Prolog - Introduction

Prolog as the name itself suggests, is the short form of LOGical PROgramming. It is a logical and declarative programming language. Before
diving deep into the concepts of Prolog, let us first understand what exactly logical programming is.

Logic Programming is one of the Computer Programming Paradigm, in which the program statements express the facts and rules about different
problems within a system of formal logic. Here, the rules are written in the form of logical clauses, where head and body are present. For example,
H is head and B1, B2, B3 are the elements of the body. Now if we state that “H is true, when B1, B2, B3 all are true”, this is a rule. On the other
hand, facts are like the rules, but without any body. So, an example of fact is “H is true”.

Some logic programming languages like Datalog or ASP (Answer Set Programming) are known as purely declarative languages. These languages
allow statements about what the program should accomplish. There is no such step-by-step instruction on how to perform the task. However, other
languages like Prolog, have declarative and also imperative properties. This may also include procedural statements like “To solve the problem H,
perform B1, B2 and B3”.

Some logic programming languages are given below −

 ALF (algebraic logic functional programming language).
 ASP (Answer Set Programming)
 CycL
 Datalog
 FuzzyCLIPS
 Janus
 Parlog
 Prolog
 Prolog++
 ROOP

Logic and Functional Programming

We will discuss about the differences between Logic programming and the traditional functional programming languages. We can illustrate these
two using the below diagram −
From this illustration, we can see that in Functional Programming, we have to define the procedures, and the rule how the procedures work. These
procedures work step by step to solve one specific problem based on the algorithm. On the other hand, for the Logic Programming, we will
provide knowledge base. Using this knowledge base, the machine can find answers to the given questions, which is totally different from
functional programming.

In functional programming, we have to mention how one problem can be solved, but in logic programming we have to specify for which problem
we actually want the solution. Then the logic programming automatically finds a suitable solution that will help us solve that specific problem.

Now let us see some more differences below −

Functional Programming Logic Programming

Functional Programming follows the Von- Logic Programming uses abstract model,
Neumann Architecture, or uses the or deals with objects and their
sequential steps. relationships.

The syntax is actually the sequence of The syntax is basically the logic
statements like (a, s, I). formulae (Horn Clauses).
 The computation takes part by executing the
It computes by deducting the clauses.
statements sequentially.

Logic and controls are mixed together. Logics and controls can be separated.

What is Prolog?

Prolog or PROgramming in LOGics is a logical and declarative programming language. It is one major example of the fourth generation language
that supports the declarative programming paradigm. This is particularly suitable for programs that involve symbolic or non-numeric
computation. This is the main reason to use Prolog as the programming language in Artificial Intelligence, where symbol
manipulation and inference manipulation are the fundamental tasks.

In Prolog, we need not mention the way how one problem can be solved, we just need to mention what the problem is, so that Prolog automatically
solves it. However, in Prolog we are supposed to give clues as the solution method.

Prolog language basically has three different elements −

Facts − The fact is predicate that is true, for example, if we say, “Tom is the son of Jack”, then this is a fact.

Rules − Rules are extinctions of facts that contain conditional clauses. To satisfy a rule these conditions should be met. For example, if we define a
rule as −
grandfather(X, Y) :- father(X, Z), parent(Z, Y)

This implies that for X to be the grandfather of Y, Z should be a parent of Y and X should be father of Z.

Questions − And to run a prolog program, we need some questions, and those questions can be answered by the given facts and rules.

History of Prolog

The heritage of prolog includes the research on theorem provers and some other automated deduction system that were developed in 1960s and
1970s. The Inference mechanism of the Prolog is based on Robinson’s Resolution Principle, that was proposed in 1965, and Answer extracting
mechanism by Green (1968). These ideas came together forcefully with the advent of linear resolution procedures.
The explicit goal-directed linear resolution procedures, gave impetus to the development of a general purpose logic programming system.
The first Prolog was the Marseille Prolog based on the work by Colmerauer in the year 1970. The manual of this Marseille Prolog interpreter
(Roussel, 1975) was the first detailed description of the Prolog language.

Prolog is also considered as a fourth generation programming language supporting the declarative programming paradigm. The well-known
Japanese Fifth-Generation Computer Project, that was announced in 1981, adopted Prolog as a development language, and thereby grabbed
considerable attention on the language and its capabilities.

Some Applications of Prolog

Prolog is used in various domains. It plays a vital role in automation system. Following are some other important fields where Prolog is used −
 Intelligent Database Retrieval
 Natural Language Understanding
 Specification Language
 Machine Learning
 Robot Planning
 Automation System
 Problem Solving
Prolog - Hello World

Now, we will see how to write a simple Hello World program in our Prolog environment.

Hello World Program

After running the GNU prolog, we can write hello world program directly from the console. To do so, we have to write the command as follows −
write('Hello World').

Note − After each line, you have to use one period (.) symbol to show that the line has ended.

The corresponding output will be as shown below −

Now let us see how to run the Prolog script file (extension is *.pl) into the Prolog console.

Before running *.pl file, we must store the file into the directory where the GNU prolog console is pointing, otherwise just change the directory by
the following steps −
Step 1 − From the prolog console, go to File > Change Dir, then click on that menu.
Step 2 − Select the proper folder and press OK.
Now we can see in the prolog console, it shows that we have successfully changed the directory.
Step 3 − Now create one file (extension is *.pl) and write the code as follows −
main :- write('This is sample Prolog program'),
write(' This program is written into hello_world.pl file').

Now let’s run the code. To run it, we have to write the file name as follows −
[hello_world]

The output is as follows −

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Prolog - Basics

The different topics that will be covered in this chapter are −

Knowledge Base − This is one of the fundamental parts of Logic Programming. We will see in detail about the Knowledge Base, and how it helps
in logic programming.
Facts, Rules and Queries − These are the building blocks of logic programming. We will get some detailed knowledge about facts and rules, and
also see some kind of queries that will be used in logic programming.
Here, we will discuss about the essential building blocks of logic programming. These building blocks are Facts, Rules and the Queries.

Facts

We can define fact as an explicit relationship between objects, and properties these objects might have. So facts are unconditionally true in nature.
Suppose we have some facts as given below −
 Tom is a cat
 Kunal loves to eat Pasta
 Hair is black
  Nawaz loves to play games
 Pratyusha is lazy.

So these are some facts, that are unconditionally true. These are actually statements, that we have to consider as true.

Following are some guidelines to write facts −

 Names of properties/relationships begin with lower case letters.
 The relationship name appears as the first term.
 Objects appear as comma-separated arguments within parentheses.
 A period "." must end a fact.
 Objects also begin with lower case letters. They also can begin with digits (like 1234), and can be strings of characters enclosed in quotes
e.g. color(penink, ‘red’).
 phoneno(agnibha, 1122334455). is also called a predicate or clause.
Syntax

The syntax for facts is as follows −

relation(object1,object2...).
Example

Following is an example of the above concept −

cat(tom).
loves_to_eat(kunal,pasta).
of_color(hair,black).
loves_to_play_games(nawaz).
lazy(pratyusha).

Rules

We can define rule as an implicit relationship between objects. So facts are conditionally true. So when one associated condition is true, then the
predicate is also true. Suppose we have some rules as given below −
 Lili is happy if she dances.
 Tom is hungry if he is searching for food.
  Jack and Bili are friends if both of them love to play cricket.
 will go to play if school is closed, and he is free.

So these are some rules that are conditionally true, so when the right hand side is true, then the left hand side is also true.

Here the symbol ( :- ) will be pronounced as “If”, or “is implied by”. This is also known as neck symbol, the LHS of this symbol is called the
Head, and right hand side is called Body. Here we can use comma (,) which is known as conjunction, and we can also use semicolon, that is
known as disjunction.
Syntax
rule_name(object1, object2, ...) :- fact/rule(object1,
object2, ...)
Suppose a clause is like :
P :- Q;R.
This can also be written as
P :- Q.
P :- R.

If one clause is like :

P :- Q,R;S,T,U.

Is understood as
P :- (Q,R);(S,T,U).
Or can also be written as:
P :- Q,R.
P :- S,T,U.
Example
happy(lili) :- dances(lili).
hungry(tom) :- search_for_food(tom).
friends(jack, bili) :- lovesCricket(jack), lovesCricket(bili).
goToPlay(ryan) :- isClosed(school), free(ryan).
Queries

Queries are some questions on the relationships between objects and object properties. So question can be anything, as given below −
 Is tom a cat?
 Does Kunal love to eat pasta?
 Is Lili happy?
 Will Ryan go to play?

So according to these queries, Logic programming language can find the answer and return them.

Knowledge Base in Logic Programming

In this section, we will see what knowledge base in logic programming is.
Well, as we know there are three main components in logic programming − Facts, Rules and Queries. Among these three if we collect the facts
and rules as a whole then that forms a Knowledge Base. So we can say that the knowledge base is a collection of facts and rules.

Now, we will see how to write some knowledge bases. Suppose we have our very first knowledge base called KB1. Here in the KB1, we have
some facts. The facts are used to state things, that are unconditionally true of the domain of interest.
Knowledge Base 1

Suppose we have some knowledge, that Priya, Tiyasha, and Jaya are three girls, among them, Priya can cook. Let’s try to write these facts in a
more generic way as shown below −
girl(priya).
girl(tiyasha).
girl(jaya).
can_cook(priya).

Note − Here we have written the name in lowercase letters, because in Prolog, a string starting with uppercase letter indicates a variable.

Now we can use this knowledge base by posing some queries. “Is priya a girl?”, it will reply “yes”, “is jamini a girl?” then it will answer “No”,
because it does not know who jamini is. Our next question is “Can Priya cook?”, it will say “yes”, but if we ask the same question for Jaya, it will
say “No”.
Let us see another knowledge base, where we have some rules. Rules contain some information that are conditionally true about the domain of
interest. Suppose our knowledge base is as follows −
sing_a_song(ananya).
listens_to_music(rohit).

listens_to_music(ananya) :- sing_a_song(ananya).
happy(ananya) :- sing_a_song(ananya).
happy(rohit) :- listens_to_music(rohit).
playes_guitar(rohit) :- listens_to_music(rohit).

So there are some facts and rules given above. The first two are facts, but the rest are rules. As we know that Ananya sings a song, this implies she
also listens to music. So if we ask “Does Ananya listen to music?”, the answer will be true. Similarly, “is Rohit happy?”, this will also be true
because he listens to music. But if our question is “does Ananya play guitar?”, then according to the knowledge base, it will say “No”. So these are
some examples of queries based on this Knowledge base.
Knowledge Base 3

The facts and rules of Knowledge Base 3 are as follows −

can_cook(priya).
can_cook(jaya).
can_cook(tiyasha).

likes(priya,jaya) :- can_cook(jaya).
likes(priya,tiyasha) :- can_cook(tiyasha).

Suppose we want to see the members who can cook, we can use one variable in our query. The variables should start with uppercase letters. In the
result, it will show one by one. If we press enter, then it will come out, otherwise if we press semicolon (;), then it will show the next result.
Prolog - Relations

Relationship is one of the main features that we have to properly mention in Prolog. These relationships can be expressed as facts and rules. After
that we will see about the family relationships, how we can express family based relationships in Prolog, and also see the recursive relationships of
the family.
We will create the knowledge base by creating facts and rules, and play query on them.

Relations in Prolog

In Prolog programs, it specifies relationship between objects and properties of the objects.

Suppose, there’s a statement, “Amit has a bike”, then we are actually declaring the ownership relationship between two objects — one is Amit and
the other is bike.

If we ask a question, “Does Amit own a bike?”, we are actually trying to find out about one relationship.

There are various kinds of relationships, of which some can be rules as well. A rule can find out about a relationship even if the relationship is not
defined explicitly as a fact.

We can define a brother relationship as follows −

Two person are brothers, if,

 They both are male.
 They have the same parent.

Now consider we have the below phrases −

 parent(sudip, piyus).
 parent(sudip, raj).
 male(piyus).
 male(raj).
 brother(X,Y) :- parent(Z,X), parent(Z,Y),male(X), male(Y)

These clauses can give us the answer that piyus and raj are brothers, but we will get three pairs of output here. They are: (piyus, piyus), (piyus, raj),
(raj, raj). For these pairs, given conditions are true, but for the pairs (piyus, piyus), (raj, raj), they are not actually brothers, they are the same
persons. So we have to create the clauses properly to form a relationship.

The revised relationship can be as follows −

A and B are brothers if −
 A and B, both are male
 They have same father
 They have same mother
 A and B are not same

Family Relationship in Prolog

Here we will see the family relationship. This is an example of complex relationship that can be formed using Prolog. We want to make a family
tree, and that will be mapped into facts and rules, then we can run some queries on them.

Suppose the family tree is as follows −

Here from this tree, we can understand that there are few relationships. Here bob is a child of pam and tom, and bob also has two children — ann
and pat. Bob has one brother liz, whose parent is also tom. So we want to make predicates as follows −
Predicates
 parent(pam, bob).
  parent(tom, bob).
 parent(tom, liz).
 parent(bob, ann).
 parent(bob, pat).
 parent(pat, jim).
 parent(bob, peter).
 parent(peter, jim).

Now if we want to make mother and sister relationship, then we can write as given below −

In Prolog syntax, we can write −

 mother(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y), female(X).
 sister(X,Y) :- parent(Z,X), parent(Z,Y), female(X), X \== Y.

Now let us see some more relationships that we can make from the previous relationships of a family. So if we want to make a grandparent
relationship, that can be formed as follows −
We can also create some other relationships like wife, uncle, etc. We can write the relationships as given below −
 grandparent(X,Y) :- parent(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
 grandmother(X,Z) :- mother(X,Y), parent(Y,Z).
 grandfather(X,Z) :- father(X,Y), parent(Y,Z).
 wife(X,Y) :- parent(X,Z),parent(Y,Z), female(X),male(Y).
 uncle(X,Z) :- brother(X,Y), parent(Y,Z).

Recursion in Family Relationship

In the previous section, we have seen that we can define some family relationships. These relationships are static in nature. We can also create
some recursive relationships which can be expressed from the following illustration −

0
So we can understand that predecessor relationship is recursive. We can express this relationship using the following syntax −
predecessor(X, Z) :- parent(X, Z).
predecessor(X, Z) :- parent(X, Y),predecessor(Y, Z)

Prolog - Data Objects

They can be divided into few different categories as shown below −

Below are some examples of different kinds of data objects −

  Atoms − tom, pat, x100, x_45
 Numbers − 100, 1235, 2000.45
 Variables − X, Y, Xval, _X
 Structures − day(9, jun, 2017), point(10, 25)

Atoms and Variables

In this section, we will discuss the atoms, numbers and the variables of Prolog.
Atoms

Atoms are one variation of constants. They can be any names or objects. There are few rules that should be followed when we are trying to use
Atoms as given below −
Strings of letters, digits and the underscore character, ‘_', starting with a lower-case letter. For example −
 azahar
 b59
 b_59
 b_59AB
 b_x25
 antara_sarkar
Strings of special characters

We have to keep in mind that when using atoms of this form, some care is necessary as some strings of special characters already have a
predefined meaning; for example ':-'.
 <--->
 =======>
 ...
 .:.
 ::=
Strings of characters enclosed in single quotes.

This is useful if we want to have an atom that starts with a capital letter. By enclosing it in quotes, we make it distinguishable from variables −
 ‘Rubai'
  ‘Arindam_Chatterjee'
 ‘Sumit Mitra'
Numbers

Another variation of constants is the Numbers. So integer numbers can be represented as 100, 4, -81, 1202. In Prolog, the normal range of integers
is from -16383 to 16383.

Prolog also supports real numbers, but normally the use-case of floating point number is very less in Prolog programs, because Prolog is for
symbolic, non-numeric computation. The treatment of real numbers depends on the implementation of Prolog. Example of real numbers are
3.14159, -0.00062, 450.18, etc.
The variables come under the Simple Objects section. Variables can be used in many such cases in our Prolog program, that we have seen earlier.
So there are some rules of defining variables in Prolog.
We can define Prolog variables, such that variables are strings of letters, digits and underscore characters. They start with an upper-case letter or
an underscore character. Some examples of Variables are −
 X
 Sum
 Memer_name
 Student_list
 Shoppinglist
 _a50
 _15

Anonymous Variables in Prolog

Anonymous variables have no names. The anonymous variables in prolog is written by a single underscore character ‘_’. And one important thing
is that each individual anonymous variable is treated as different. They are not same.

Now the question is, where should we use these anonymous variables?

Suppose in our knowledge base we have some facts — “jim hates tom”, “pat hates bob”. So if tom wants to find out who hates him, then he can
use variables. However, if he wants to check whether there is someone who hates him, we can use anonymous variables. So when we want to use
the variable, but do not want to reveal the value of the variable, then we can use anonymous variables.
Prolog - Operators
In the following sections, we will see what are the different types of operators in Prolog. Types of the comparison operators and Arithmetic
operators.

We will also see how these are different from any other high level language operators, how they are syntactically different, and how they are
different in their work. Also we will see some practical demonstration to understand the usage of different operators.

Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two equations or states. Following are different comparison operators −
Operator Meaning

X>Y X is greater than Y

X<Y X is less than Y

X >= Y X is greater than or equal to Y

X =< Y X is less than or equal to Y

X =:= Y the X and Y values are equal

X =\= Y the X and Y values are not equal

Arithmetic Operators in Prolog

Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations. There are few different types of arithmetic operators as follows −
Operator Meaning

+ Addition

- Subtraction
 * Multiplication

/ Division

** Power

// Integer Division

Mod Modulus

Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is
technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.
Example:
1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.
o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid sentence.
 o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as "Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not
Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge representation. There are two types of Propositions:
a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions
o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol.
o These are the sentences which must be either true or false.

Example:
1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connective

Example:
1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:

Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of lo
mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

has ∧ connective ∧
1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which such as, P Q is called
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be
P= Rohan is
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction, where P and Q
 Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or

4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also known as if-then rules. It
If it is raining, then the street
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q

P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, example If I am breathing,

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:

In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with

logical connectives, and the representation of these combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table.

Following are the truth table for all logical connectives:

Truth table with three propositions:

We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.
Precedence of connectives:

Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or logical operators.

This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem. Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of the correct interpretations. Such as ¬R ∨ Q, It can be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.
Logical equivalence:

Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent if and
only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.

Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In below truth table we can see that column

for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is Equivalent to B

Properties of Operators:
Commutativity:
P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
o

P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
o

o
Associativity:
(P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
o

(P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
o

o
Identity element:
P ∧ True = P,
o

P ∨ True= True.
o

o
Distributive:
P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
o

P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
o

o
DE Morgan's Law:
¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o

¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
o

o
 o Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.
Limitations of Propositional logic:
o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic. Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
o Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
o In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or logical relationships

Rules of Inference in Artificial intelligence

Inference:

In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new logic from old logic or by
evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and facts is termed as Inference.

Inference rules:

Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are applied to derive
proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the conclusion that leads to the desired
goal.

In inference rules, the implication among all the connectives plays an important role. Following are
some terminologies related to inference rules:
o Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q. It is a
Boolean expression.
o Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition goes to the
 left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
o Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be represented
as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
o Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P → ¬ Q.

From the above term some of the compound statements are equivalent to each other, which we can
prove using truth table:

Hence from the above truth table, we can prove that P → Q is equivalent to ¬ Q → ¬ P, and Q→ P is
equivalent to ¬ P → ¬ Q.

Types of Inference rules:

1. Modus Ponens:

The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and it states that if P and P → Q
is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It can be represented as:

Example:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.

Proof by Truth table:

2. Modus Tollens:

The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true, then ¬ P will also true. It can be
represented as:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P

Proof by Truth table:

3. Hypothetical Syllogism:

The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever P→Q is true, and Q→R is true. It
can be represented as the following notation:
Example:

Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my money. P→R

Proof by truth table:

4. Disjunctive Syllogism:

The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true, then Q will be true. It can be
represented as:

Example:

Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q

Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q

Proof by truth-table:
5. Addition:

The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that If P is true, then P∨Q will be true.

Example:

Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P

Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)

Proof by Truth-Table:

6. Simplification:

The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also be true. It can be represented as:

Proof by Truth-Table:
7. Resolution:

The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q∨R will also be true. It can be
represented as

Proof by Truth-Table:

First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence

In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements using propositional
logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only represent the facts, which are either true or
false. PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or natural language statements. The
propositional logic has very limited expressive power. Consider the following sentence, which we
cannot represent using PL logic.
o "Some humans are intelligent", or
o "Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more powerful logic,
such as first-order logic.

First-Order logic:
o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is an
extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise way.
o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic. First-order
logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a more easy way and
can also express the relationship between those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains facts like
propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus, ......
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any relation
such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
a. Syntax
b. Semantics
Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-order logic.
The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write statements in short-hand notation
in FOL.
Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:
o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences are formed
from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).
Complex Sentences:
o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.
First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:
o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.
o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together in a
statement.

Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is the subject of the
statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.

Quantifiers in First-order logic:

o A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and quantification specifies
the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope of the variable in
the logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:
a. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
b. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).
Universal Quantifier:

Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the statement within its
range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.

Note: In universal quantifier we use implication "→".

If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

 o For all x
o For each x
o For every x.
Example:

All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:

∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.
Existential Quantifier:

Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within its scope is
true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used with a predicate

Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol (∧).

variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:
o There exists a 'x.'
o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'
Example:

Some boys are intelligent.

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Points to remember:
The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.
The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.
o

Properties of Quantifiers:
In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o

∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

o

o
Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly.

In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."

∀x bird(x) →fly(x).
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.

2. Every man respects his parent.

Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:
In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y= parent.

∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).

3. Some boys play cricket.

use ∃,
In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game. Since there are some boys so

∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

we will and it will be represented as:

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following representation for this:
In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.

¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.

In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use following representation for
this:
 ∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧ student(y) → ¬failed (x,
Mathematics)].

Free and Bound Variables:

The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There are two types of variables
in First-order logic which are given below:

Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside the scope of the
quantifier.

Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs within the scope of
the quantifier.

Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variable

o Development
Knowledge Engineering in First-order logic

knowledge-engineering

The process of constructing a knowledge-base in first-order logic is called as knowledge- engineering.

In knowledge-engineering, someone who investigates a particular domain, learns important concept of
that domain, and generates a formal representation of the objects, is known as knowledge engineer.

In this topic, we will understand the Knowledge engineering process in an electronic circuit domain,
which is already familiar. This approach is mainly suitable for creating special-purpose knowledge
base.
The knowledge-engineering process:

Following are some main steps of the knowledge-engineering process. Using these steps, we will
develop a knowledge base which will allow us to reason about digital circuit (One-bit full adder) which
is given below

1. Identify the task:

The first step of the process is to identify the task, and for the digital circuit, there are various reasoning
tasks.

At the first level or highest level, we will examine the functionality of the circuit:
o Does the circuit add properly?
o What will be the output of gate A2, if all the inputs are high?

At the second level, we will examine the circuit structure details such as:
o Which gate is connected to the first input terminal?
o Does the circuit have feedback loops?
2. Assemble the relevant knowledge:

In the second step, we will assemble the relevant knowledge which is required for digital circuits. So for
digital circuits, we have the following required knowledge:
o Logic circuits are made up of wires and gates.
o Signal flows through wires to the input terminal of the gate, and each gate produces the
corresponding output which flows further.
o In this logic circuit, there are four types of gates used: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT.
o All these gates have one output terminal and two input terminals (except NOT gate, it has one
input terminal).
3. Decide on vocabulary:

The next step of the process is to select functions, predicate, and constants to represent the circuits,
terminals, signals, and gates. Firstly we will distinguish the gates from each other and from other
objects. Each gate is represented as an object which is named by a constant, such as, Gate(X1). The
functionality of each gate is determined by its type, which is taken as constants such as AND, OR,
XOR, or NOT. Circuits will be identified by a predicate: Circuit (C1).

For the terminal, we will use predicate: Terminal(x).

For gate input, we will use the function In(1, X1) for denoting the first input terminal of the gate, and for
output terminal we will use Out (1, X1).

The function Arity(c, i, j) is used to denote that circuit c has i input, j output.

The connectivity between gates can be represented by predicate Connect(Out(1, X1), In(1, X1)).

We use a unary predicate On (t), which is true if the signal at a terminal is on.
4. Encode general knowledge about the domain:

To encode the general knowledge about the logic circuit, we need some following rules:
 1. ∀ t1, t2 Terminal (t1) ∧ Terminal (t2) ∧ Connect (t1, t2) → Signal (t1) = Signal (2).
o If two terminals are connected then they have the same input signal, it can be represented as:

1. ∀ t Terminal (t) →Signal (t) = 1 ∨Signal (t) = 0.

o Signal at every terminal will have either value 0 or 1, it will be represented as:

1. ∀ t1, t2 Connect(t1, t2) → Connect (t2, t1).

o Connect predicates are commutative:

1. ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ r = Type(g) → r = OR ∨r = AND ∨r = XOR ∨r = NOT.

o Representation of types of gates:

1. ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = AND →Signal (Out(1, g))= 0 ⇔ ∃n Signal (In(n, g))= 0.

o Output of AND gate will be zero if and only if any of its input is zero.

1. ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = OR → Signal (Out(1, g))= 1 ⇔ ∃n Signal (In(n, g))= 1

o Output of OR gate is 1 if and only if any of its input is 1:

1. ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = XOR → Signal (Out(1, g)) = 1 ⇔ Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (In(2, g)).
o Output of XOR gate is 1 if and only if its inputs are different:

1. ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT → Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (Out(1, g)).

o Output of NOT gate is invert of its input:

1. ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT → Arity(g, 1, 1)

o All the gates in the above circuit have two inputs and one output (except NOT gate).

2. ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ r =Type(g) ∧ (r= AND ∨r= OR ∨r= XOR) → Arity (g, 2, 1).

1. ∀ g Gate(g) → Circuit (g).

o All gates are logic circuits:

5. Encode a description of the problem instance:

Now we encode problem of circuit C1, firstly we categorize the circuit and its gate components. This
step is easy if ontology about the problem is already thought. This step involves the writing simple
atomics sentences of instances of concepts, which is known as ontology.

For the given circuit C1, we can encode the problem instance in atomic sentences as below:
Since in the circuit there are two XOR, two AND, and one OR gate so atomic sentences for these gates
will be:
1. For XOR gate: Type(x1)= XOR, Type(X2) = XOR
2. For AND gate: Type(A1) = AND, Type(A2)= AND
3. For OR gate: Type (O1) = OR.

And then represent the connections between all the gates.

Note: Ontology defines a particular theory of the nature of existence.
6. Pose queries to the inference procedure and get answers:

In this step, we will find all the possible set of values of all the terminal for the adder circuit. The first
query will be:

What should be the combination of input which would generate the first output of circuit C1, as 0 and a

1. ∃ i1, i2, i3 Signal (In(1, C1))=i1 ∧ Signal (In(2, C1))=i2 ∧ Signal (In(3, C1))= i3
second output to be 1?

2. ∧ Signal (Out(1, C1)) =0 ∧ Signal (Out(2, C1))=1

7. Debug the knowledge base:

Now we will debug the knowledge base, and this is the last step of the complete process. In this step, we
will try to debug the issues of knowledge base.

In the knowledge base, we may have omitted assertions like 1 ≠ 0.

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Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences from existing sentences. Before
understanding the FOL inference rule, let's understand some basic terminologies used in FOL.

Substitution:

Substitution is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas. It occurs in all inference
systems in first-order logic. The substitution is complex in the presence of quantifiers in FOL. If we
write F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a constant "a" in place of variable "x".
Note: First-order logic is capable of expressing facts about some or all objects in the universe.

Equality:

First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making atomic sentences but also uses
another way, which is equality in FOL. For this, we can use equality symbols which specify that the
two terms refer to the same object.

Example: Brother (John) = Smith.

As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is similar to the object referred
by Smith. The equality symbol can also be used with negation to represent that two terms are not the
same objects.

Example: ￢(x=y) which is equivalent to x ≠y.

FOL inference rules for quantifier:

As propositional logic we also have inference rules in first-order logic, so following are some basic
inference rules in FOL:
o Universal Generalization
o Universal Instantiation
o Existential Instantiation
o Existential introduction

1. Universal Generalization:

arbitrary element c in the universe of discourse, then we can have a conclusion as ∀ x P(x).
o Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that if premise P(c) is true for any

o It can be represented as: .

o This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a similar property.
o In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable.

Example: Let's represent, P(c): "A byte contains 8 bits", so for ∀ x P(x) "All bytes contain 8 bits.", it
will also be true.

2. Universal Instantiation:
o Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a valid inference rule. It
can be applied multiple times to add new sentences.
o The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
o As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground term for the
variable.

within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any object in the universe of discourse.
o The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a ground term c (a constant

o It can be represented as: .

Example:1.

IF "Every person like ice-cream"=> ∀x P(x) so we can infer that

"John likes ice-cream" => P(c)

Example: 2.

Let's take a famous example,

"All kings who are greedy are Evil." So let our knowledge base contains this detail as in the form of
FOL:

∀x king(x) ∧ greedy (x) → Evil (x),

So from this information, we can infer any of the following statements using Universal Instantiation:
King(John) ∧ Greedy (John) → Evil (John),
King(Richard) ∧ Greedy (Richard) → Evil (Richard),
o

King(Father(John)) ∧ Greedy (Father(John)) → Evil (Father(John)),

o

3. Existential Instantiation:
o Existential instantiation is also called as Existential Elimination, which is a valid inference rule
in first-order logic.
o It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
o The new KB is not logically equivalent to old KB, but it will be satisfiable if old KB was
satisfiable.
o This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula given in the form of ∃x P(x) for a new
constant symbol c.
o The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new term for which P(c ) is true.
 o It can be represented as:

Example:

From the given sentence: ∃x Crown(x) ∧ OnHead(x, John),

So we can infer: Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as K does not appear in the knowledge base.
o The above used K is a constant symbol, which is called Skolem constant.
o The Existential instantiation is a special case of Skolemization process.

4. Existential introduction
o An existential introduction is also known as an existential generalization, which is a valid
inference rule in first-order logic.
o This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of discourse which has a property
P, then we can infer that there exists something in the universe which has the property P.

o It can be represented as:

o Example: Let's say that,
"Priyanka got good marks in English."
"Therefore, someone got good marks in English."

Generalized Modus Ponens Rule:

For the inference process in FOL, we have a single inference rule which is called Generalized Modus
Ponens. It is lifted version of Modus ponens.

Generalized Modus Ponens can be summarized as, " P implies Q and P is asserted to be true, therefore Q
must be True."
According to Modus Ponens, for atomic sentences pi, pi', q. Where there is a substitution θ such that
SUBST (θ, pi',) = SUBST(θ, pi), it can be represented as:

Example:

We will use this rule for Kings are evil, so we will find some x such that x is king, and x is greedy
so we can infer that x is evil.
1. Here let say, p1' is king(John) p1 is king(x)
2. p2' is Greedy(y) p2 is Greedy(x)
3. θ is {x/John, y/John} q is evil(x)
4. SUBST(θ,q).

ic Designing
Unification
o Unification is a process of making two different logical atomic expressions identical by finding a
substitution. Unification depends on the substitution process.
It takes two literals as input and makes them identical using substitution.
Let Ψ1 and Ψ2 be two atomic sentences and 𝜎 be a unifier such that, Ψ1𝜎 = Ψ2𝜎, then it can be
o

o
expressed as UNIFY(Ψ1, Ψ2).
o Example: Find the MGU for Unify{King(x), King(John)}

Let Ψ1 = King(x), Ψ2 = King(John),

Substitution θ = {John/x} is a unifier for these atoms and applying this substitution, and both
expressions will be identical.
o The UNIFY algorithm is used for unification, which takes two atomic sentences and returns a
 unifier for those sentences (If any exist).
o Unification is a key component of all first-order inference algorithms.
o It returns fail if the expressions do not match with each other.
o The substitution variables are called Most General Unifier or MGU.

E.g. Let's say there are two different expressions, P(x, y), and P(a, f(z)).

In this example, we need to make both above statements identical to each other. For this, we will
perform the substitution.

P(x, y)......... (i)

P(a, f(z))......... (ii)

o Substitute x with a, and y with f(z) in the first expression, and it will be represented as a/x and
f(z)/y.
o With both the substitutions, the first expression will be identical to the second expression and the
substitution set will be: [a/x, f(z)/y].

Conditions for Unification:

Following are some basic conditions for unification:

o Predicate symbol must be same, atoms or expression with different predicate symbol can never
be unified.
o Number of Arguments in both expressions must be identical.
o Unification will fail if there are two similar variables present in the same expression.

Unification Algorithm:

Algorithm: Unify(Ψ1, Ψ2)

Step. 1: If Ψ1 or Ψ2 is a variable or constant, then:
 a) If Ψ1 or Ψ2 are identical, then return NIL.
b) Else if Ψ1is a variable,
a. then if Ψ1 occurs in Ψ2, then return FAILURE
b. Else return { (Ψ2/ Ψ1)}.
c) Else if Ψ2 is a variable,
a. If Ψ2 occurs in Ψ1 then return FAILURE,
b. Else return {( Ψ1/ Ψ2)}.
d) Else return FAILURE.
Step.2: If the initial Predicate symbol in Ψ1 and Ψ2 are not same, then return FAILURE.
Step. 3: IF Ψ1 and Ψ2 have a different number of arguments, then return FAILURE.
Step. 4: Set Substitution set(SUBST) to NIL.
Step. 5: For i=1 to the number of elements in Ψ1.
a) Call Unify function with the ith element of Ψ 1 and ith element of Ψ2, and put the result into
S.
b) If S = failure then returns Failure
c) If S ≠ NIL then do,
a. Apply S to the remainder of both L1 and L2.
b. SUBST= APPEND(S, SUBST).
Step.6: Return SUBST.

Implementation of the Algorithm

Step.1: Initialize the substitution set to be empty.

Step.2: Recursively unify atomic sentences:

a. Check for Identical expression match.
b. If one expression is a variable v i, and the other is a term t i which does not contain variable v i,
 then:
a. Substitute ti / vi in the existing substitutions
b. Add ti /vi to the substitution setlist.
c. If both the expressions are functions, then function name must be similar, and the number
of arguments must be the same in both the expression.

For each pair of the following atomic sentences find the most general unifier (If exist).

1. Find the MGU of {p(f(a), g(Y)) and p(X, X)}

Sol: S0 => Here, Ψ1 = p(f(a), g(Y)), and Ψ2 = p(X, X)

SUBST θ= {f(a) / X}
S1 => Ψ1 = p(f(a), g(Y)), and Ψ2 = p(f(a), f(a))
SUBST θ= {f(a) / g(y)}, Unification failed.

Unification is not possible for these expressions.

2. Find the MGU of {p(b, X, f(g(Z))) and p(Z, f(Y), f(Y))}

Here, Ψ1 = p(b, X, f(g(Z))) , and Ψ2 = p(Z, f(Y), f(Y))

S0 => { p(b, X, f(g(Z))); p(Z, f(Y), f(Y))}
SUBST θ={b/Z}

S1 => { p(b, X, f(g(b))); p(b, f(Y), f(Y))}

SUBST θ={f(Y) /X}

S2 => { p(b, f(Y), f(g(b))); p(b, f(Y), f(Y))}

SUBST θ= {g(b) /Y}

S2 => { p(b, f(g(b)), f(g(b)); p(b, f(g(b)), f(g(b))} Unified Successfully.

And Unifier = { b/Z, f(Y) /X , g(b) /Y}.
3. Find the MGU of {p (X, X), and p (Z, f(Z))}

Here, Ψ1 = {p (X, X), and Ψ2 = p (Z, f(Z))

S0 => {p (X, X), p (Z, f(Z))}
SUBST θ= {X/Z}
S1 => {p (Z, Z), p (Z, f(Z))}
SUBST θ= {f(Z) / Z}, Unification Failed.

Hence, unification is not possible for these expressions.

4. Find the MGU of UNIFY(prime (11), prime(y))

Here, Ψ1 = {prime(11) , and Ψ2 = prime(y)}

S0 => {prime(11) , prime(y)}
SUBST θ= {11/y}

S1 => {prime(11) , prime(11)} , Successfully unified.

Unifier: {11/y}.

5. Find the MGU of Q(a, g(x, a), f(y)), Q(a, g(f(b), a), x)}

Here, Ψ1 = Q(a, g(x, a), f(y)), and Ψ2 = Q(a, g(f(b), a), x)

S0 => {Q(a, g(x, a), f(y)); Q(a, g(f(b), a), x)}
SUBST θ= {f(b)/x}
S1 => {Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(y)); Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(b))}

SUBST θ= {b/y}
S1 => {Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(b)); Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(b))}, Successfully Unified.

Unifier: [a/a, f(b)/x, b/y].

6. UNIFY(knows(Richard, x), knows(Richard, John))

Here, Ψ1 = knows(Richard, x), and Ψ2 = knows(Richard, John)

S0 => { knows(Richard, x); knows(Richard, John)}
SUBST θ= {John/x}
S1 => { knows(Richard, John); knows(Richard, John)}, Successfully Unified.
Unifier: {John/x}.

Resolution in FOL

Resolution

Resolution is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation proofs, i.e., proofs by
contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John Alan Robinson in the year 1965.

Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove a conclusion of those
statements. Unification is a key concept in proofs by resolutions. Resolution is a single inference rule
which can efficiently operate on the conjunctive normal form or clausal form.

Clause: Disjunction of literals (an atomic sentence) is called a clause. It is also known as a unit clause.

Conjunctive Normal Form: A sentence represented as a conjunction of clauses is said to

be conjunctive normal form or CNF.
Note: To better understand this topic, firstly learns the FOL in AI.

The resolution inference rule:

The resolution rule for first-order logic is simply a lifted version of the propositional rule. Resolution
can resolve two clauses if they contain complementary literals, which are assumed to be standardized
apart so that they share no variables.
Where li and mj are complementary literals.

This rule is also called the binary resolution rule because it only resolves exactly two literals.
Example:

We can resolve two clauses which are given below:

[Animal (g(x) V Loves (f(x), x)] and [￢ Loves(a, b) V ￢Kills(a, b)]

Where two complimentary literals are: Loves (f(x), x) and ￢ Loves (a, b)

These literals can be unified with unifier θ= [a/f(x), and b/x] , and it will generate a resolvent clause:

[Animal (g(x) V ￢ Kills(f(x), x)].

Steps for Resolution:

1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic.
2. Convert FOL statements into CNF
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove (proof by contradiction)
4. Draw resolution graph (unification).

To better understand all the above steps, we will take an example in which we will apply resolution.
Example:
a. John likes all kind of food.
b. Apple and vegetable are food
c. Anything anyone eats and not killed is food.
 d. Anil eats peanuts and still alive
e. Harry eats everything that Anil eats.
Prove by resolution that:
f. John likes peanuts.

Step-1: Conversion of Facts into FOL

In the first step we will convert all the given statements into its first order logic.

Step-2: Conversion of FOL into CNF

In First order logic resolution, it is required to convert the FOL into CNF as CNF form makes easier for
resolution proofs.
Eliminate all implication (→) and rewrite
a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
o

b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀x ∀y ¬ [eats(x, y) Λ ¬ killed(x)] V food(y)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
 e. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
f. ∀x¬ [¬ killed(x) ] V alive(x)
g. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
h. likes(John, Peanuts).
Move negation (¬)inwards and rewrite
a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
o

b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀x ∀y ¬ eats(x, y) V killed(x) V food(y)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
e. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
f. ∀x ¬killed(x) ] V alive(x)
g. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
h. likes(John, Peanuts).
Rename variables or standardize variables
a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
o

b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀y ∀z ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
e. ∀w¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
f. ∀g ¬killed(g) ] V alive(g)
g. ∀k ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
h. likes(John, Peanuts).

In this step, we will eliminate existential quantifier ∃, and this process is known
o Eliminate existential instantiation quantifier by elimination.

as Skolemization. But in this example problem since there is no existential quantifier so all the
statements will remain same in this step.
 o Drop Universal quantifiers.
In this step we will drop all universal quantifier since all the statements are not implicitly quantified
so we don't need it.
a. ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
b. food(Apple)
c. food(vegetables)
d. ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
e. eats (Anil, Peanuts)
f. alive(Anil)
g. ¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
h. killed(g) V alive(g)
i. ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
j. likes(John, Peanuts).
Note: Statements "food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)" and "eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)" can be
written in two separate statements.
o Distribute conjunction ∧ over disjunction ¬.
This step will not make any change in this problem.

Step-3: Negate the statement to be proved

In this statement, we will apply negation to the conclusion statements, which will be written as
¬likes(John, Peanuts)

Step-4: Draw Resolution graph:

Now in this step, we will solve the problem by resolution tree using substitution. For the above problem,
it will be given as follows:
Hence the negation of the conclusion has been proved as a complete contradiction with the given set of
statements.

Explanation of Resolution graph:

o In the first step of resolution graph, ¬likes(John, Peanuts) , and likes(John, x) get
resolved(canceled) by substitution of {Peanuts/x}, and we are left with ¬ food(Peanuts)
o In the second step of the resolution graph, ¬ food(Peanuts) , and food(z) get resolved (canceled)
by substitution of { Peanuts/z}, and we are left with ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) V killed(y) .
o In the third step of the resolution graph, ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) and eats (Anil, Peanuts) get resolved
by substitution {Anil/y}, and we are left with Killed(Anil) .
o In the fourth step of the resolution graph, Killed(Anil) and ¬ killed(k) get resolve by
 substitution {Anil/k}, and we are left with ¬ alive(Anil) .
o In the last step of the resolution graph ¬ alive(Anil) and alive(Anil) get resolved.
ervices
Forward Chaining and backward chaining in AI

In artificial intelligence, forward and backward chaining is one of the important topics, but before
understanding forward and backward chaining lets first understand that from where these two terms
came.

Inference engine:

The inference engine is the component of the intelligent system in artificial intelligence, which applies
logical rules to the knowledge base to infer new information from known facts. The first inference
engine was part of the expert system. Inference engine commonly proceeds in two modes, which are:
a. Forward chaining
b. Backward chaining

Horn Clause and Definite clause:

Horn clause and definite clause are the forms of sentences, which enables knowledge base to use a more
restricted and efficient inference algorithm. Logical inference algorithms use forward and backward
chaining approaches, which require KB in the form of the first-order definite clause.

Definite clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals with exactly one positive literal is known as
a definite clause or strict horn clause.

Horn clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals with at most one positive literal is known as
horn clause. Hence all the definite clauses are horn clauses.

It is equivalent to p ∧ q → k.
Example: (¬ p V ¬ q V k). It has only one positive literal k.
A. Forward Chaining

Forward chaining is also known as a forward deduction or forward reasoning method when using an
inference engine. Forward chaining is a form of reasoning which start with atomic sentences in the
knowledge base and applies inference rules (Modus Ponens) in the forward direction to extract more
data until a goal is reached.

The Forward-chaining algorithm starts from known facts, triggers all rules whose premises are satisfied,
and add their conclusion to the known facts. This process repeats until the problem is solved.

Properties of Forward-Chaining:
o It is a down-up approach, as it moves from bottom to top.
o It is a process of making a conclusion based on known facts or data, by starting from the initial
state and reaches the goal state.
o Forward-chaining approach is also called as data-driven as we reach to the goal using available
data.
o Forward -chaining approach is commonly used in the expert system, such as CLIPS, business,
and production rule systems.

Consider the following famous example which we will use in both approaches:
Example:

"As per the law, it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations. Country A, an
enemy of America, has some missiles, and all the missiles were sold to it by Robert, who is an
American citizen."

Prove that "Robert is criminal."

To solve the above problem, first, we will convert all the above facts into first-order definite clauses, and
then we will use a forward-chaining algorithm to reach the goal.
Facts Conversion into FOL:
o It is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations. (Let's say p, q, and r are

American (p) ∧ weapon(q) ∧ sells (p, q, r) ∧ hostile(r) → Criminal(p)

variables)
...(1)
o Country A has some missiles. ?p Owns(A, p) ∧ Missile(p). It can be written in two definite
clauses by using Existential Instantiation, introducing new Constant T1.
Owns(A, T1) ......(2)
Missile(T1) .......(3)

?p Missiles(p) ∧ Owns (A, p) → Sells (Robert, p, A)

o All of the missiles were sold to country A by Robert.
......(4)
o Missiles are weapons.
Missile(p) → Weapons (p) .......(5)
o Enemy of America is known as hostile.
Enemy(p, America) →Hostile(p) ........(6)
o Country A is an enemy of America.
Enemy (A, America) .........(7)
o Robert is American
American(Robert). ..........(8)

Forward chaining proof:

Step-1:

In the first step we will start with the known facts and will choose the sentences which do not have
implications, such as: American(Robert), Enemy(A, America), Owns(A, T1), and Missile(T1). All
these facts will be represented as below.
Step-2:

At the second step, we will see those facts which infer from available facts and with satisfied premises.

Rule-(1) does not satisfy premises, so it will not be added in the first iteration.

Rule-(2) and (3) are already added.

Rule-(4) satisfy with the substitution {p/T1}, so Sells (Robert, T1, A) is added, which infers from the
conjunction of Rule (2) and (3).

Rule-(6) is satisfied with the substitution(p/A), so Hostile(A) is added and which infers from Rule-(7).

Step-3:

At step-3, as we can check Rule-(1) is satisfied with the substitution {p/Robert, q/T1, r/A}, so we can
add Criminal(Robert) which infers all the available facts. And hence we reached our goal statement.
Hence it is proved that Robert is Criminal using forward chaining approach.

B. Backward Chaining:

Backward-chaining is also known as a backward deduction or backward reasoning method when using
an inference engine. A backward chaining algorithm is a form of reasoning, which starts with the goal
and works backward, chaining through rules to find known facts that support the goal.

Properties of backward chaining:

o It is known as a top-down approach.
o Backward-chaining is based on modus ponens inference rule.
o In backward chaining, the goal is broken into sub-goal or sub-goals to prove the facts true.
o It is called a goal-driven approach, as a list of goals decides which rules are selected and used.
o Backward -chaining algorithm is used in game theory, automated theorem proving tools,
inference engines, proof assistants, and various AI applications.
 o The backward-chaining method mostly used a depth-first search strategy for proof.
Example:

In backward-chaining, we will use the same above example, and will rewrite all the rules.
o American (p) ∧ weapon(q) ∧ sells (p, q, r) ∧ hostile(r) → Criminal(p) ...(1)
Owns(A, T1) ........(2)
Missile(T1)
?p Missiles(p) ∧ Owns (A, p) → Sells (Robert, p, A)
o

o ......(4)
o Missile(p) → Weapons (p) .......(5)
o Enemy(p, America) →Hostile(p) ........(6)
o Enemy (A, America) .........(7)
o American(Robert). ..........(8)

Backward-Chaining proof:

In Backward chaining, we will start with our goal predicate, which is Criminal(Robert), and then infer
further rules.

Step-1:

At the first step, we will take the goal fact. And from the goal fact, we will infer other facts, and at last,
we will prove those facts true. So our goal fact is "Robert is Criminal," so following is the predicate of
it.

Step-2:

At the second step, we will infer other facts form goal fact which satisfies the rules. So as we can see in
Rule-1, the goal predicate Criminal (Robert) is present with substitution {Robert/P}. So we will add all
the conjunctive facts below the first level and will replace p with Robert.

Here we can see American (Robert) is a fact, so it is proved here.

Step-3:t At step-3, we will extract further fact Missile(q) which infer from Weapon(q), as it satisfies
Rule-(5). Weapon (q) is also true with the substitution of a constant T1 at q.
Step-4:

At step-4, we can infer facts Missile(T1) and Owns(A, T1) form Sells(Robert, T1, r) which satisfies
the Rule- 4, with the substitution of A in place of r. So these two statements are proved here.
Step-5:

At step-5, we can infer the fact Enemy(A, America) from Hostile(A) which satisfies Rule- 6. And
hence all the statements are proved true using backward chaining.
Difference between backward chaining and forward chaining

Following is the difference between the forward chaining and backward chaining:
o Forward chaining as the name suggests, start from the known facts and move forward by
applying inference rules to extract more data, and it continues until it reaches to the goal,
whereas backward chaining starts from the goal, move backward by using inference rules to
determine the facts that satisfy the goal.
o Forward chaining is called a data-driven inference technique, whereas backward chaining is
called a goal-driven inference technique.
 o Forward chaining is known as the down-up approach, whereas backward chaining is known as
a top-down approach.
o Forward chaining uses breadth-first search strategy, whereas backward chaining uses depth-
first search strategy.
o Forward and backward chaining both applies Modus ponens inference rule.
o Forward chaining can be used for tasks such as planning, design process monitoring,
diagnosis, and classification, whereas backward chaining can be used for classification and
diagnosis tasks.
o Forward chaining can be like an exhaustive search, whereas backward chaining tries to avoid the
unnecessary path of reasoning.
o In forward-chaining there can be various ASK questions from the knowledge base, whereas in
backward chaining there can be fewer ASK questions.
o Forward chaining is slow as it checks for all the rules, whereas backward chaining is fast as it
checks few required rules only.

S. Forward Chaining Backward Chaining

No.

1. Forward chaining starts from known facts Backward chaining starts from the goal and
and applies inference rule to extract more works backward through inference rules to find
data unit it reaches to the goal. the required facts that support the goal.

2. It is a bottom-up approach It is a top-down approach

3. Forward chaining is known as data-driven Backward chaining is known as goal-driven

inference technique as we reach to the goal technique as we start from the goal and divide
using the available data. into sub-goal to extract the facts.

4. Forward chaining reasoning applies a Backward chaining reasoning applies a depth-

breadth-first search strategy. first search strategy.
 5. Forward chaining tests for all the available Backward chaining only tests for few required
rules rules.

6. Forward chaining is suitable for the Backward chaining is suitable for diagnostic,
planning, monitoring, control, and prescription, and debugging application.
interpretation application.

7. Forward chaining can generate an infinite Backward chaining generates a finite number of
number of possible conclusions. possible conclusions.

8. It operates in the forward direction. It operates in the backward direction.

9. Forward chaining is aimed for any Backward chaining is only aimed for the
conclusion. required data.

Knowledge-Based Agent in Artificial intelligence

o An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for taking decisions and reasoning to
act efficiently.
o Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining an internal
state of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge after observations
and take actions. These agents can represent the world with some formal representation
and act intelligently.
o Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:
o Knowledge-base and
o Inference system.

A knowledge-based agent must able to do the following:

o An agent should be able to represent states, actions, etc.
o An agent Should be able to incorporate new percepts
 o An agent can update the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce appropriate actions.

The architecture of knowledge-based agent:

The above diagram is representing a generalized architecture for a knowledge-based agent. The
knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input from the environment by perceiving the environment. The
input is taken by the inference engine of the agent and which also communicate with KB to decide as per
the knowledge store in KB. The learning element of KBA regularly updates the KB by learning new
knowledge.

Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central component of a knowledge-based agent, it is also known

as KB. It is a collection of sentences (here 'sentence' is a technical term and it is not identical to sentence
in English). These sentences are expressed in a language which is called a knowledge representation
language. The Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the world.

Why use a knowledge base?

Knowledge-base is required for updating knowledge for an agent to learn with experiences and take
action as per the knowledge.

Inference system

Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system allows us to add a new sentence to
the knowledge base. A sentence is a proposition about the world. Inference system applies logical rules
to the KB to deduce new information.

Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update the KB. An inference system works
mainly in two rules which are given as:
o Forward chaining
o Backward chaining

Operations Performed by KBA

Following are three operations which are performed by KBA in order to show the intelligent
behavior:
1. TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base what it perceives from the environment.
2. ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base what action it should perform.
3. Perform: It performs the selected action.

A generic knowledge-based agent:

Following is the structure outline of a generic knowledge-based agents program:

1. function KB-AGENT(percept):
 2. persistent: KB, a knowledge base
3. t, a counter, initially 0, indicating time
4. TELL(KB, MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE(percept, t))
5. Action = ASK(KB, MAKE-ACTION-QUERY(t))
6. TELL(KB, MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE(action, t))
7. t=t+1
8. return action

The knowledge-based agent takes percept as input and returns an action as output. The agent maintains
the knowledge base, KB, and it initially has some background knowledge of the real world. It also has a
counter to indicate the time for the whole process, and this counter is initialized with zero.

Each time when the function is called, it performs its three operations:
o Firstly it TELLs the KB what it perceives.
o Secondly, it asks KB what action it should take
o Third agent program TELLS the KB that which action was chosen.

The MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE generates a sentence as setting that the agent perceived the given
percept at the given time.

The MAKE-ACTION-QUERY generates a sentence to ask which action should be done at the current
time.

MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE generates a sentence which asserts that the chosen action was executed.

Various levels of knowledge-based agent:

A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels which are given below:
1. Knowledge level

Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we need to specify what
the agent knows, and what the agent goals are. With these specifications, we can fix its behavior. For
example, suppose an automated taxi agent needs to go from a station A to station B, and he knows the
way from A to B, so this comes at the knowledge level.
2. Logical level:

At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is stored. At this level,
sentences are encoded into different logics. At the logical level, an encoding of knowledge into logical
sentences occurs. At the logical level we can expect to the automated taxi agent to reach to the
destination B.
3. Implementation level:

This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At the implementation level agent perform
actions as per logical and knowledge level. At this level, an automated taxi agent actually implement his
knowledge and logic so that he can reach to the destination.

Approaches to designing a knowledge-based agent:

There are mainly two approaches to build a knowledge-based agent:

1. 1. Declarative approach: We can create a knowledge-based agent by initializing with an empty
knowledge base and telling the agent all the sentences with which we want to start with. This
approach is called Declarative approach.
2. 2. Procedural approach: In the procedural approach, we directly encode desired behavior as a
program code. Which means we just need to write a program that already encodes the desired
behavior or agent.

However, in the real world, a successful agent can be built by combining both declarative and
procedural approaches, and declarative knowledge can often be compiled into more efficient procedural
code.

ervices
What is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which
is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world. But how
machines do all these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can
describe Knowledge representation as following:
o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial intelligence.
Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also enables an
intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave
intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:

Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets
are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base.
It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are
used as a technical term and not identical with the English language).

Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and situations.
Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge

Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:
o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.
2. Procedural Knowledge
o It is also known as imperative knowledge.
o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do
something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:
o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:
o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of approaches,
and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:
o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping of
something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial intelligence.
Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI agents. An agent is only
able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then how
you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the environment and
using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:

An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent behavior:
o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution
The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what components
help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information from
its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory input. The learning component is
responsible for learning from data captured by Perception comportment. In the complete cycle, the main
components are knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two components are involved in
showing the intelligence in machine-like humans. These two components are independent with each
other but also coupled together. The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge
representation and reasoning.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are givenbelow:
1. Simple relational knowledge:
o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact about a set
of the object is set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the relationship
 between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between instance and
class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:
3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;

∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

man(Marcus)

4. Procedural knowledge:
 o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to do
specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP language and Prolog
language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.

1. 1. Representational Accuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required knowledge.
2. 2. Inferential Adequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational structures to produce new
knowledge corresponding to existing structure.
3. 3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most productive directions by
storing appropriate guides.
4. 4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily using automatic
methods.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:
1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules
1. Logical Representation

Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and has no
ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various
conditions. This representation lays down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely
defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into
logics using syntax and semantics.
Syntax:
o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
 o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics
b. Predicate logics
Note: We will discuss Prepositional Logics and Predicate logics in later chapters.
Advantages of logical representation:
1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.
2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.
Disadvantages of logical Representation:
1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so efficient.
Note: Do not be confused with logical representation and logical reasoning as logical representation is
a representation language and reasoning is a process of thinking logically.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic networks,
we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of nodes
representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic networks
can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to
understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)
b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and arcs.
Statements:
 a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs.
Each object is connected with another object by some relation.
Drawbacks in Semantic representation:
1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the complete
network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case scenario that after
traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to store
the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g.,
 for all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.
Advantages of Semantic network:
1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation

A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to describe an
entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be
of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which enable us to
put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot is
needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and
facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge
representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes and objects. A
single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames which are connected. In
the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is
a type of technology which is widely used in various applications including Natural language processing
and machine visions.
Example: 1

Let's take an example of a frame for a book

 Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
Disadvantages of frame representation:
1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.
2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules

Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then action". It
has mainly three parts:
o The set of production rules
 o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production rule fires
and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be
applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This complete
process is called a recognize-act cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule can write
knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired together, this is
called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and it is called a
conflict resolution.
Example:
o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).
Advantages of Production rule:
1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.
2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an individual
rule.
Disadvantages of Production rule:
1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the result of
the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based production
systems are inefficient.
Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

In previous topics, we have learned various ways of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. Now we will learn the various
ways to reason on this knowledge using different logical schemes.

Reasoning:

The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making predictions from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs.
Or we can say, "Reasoning is a way to infer facts from existing data." It is a general process of thinking rationally, to find valid
conclusions.

In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the machine can also think rationally as a human brain, and can perform like a
human.

Types of Reasoning

In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the following categories:

o Deductive reasoning
o Inductive reasoning
o Abductive reasoning
o Common Sense Reasoning
o Monotonic Reasoning
o Non-monotonic Reasoning
Note: Inductive and deductive reasoning are the forms of propositional logic.
1. Deductive reasoning:

Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically related known information. It is the form of valid reasoning, which
means the argument's conclusion must be true when the premises are true.
Deductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic in AI, and it requires various rules and facts. It is sometimes referred to as top-down
reasoning, and contradictory to inductive reasoning.

In deductive reasoning, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning mostly starts from the general premises to the specific conclusion, which can be explained as below example.

Example:

Premise-1: All the human eats veggies

Premise-2: Suresh is human.

Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

The general process of deductive reasoning is given below:

2. Inductive Reasoning:

Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion using limited sets of facts by the process of generalization. It starts
with the series of specific facts or data and reaches to a general statement or conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic, which is also known as cause-effect reasoning or bottom-up reasoning.

In inductive reasoning, we use historical data or various premises to generate a generic rule, for which premises support the conclusion.

In inductive reasoning, premises provide probable supports to the conclusion, so the truth of premises does not guarantee the truth of the
conclusion.
Example:

Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.

Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.

3. Abductive reasoning:

Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts with single or multiple observations then seeks to find the most likely
explanation or conclusion for the observation.

Abductive reasoning is an extension of deductive reasoning, but in abductive reasoning, the premises do not guarantee the conclusion.

Example:

Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining

Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.

Conclusion It is raining.
4. Common Sense Reasoning

Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which can be gained through experiences.

Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make presumptions about events which occurs on every day.

It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates on heuristic knowledge and heuristic rules.
Example:
1. One person can be at one place at a time.
2. If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.

The above two statements are the examples of common sense reasoning which a human mind can easily understand and assume.
5. Monotonic Reasoning:

In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same even if we add some other information to existing
information in our knowledge base. In monotonic reasoning, adding knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can be
derived.

To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from the available facts only, and it will not be affected by new facts.

Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get changed, so we cannot use monotonic reasoning.

Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based system is monotonic.

Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.

Example:
o Earth revolves around the Sun.

It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another sentence in knowledge base like, "The moon revolves around the earth"
Or "Earth is not round," etc.
Advantages of Monotonic Reasoning:
o In monotonic reasoning, each old proof will always remain valid.
o If we deduce some facts from available facts, then it will remain valid for always.
Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning:
o We cannot represent the real world scenarios using Monotonic reasoning.
 o Hypothesis knowledge cannot be expressed with monotonic reasoning, which means facts should be true.
o Since we can only derive conclusions from the old proofs, so new knowledge from the real world cannot be added.
6. Non-monotonic Reasoning

In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if we add some more information to our knowledge base.

Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by adding more knowledge into our knowledge base.

Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain models.

"Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general example of non-monotonic reasoning.

Example: Let suppose the knowledge base contains the following knowledge:
o Birds can fly
o Penguins cannot fly
o Pitty is a bird

So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Pitty can fly.

However, if we add one another sentence into knowledge base "Pitty is a penguin", which concludes "Pitty cannot fly", so it invalidates
the above conclusion.
Advantages of Non-monotonic reasoning:
o For real-world systems such as Robot navigation, we can use non-monotonic reasoning.
o In Non-monotonic reasoning, we can choose probabilistic facts or can make assumptions.
Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning:
o In non-monotonic reasoning, the old facts may be invalidated by adding new sentences.
o It cannot be used for theorem proving.

Difference between Inductive and Deductive reasoning

Reasoning in artificial intelligence has two important forms, Inductive reasoning, and Deductive reasoning. Both reasoning forms have
premises and conclusions, but both reasoning are contradictory to each other. Following is a list for comparison between inductive and
deductive reasoning:
o Deductive reasoning uses available facts, information, or knowledge to deduce a valid conclusion, whereas inductive reasoning
involves making a generalization from specific facts, and observations.
o Deductive reasoning uses a top-down approach, whereas inductive reasoning uses a bottom-up approach.
o Deductive reasoning moves from generalized statement to a valid conclusion, whereas Inductive reasoning moves from specific
observation to a generalization.
o In deductive reasoning, the conclusions are certain, whereas, in Inductive reasoning, the conclusions are probabilistic.
o Deductive arguments can be valid or invalid, which means if premises are true, the conclusion must be true, whereas inductive
argument can be strong or weak, which means conclusion may be false even if premises are true.
The differences between inductive and deductive can be explained using the below diagram on the basis of arguments:
Comparison Chart:

Basis for Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

comparison
Definition Deductive reasoning is the form of Inductive reasoning arrives at a conclusion
valid reasoning, to deduce new by the process of generalization using
information or conclusion from specific facts or data.
known related facts and information.

Approach Deductive reasoning follows a top- Inductive reasoning follows a bottom-up

down approach. approach.

Starts from Deductive reasoning starts from Inductive reasoning starts from the
Premises. Conclusion.

Validity In deductive reasoning conclusion In inductive reasoning, the truth of premises

must be true if the premises are true. does not guarantee the truth of conclusions.

Usage Use of deductive reasoning is Use of inductive reasoning is fast and easy,
difficult, as we need facts which must as we need evidence instead of true facts.
be true. We often use it in our daily life.

Process Theory→ hypothesis→ Observations-

patterns→confirmation. →patterns→hypothesis→Theory.

Argument In deductive reasoning, arguments In inductive reasoning, arguments may be

may be valid or invalid. weak or strong.

Structure Deductive reasoning reaches from Inductive reasoning reaches from specific
general facts to specific facts. facts to general facts.