparatus consists of:
1. Gas delivery system – For the supply of precursors to the reactor chamber
2. Reactor chamber – Chamber within which deposition takes place
3. Substrate loading mechanism – A system for introducing and removing substrates.
4. Energy source – Provide the energy/heat that is required to get the precursors to react
e.g. Furnace, Halogen Lamp, induction heater or Lasers.
5. Vacuum system – A system for removal of all other gaseous species other than those
required for the reaction.
6. Exhaust system – System for removal of by-products from the reaction chamber.
CVD is used to produce high-purity, high-performance solid materials.

Top-Down method
Ball milling

A ball mill, a type of grinder, is a cylindrical device used in grinding and mixing materials.
Ball mills rotate around a horizontal axis, partially filled with the material to be ground plus
the grinding medium. Ceramic balls or stainless steel balls are used as media. An internal
cascading effect reduces the material to a fine powder. The smaller the media particles, the
smaller the particle size of the final product.

In ball milling, also called mechanical crushing, small steel balls are allowed to rotate
around the inside of a drum and then fall on a solid with gravitational force and crush the solid
into nanoparticles. The grinding is also carried out with different fluids like ethylene glycol,
xyline, butanol and water with surface active agent (surfactant). The size of the nanoparticle
obtained in this process depends on many factors like grinding hours, the weight ratio of the
steel balls, fluid media etc. Ball milling can be used to prepare a wide range of elemental and
oxide powders. Ball milling is the preferred method for preparing metal oxides.
There are certain disadvantages with ball milling method. The nanoparticles prepared
with ball milling are contaminated with the material of the balls. Most of the cases it is difficult
to obtain uniform particle size. These problems can be overcome with bottom-up approach.
 Characterization techniques:

Characterization refers to the study of material’s features such as its composition, structure,
particle size, etc. Example of characterization techniques are X-Ray Diffraction (XRD),
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM).

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is a non-destructive technique used to determine the

structure of a material, orientation, Lattice parameters, Grain size, thickness of thin films, etc.
X-Rays have a wavelength between 0.01nm to 10nm, hence can penetrate inside the crystal
structure of any material and give the properties of materials.

XRD works by illuminating a material with incident X-rays and then measuring the
intensities and scattering angles of the X-rays that leave the material.

Crystal atoms scatter incident X-rays through interaction with the atoms’ electrons. A regular
array of atoms produces a regular array of spherical waves. These waves add constructively
when Bragg’s law is satisfied.

Bragg’s law 2dsinθ = nλ

Where d is the spacing between diffracting planes, θ is the incident angle, n is an integer, and
λ is the wavelength of x-ray.

X-ray diffractometers consist of three basic elements: an X-ray tube, a sample holder, and an
X-ray detector.
When the geometry of the incident X-rays striking the sample satisfies the Bragg Equation,
constructive interference occurs and a peak in intensity occurs. A detector records this X-ray
signal.

The size of particles can be calculated from the Scherrer formula.

𝑘𝜆
Scherrer Formula: D=
𝛽𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Where, D = Average Crystallite size, β = Width at half maxima, θ = Bragg angle, λ = X-Ray
wavelength and k is a constant (called the shape factor) depending on the shape of the
sample. If particles are spheres :k: 0.89, if cubes : k: 0.91

Applications

1. X-ray powder diffraction is most widely used for the identification of unknown
crystalline materials
2. characterization of crystalline materials and determine crystal structures
3. identification of fine-grained minerals such as clays and mixed layer clays that are
difficult to determine optically
4. determination of unit cell dimensions
5. measurement of sample purity
6. determining the thickness, roughness and density of the film
Strengths

1. Powerful and rapid (< 20 min) technique for identification of an unknown mineral
2. it provides an unambiguous mineral determination
3. Minimal sample preparation is required
4. Data interpretation is relatively straight forward

Limitations

1. Must have access to a standard reference file of inorganic compounds

2. Requires tenths of a gram of material which must be ground into a powder

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) produces images of a material by scanning the

surface with an accelerated, collimated beam of electrons.
The electrons interact with the material atoms, giving information about the surface
topography and composition of the sample.
The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the position of the beam is
combined with the intensity of the detected signal to produce an image.
SEMs can achieve resolutions of around 1 nm.

Secondary and backscattered electrons are used to produce an image. The secondary
electrons are emitted from the specimen detect the topography of the material while the
backscattered electrons show the composition of the elements of the material.

Construction:

1. The major components of the Scanning Electron Microscope include;

2. Electron Source – This is where electrons are produced
3. Lenses –Condenser lenses that focus the beam of electrons from the source
4. Scanning Coil is used to deflect the beam over the specimen surface.
5. Detector are able to differentiate the secondary electrons and backscattered electrons.
6. The display device
Working: The source of the electrons and the electromagnetic lenses are placed at the top of
the column.

The electrons are emitted from the electron source and allowed to move in a fast motion to
the anode, which is a positive charge plate.

Scanning by this microscope is attained by tapering a beam of electrons back and forth over a
thin section of the microscope.

The beam of electrons interacts with the specimen to produce signals that give information
about the surface topography and composition of the specimen.

The secondary electrons are then trapped by a detector.

When the secondary electrons reach and enter the detector, they emit flashes of light which
get converted into an electric current by a photomultiplier, sending a signal to the cathode ray
tube. This produces an image that looks like a television picture that can be viewed and
photographed.

The quantity of secondary electrons that enter the detector is defined by the nature of the
specimen i.e raised surfaces to receive high quantities of electrons, entering the detector
while depressed surfaces have fewer electrons reaching the surface and hence fewer electrons
enter the detector. Therefore, raised surfaces will appear brighter on the screen while
depressed surfaces appear darker.
Applications of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

1. It is used in a variety of fields including Industrial uses, nanoscience studies,

Biomedical studies, Microbiology
2. Used for spot chemical analysis
3. Used in the analysis of cosmetic components which are very tiny in size.
4. Used to study the structures of microorganisms.
5. Used to study the topography of elements used in industries.

Advantages of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

• They are easy to operate and have user-friendly interfaces.

• Some modern SEMs are portable.
• It is easy to acquire data from the SEM, within a short period of time.

Limitations

• They are very expensive

• They are bulky to carry
• They must be used in rooms that are free of vibrations and free of electromagnetic
elements
• They must be maintained with a consistent voltage and cooling systems

Transmission electron Microscopy (TEM)

This is a powerful electron microscope that uses a beam of electrons to focus on a specimen
producing a highly magnified and detailed image of the specimen.

The magnification power is over 2 million times better than that of the light microscope,
producing the image of the specimen which enables easy characterization of the image in its
morphological features and compositions.

used a beam of electrons creating a form of wave motion.

Magnetic fields were used as lenses for the electrons

TEM uses a beam of electrons to focus on the specimen, to produce an image. TEM can be
used to detail the internal structures of the smallest particles.

Construction of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

It has three working parts which include:

1. Electron gun
2. Image producing system
3. Image recording system
Electron gun

This is the part of the Transmission Electron Microscope responsible for producing electron
beams. It also has two condenser lens system which focus the electron beam on the specimen.

Image- Producing system

It’s made up of the objective lens, a movable stage to hold the specimen and projector lenses.
They function by focusing the passing electrons through the specimen forming a highly
magnified image.

The objective has a short focal length of about 1-5mm and it produces an intermediate image
from the condenser which are transmitted to the projector lenses for magnification.

Image-Recording System

It’s made up of the fluorescent screen used to view and to focus on the image. They also have
a digital camera that permanently records the images.

Working:

Electron gun produces electrons that get focus on the specimen by the condenser lenses.

Magnetic lenses are used to focus the beam of electrons of the specimen. By the assistance
offered by the column tube of the condenser lens into the vacuum creating a clear image, the
vacuum allows electrons to produce a clear image without collision with any air molecules
which may deflect them.

On reaching the specimen, the specimen scatters the electrons focusing them on the magnetic
lenses forming a large clear image, and if it passes through a fluorescent screen it forms a
polychromatic image.

Applications of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

• TEM is used in a wide variety of fields From Biology, Microbiology,

Nanotechnology, forensic studies, etc.
• To visualize and study cell structures of bacteria, viruses, and fungi
• To view the shapes and sizes of microbial cell organelles
• To study and differentiate between plant and animal cells.
• Its also used in nanotechnology to study nanoparticles
• It is used to detect and identify fractures, damaged microparticles
Advantages of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

• It has a very powerful magnification of about 2 million times that of the Light
microscope.
• It can be used for a variety of applications ranging from basic Biology to
Nanotechnology, to education and industrial uses.
• It produces very efficient, high-quality images with high clarity.
• It can produce permanent images.
• It is easy to train and use the Transmission Electron Microscope

Limitations of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

• TEMs are very expensive to purchase

• They are very big to handle.
• The preparation of specimens to be viewed under the TEM is very tedious.
• They are laborious to maintain.

Applications

1. Clothes: Waterproof tear-resistant textiles.

2. Combat Jackets that use carbon nanotubes as ultrastrong fibers and to monitor the
condition of the wearer
3. In concrete, nanomaterials increase the tensile strength, and halt crack propagation.
4. Adding nanotubes to polyethylene increases the polymer's elastic modulus by 30%.
5. Sports equipment: Stronger and lighter tennis rackets, bike parts, golf balls, golf clubs, golf
shaft and baseball bats.
6. space elevator will be possible if tensile strengths of more than about 70 GPa can be
achieved.
7. Fibers of nanotubes embedded into a polymer gives high tensile strength fibers . For
example, fibers produced with polyvinyl alcohol required 600 J/g to break in comparison, the
bullet-resistant fiber Kevlar is 27–33 J/g.
 8. Bridges: Carbon nanotubes may be able to replace steel in suspension bridges.
9. Ultrahigh-speed flywheels: The high strength/weight ratio enables very high speeds to be
achieved.
10. Fire protection: covering material with a thin layer of buckypaper improves its fire resistance
due to the efficient reflection of heat by the dense, compact layer of carbon nanotubes or
carbon fibers.
11. Buckypaper - a thin sheet made from nanotubes that are 250 times stronger than steel and
10 times lighter that could be used as a heat sink for chipboards, a backlight for LCD screens
or as a faraday cage to protect electrical devices/aeroplanes.
12. Chemical nanowires: Carbon nanotubes can be used to produce nanowires of other
chemicals, such as gold or zinc oxide. These can have very different properties from CNTs -
for example, gallium nitride nanotubes are hydrophilic, while CNTs are hydrophobic, giving
them possible uses in organic chemistry that CNTs could not be used for.
13. Conductive films: Researchers are developing transparent, electrically conductive films of
carbon nanotubes to replace indium tin oxide (ITO) in LCDs, touch screens, and photovoltaic
devices. Nanotube films can be used in displays for computers, cell phones, PDAs, and ATMs.
14. Electric motor brushes: Conductive carbon nanotubes are used in brushes for electric
motors. They replace traditional carbon black, which is mostly impure spherical carbon
fullerenes. The nanotubes improve electrical and thermal conductivity because they stretch
through the plastic matrix of the brush.
15. Light bulb filament: alternative to tungsten filaments in incandescent lamps.
16. Magnets: MWNTs coated with magnetite
17. Solar cells: Nanotubes can act as a transparent conductive film in solar cells to allow light to
pass to the active layers and generate photocurrent.
18. Ultracapacitors: Nanotubes bound to the charge plates of capacitors increases the surface
area and therefore energy storage ability.
19. Water filter: Nanotube membranes have been developed for use in filtration. This technique
can purportedly reduce desalination costs by 75%. The tubes are so thin that small particles
(like water molecules) can pass through them, while larger particles (such as the chloride
ions in salt) are blocked.

Application of Nanotechnology in Medicine

Disease and ill health are caused largely by damage at the molecular and cellular level.
Nanotechnology involves manipulating properties and structures at the nanoscale, involving
dimensions that are just tiny fractions of the width of a human hair. One area of nanotechnology
application providing great benefits in the future is in medicine

1. Drug Delivery

One application of nanotechnology in medicine involves employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs,

heat, light or other substances to specific types of cells (such as cancer cells). Particles are engineered
so that they are attracted to diseased cells, which allow direct treatment of those cells. This technique
reduces damage to healthy cells in the body and allows for earlier detection of disease. For example,
nanoparticles that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells.
 2. Killing cancer cells
Molecular tools are small devices that can be designed to identify and kill cancer cells. The device
would have a small computer, several binding sites to determine the concentration of specific
molecules, and a supply of some poison which could be selectively released and was able to kill a cell
identified as cancerous.

3. Therapy Techniques

Buckyballs may be used to trap free radicals generated during an allergic reaction and block the
inflammation that results from an allergic reaction. Nanoshells may be used to concentrate the heat
from infrared light to destroy cancer cells with minimal damage to surrounding healthy cells.

4. Providing oxygen
Another application would be to provide metabolic support in the event of impaired circulation. Poor
blood flow, caused by a variety of conditions, can result in serious tissue damage. A major cause of
tissue damage is inadequate oxygen. A simple method of improving the levels of available oxygen
despite reduced blood flow would be to provide an "artificial red blood cell." A simple design: a sphere
with an internal diameter of 0.1 microns (100 nanometers) filled with high pressure oxygen at ~1,000
atmospheres (about 10^8 pascals). The oxygen would be allowed to trickle out from the sphere at a
constant rate.