ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

MEASUREMENTS

Presented By-
Dr. Suraj Gupta
Temporary Faculty, Dept. of EE
NIT Mizoram
Electronic Voltmeter
Electronic Voltmeter has become a very important tool for instrument and control engineers. An electronic voltmeter uses rectifiers, amplifiers and
other circuits to generate a current proportional to the voltage being measured. In an electronic voltmeter, a measured alternating voltage is rectified
using a diode rectifier or decoder and a rectified direct current is produced which is the measure of the original alternating voltage.
Fig.. shows the block diagram of modern electronic voltmeter. As seen from the diagram it consists of input switching and ranging circuit,
amplification circuit and analog-to-digital conversion (rectification) circuit and a voltmeter. The voltmeter would be a simple permanent moving
coil voltmeter or an electronic voltmeter. A VOM (volt-ohm meter)can be used to measure voltages but it lacks both sensitivity and high input
resistances. Moreover, its input resistance is different for each range. The electronic voltmeter (EVM), on the other hand, has input resistance
ranging from 10 MΩ to 100 MΩ, thus producing less loading of the circuit under test than the VOM.
Another advantage of EVM is that its input resistance remains constant over all ranges.
Two types of electronic voltmeters are in use today namely (i) analog and (ii) digital voltmeters. However, a distinction must be made between a
digital instrument and an instrument with digital readout. A digital instrument is one which uses internal circuitry of digital design. A digital readout
instrument is one whose measuring circuitry is of analog design but the indicating device is of digital design.
The electronic voltmeters go by a variety of names reflecting the technology used. (i) vacuum-tube voltmeter (VTVM)–it uses vacuum tubes with
deflection meter movement.
With the advancement in solid state devices technology, vacuum tubes have become obsolete.
(ii) digital voltmeters like transistor voltmeter (TVM) and FET voltmeter (FETVM).
Advantages of Electronics Voltmeters
Although there are several advantages of electronic voltmeters as compared to non-electronic voltmeters, yet the
following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Low level signal detection-As indicated above analog instruments use PMMC movement for indication. This
movement cannot be constructed with a full scale sensitivity of less than 50 𝜇𝜇A. Any measurement using a
PMMC movement must draw a current of 50 𝜇𝜇A from the measured quantity for its operation for full scale
deflection if conventional voltmeters are used. This would produce great loading effects especially in electronic
and communication circuits. Electronic voltmeters avoid the loading errors by supplying power required for
measurement by using external circuits like amplifiers. The amplifiers not only supply power for the operation
but make it possible for low level signals, which produce a current less than 50 p A for full scale deflection, to
be detected which otherwise cannot be detected in the absence of amplifiers
2. Low power consumption-conventional PMMC voltmeter is a rugged and an accurate instrument, but it suffers
from certain disadvantages. The principal problem is that it lacks both high sensitivity and high input resistance.
It has a sensitivity of 20 kohm / V with a 0 - 0.5 V range and has an input resistance of only 10 kohm at its 0.5
V range with the result it has a full scale current of 50 𝜇𝜇A which loads the measurand considerably. In
electronic and communication circuits as even this low value of current may not be tolerable on account of the
fact that these circuits have very low operating currents.
3. High frequency range- The most important feature of electronic voltmeters is that their response can be made
practically independent of frequency within extremely wide limits. Some electronic voltmeters permit the
measurement of voltage from direct current to frequencies of the order of hundreds of MHz.
4. Low input capacitance
5. No loading errors
The practical vacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM) circuits fall into the following categories :

1. Diode type,

2. Single triode type,

3. Balanced triode type,

4. Rectifiers amplifier type and

5. Amplifier-rectifier type

Direct Current FET VM Transistor Voltmeter (Direct Coupled Amplifier)

A.C. Electronic Voltmeter- Fig. shows the block diagram of an alternating current electronic voltmeter (AC EVM).
Here the voltage divider allows selection of voltage range. The amplifier provides the necessary gain to establish
voltmeter sensitivity as well as high input impedance. The negative circuit is for stability and accurate overall gain.
A rectifier and filter is used to convert ac to dc.
An AC electronic voltmeter is used to measure AC voltage. Note that the PMMC meter movement is used for
measurement of AC voltage by inserting a rectifier in the measuring circuit. Such meters are widely used and more
accurate. AC analog voltmeters are one of the most popular electronic measuring instruments in use today. They are
used to measure the r.m.s value of voltage of many waveforms commonly found in electronics.
AC voltmeters are designed to respond to one of these three values: average value, rms value or peak value of ac
input voltage. Accordingly, this classifies the AC meters into:
1. Rectifier Type AC Voltmeter
2. Average Responding AC Voltmeter
3. Peak Responding AC Voltmeter
4. True RMS AC Voltmeter
The average and peak responding voltmeters are designed to measure only sine waves.
Rectifier Type AC Voltmeter
Fig. shows a simple rectifier type AC voltmeter. Here the diodes D1 and D2 are used for rectification. For the positive half
cycle the diode D1 is ON and meter deflection is proportional to the average value of the half cycle.
In the negative half cycle, the diode D2 is ON and D1 is OFF. The current through the meter is in opposite direction and
hence meter movement is bypassed in. It produces pulsating dc and the meter indicates the average value of the input.

The rectifier type AC voltmeters are of different types, these are:

(a) AC voltmeter using Half-wave rectifier
(b) AC voltmeter using Full-wave rectifier
(c) Multirange AC voltmeter using rectifier
A.C. Voltmeter using half-wave rectifier

The circuit of an AC Voltmeter using half-wave diode rectifier is shown in Fig. The half-wave rectifier circuit has been
combined in series with a dc meter movement.
When used as a DC voltmeter (i.e. without rectifier) it would have (say, for example) a range of 10 V. However, if an ac
voltage of rms value of 10 V is applied across input terminals AB, it would read 4.5 V. This can be explained as follows,
We know that r.m.s value of input voltage,

The meter movement will, therefore read 4.5 V i.e. 45% of the dc value. It may also be noted that ac sensitivity of a half-
wave ac meter is only 45 per cent of the dc sensitivity.
A.C. voltmeter using full-wave rectifier

The circuit of an AC voltmeter using full-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 6.8. In this case, the meter reading would be
90% of r.m.s input voltage i.e. 90% of the dc value,
Fig. 6.8 shows the circuit diagram of an AC voltmeter using full-wave rectifier. The voltmeter will indicate 90 % of the
r.m.s input voltage. This is explained as below,

It may also be noted that ac sensitivity of a full-wave ac meter is only 90 per cent of the dc sensitivity.
Multirange A.C. Voltmeter

The main purpose of the multirange ac voltmeter is for measuring ac voltage for different ranges. Fig. shows the circuit
diagram of such an electronic instrument. The rectifier type ac voltmeter is used with series of multiplier resistance R1,
R2, R3, R4 and R5. Due to different multiplier resistances various voltage ranges is achieved.
The resistance R5 acts as a basic multiplier resistance and corresponds to the multiplier Rsh AC Analog voltmeters are
one of the most popular electronic measuring instruments in use today. They are used to measure the rms voltage of the
many waveforms commonly found in electronics
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

A differential amplifier is the basic

component of all electronic voltmeters
(EVM). A block diagram of the differential
amplifier is shown in Fig.. It has two input
signals v1 and v2 as shown in Fig. and one
output signal as shown in Fig. The output
signal is an amplified version of the
algebraic difference of the two input signals
v1 and v2. If v1 and v2 are sinusoidal and
are in phase with each other, then (v1-v2) is
simply a new sine wave with a peak value
equal to the difference in peak values of v1
and v2. The output, signal is the difference
of the two voltages multiplied by the gain of
the amplifier.
DC voltmeter
A block diagram of a meter used for measurement of small
voltage and currents is shown in Fig.. The input voltage is
amplified and applied to a meter. If the amplifier has a gain of
10, the sensitivity of the measurement is increased by a like
amount. A d.c.-coupled amplifier, that is, an amplifier with no
coupling capacitors and having a well-controlled dc gain, is
used to provide the necessary amplification. An amplifier
capable of a fixed dc gain of 10 is not difficult to construct and
to keep stable. A simple op-amp plus the required feedback
components will do a suitable job for this application Direct
current gains of much more than 10 are required to use a
standard d'Arsonval meter movement to measure very small
currents and voltages such as microvolt and nanoampere. To
amplify nanoampere to drive a milliampere meter requires a
gain of 106. In theory, this requires an op-amp and two resistors,
and a simple circuit. However, when gains this large are desired,
all the defects of an operational amplifier become significant.
Offset current, offset voltage, and bias currents become so
troublesome that it is practically impossible to achieve
acceptable performance with a standard op-amp.
Current Measurement with Electronic Instruments
Electronic instruments are used to measure the current in the following ways.

1. D.C. Current Measurements

Electronic voltmeters are frequently constructed to act as multipurpose instruments so that they can be used to
measure current as well as voltage. The unknown current is made to flow through a known standard resistance.
The voltage drop across this resistance is proportional to the current and is measured by a Transistor Voltmeter
(TVM). The scale of the meter is calibrated in terms of current.

2. A.C. Current Measurements

When alternating current is to be measured, a rectifier is used to change the alternating current to a
corresponding direct current, which is then measured by a Transistor voltmeter (TVM). Another method is to use
an AC current probe which enables the AC current to be measured without disturbing the circuit under test. The
AC current probe clips around the wire carrying the current and in effect makes the wire a one turn primary of a
current transformer (C.T). The C.T has a ferrite core and the secondary consists of a large number of turns. The
voltage induced in the secondary winding is amplified and the amplifier’s output can be measured by any
suitable AC voltmeter. Normally the amplifier is designed so that 1mA current in the wire being measured
produced 1 mV at the amplifier output. The current is then read directly on the voltmeter, using the same scale as
for voltage measurements
Consideration in selecting an analog voltmeter

1. Input Impedance
The input impedance or resistance of the voltmeter should be as high as possible. It should always be higher than the impedance of
the circuit under measurement to avoid the loading effect. The shunt capacitance across the input terminals also determines the
input impedance of the voltmeter. At higher frequencies the loading effect of the meter is noticeable, since the shunt
capacitance reactance falls and the input shunt reduces the input impedance.
2. Voltage Ranges
The voltage ranges on the meter scale must be selected appropriately. In any case, the scale division should be compatible with the
accuracy of the instrument.
3. Decibels
For measurements covering a wide range of voltages, the use of the decibel scale can be very effective, e.g., in the frequency
response curve of an amplifier, where the output voltage is measured as a function of the frequency of the applied input voltage.
4. Sensitivity v/s Bandwidth
Noise consists of unwanted frequencies. Since noise is a function of the bandwidth, a voltmeter with a narrow bandwidth picks up
less noise than a large bandwidth voltmeter.
In general, an instrument with a bandwidth of 10 Hz-10 MHz has a sensitivity of 1 mV. Some voltmeters whose bandwidth extends
up to 5 MHz may have a sensitivity of 100 μV.
5. Battery Operation
A voltmeter (VTVM) powered by an internal battery is essential for field work.
6. AC Current Measurements
Current Measurements can be made by a sensitive ac Voltmeter and a Series resistor To summarize, the general guidelines are as
follows. For dc measurement, select the meter with the widest capability meeting the requirements of the circuit. For ac
measurements involving sine waves with less than 10% distortion, the average responding voltmeter is most sensitive and provides
the best. For high frequency measurement (> 10 MHz), the peak responding voltmeter with a diode probe input is best. Peak
responding circuits are acceptable if inaccuracies caused by distortion in the input waveform are allowed (tolerated).