partial fulfilment of the requirements for

A project report submitted in

the award of the degree of master of science in mathematics.

3 Semester PG Examination-2022
rd

NAME:- Suvendu sekhar giri

REGD. NO/YEAR: KU20210030328/2021
UNIVERSITY ROLL NO: 222606529940

COLLEGE ROLL NO: 24

PAPER: CCMATH301
SESSION: 2021-2023

Assistant Professor
University Department of Mathematics

KOLHAN UVIVERSITY,
CHAIBASA, WEST SINGHBHUM,
JHARKHAND, 833202
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “BOOLEAN ALGEBRA”
submitted by SUVENDU SEKHAR GIRI, for the award of the Master of Science in
Mathematics from University Department of Mathematics, Kolhan University, Chaibasa,
Jharkhand, 833202 is a bona fide record of work carried out by him under my
supervision. Neither this project report nor any part of it has been submitted for any
degree or academic award elsewhere.

Signature of guide

Total Mark: 100

External Internal Average Mark

Obtained

1. Project Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Viva-Voice

Total …………………………………

(In Word ………………………………………………………….)

Signature of External Signature of Internal

 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled “BOOLEAN ALGEBRA"

submitted by me to P.G. DEPARTMENT OF KOLHAN UNIVERSITY, CHAIBASA. The
requirement for the award of the degree of M.Sc. in MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT is
a record of bonfide project work carried out by me under the Supervision of
Mr. Mahendra Kumar Rana .

Signature of the Student

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my esteemed
teacher Mr. Mahendra Kumar Rana who gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project in this topic “BOOLEAN ALGEBRA” which also helped me in doing a
lot of research and I came to know about so many new things I am really thankful to
them. Secondly, I would like to thanks my parents and brother for their love and
support and helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.
Also, I would like acknowledge my friends for their moral support and love.
 CONTENTS
Introduction………………………………………………………………………01

Preliminary……………………………………………………………………….02

CHAPTER 1: BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Definition………………………………………………………...…………05

Sub algebra……………………………………………...………………….05

CHAPTER 2: BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

Boolean Variable……………………………………………………………20

Boolean Function………………………………………………...…………20

Disjunctive Normal Form…………………………………………………...21

Conjunctive Normal Form…………………………………………………..21

Canonical and Standard Form ………………………………………………………………21

CHAPTER 3: APPLICATIONS

Switching Circuit……………………………………………………..…………....31

Logic Circuit………………………………………………..……………………...36

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………39

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………40
 INTRODUCTION
“No matter how corrects a mathematical theorem may appear to be on ought
never to be satisfied that there was not something imperfect about it until it also
gives impression of being beautiful.”
-George Boole

The main asset that made humans superior to other species was the ability
to reason. How well this ability can be used depends on each person’s power
of reasoning. How to develop this power? Here we shall discuss the process
of reasoning and logic especially in the context of mathematics.

The first treatise on logic was written by Aristotle (384 B.C.- 322
B.C.). Later, in the nineteenth century the English mathematician George
Boole (1815-1864) and Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) founded the modern
subject symbolic logic. Boole is best known as the author of “The Laws of
Thought” which contains Boolean algebra. In chapter 1, we define Boolean
algebra and study some of their properties. Chapter 2 is devoted to the study
of Boolean functions. In chapter 3, we consider application to Switching
Circuit and logic Circuit.
 PRELIMINARY
Proposition
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both.

Compound Propositions

Many mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more

propositions. New propositions called compound propositions, are formed
from existing propositions using logical operators.

Conjunction

The conjunction of two statements is obtained by putting the word ‘and’

between them. It is true when both the statements are true and false
otherwise. There is absolutely no restriction on the two statements.

Disjunction

The disjunction of two statements, is obtained by putting ‘or’ between

them. It is true when at least one of them is true and false otherwise.

Negation of a statement

Negation of a statement is a statement which is true precisely, when the

original statement is false and vice versa. The simplest way to negate a
statement is to proceed it with the phrase ‘it is not the case that….’ if a
statement is denoted by symbol 𝑝, its negation is denoted by 𝑝′ or ~ 𝑝 and
read as not 𝑝.

Implication statement

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two statements then by 𝑝 → 𝑞. We denote the implication

statement. ‘𝑝 implies 𝑞’ or
if 𝑝 then 𝑞. The layman interpretation of this is ‘whenever 𝑝 hold 𝑞 holds or
the truth of 𝑝 forces the truth of 𝑞.
In an implication statement, ‘𝑝 → 𝑞’ the statements 𝑝 and 𝑞 are called,
respectively the hypothesis and the conclusion.
Some other ways of paraphrasing implication statements

Suppose 𝑝 and 𝑞 are any statements. Then 𝑝 → 𝑞 can be read in any of the
following ways

i) 𝑝 implies 𝑞

ii) 𝑞 follows from 𝑝

iii) 𝑞 is a consequence of 𝑝

iv) if 𝑝 is true then 𝑞 is true

v) if 𝑞 is false then 𝑝 is false

vi) 𝑝 is false unless 𝑞 holds

vii) 𝑞 is necessary condition for 𝑝

ix) 𝑝 is true only if 𝑞 is true

Contrapositive

The statement ‘𝑝 → 𝑞’ is logically equivalent to the implication statement ‘𝑝

→ 𝑞 → 𝑝’, called its contrapositive.

Dual of a compound Proposition

The dual of a compound proposition that contains only the logical

operators ∨,∧ and ¬ is the proposition obtained by replacing ∨ by ∧, each ∧
by ∨, each 𝑇 by 𝐹, and each 𝐹 by 𝑇. The dual of proposition 𝑆 is S*.

Principle of duality

We can replace the +, . vice versa and get a new identity is called dual and
this property is called principle of duality.
Tautology

A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values
of the proposition that occur in it is called Tautology.

Contradiction

A compound proposition that is always false is called a contradiction.

Logical Equivalence

Compound proposition that has the same truth-values in all possible cases
are called logically equivalent.

The proposition 𝑝 and 𝑞 are logically equivalent. If 𝑝 ⇔ 𝑞 is a tautology.

Notations

The notations 𝑝 ⇔ 𝑞 denotes that 𝑝 and 𝑞 are logically equivalent.

Sometimes the notation 𝑝 ⇔ 𝑞 is also used to denote that 𝑝 and 𝑞 are

logically equivalent.

Predicate

A predicate (or more precisely a unary predicate) on a set 𝑋 is a sentence

which contains a variable 𝑥 such that when every occurrence of 𝑥
substituted by an element of 𝑋, we get a statement.
 CHAPTER-1

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
𝐃𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏.𝟏:
Let B be a non-empty set with two binary operations ‘+’ and ‘⋅’ ,
a unary operation ‘ and two distinct elements 0 & 1. Then B is called a
Boolean Algebra if the following axioms are holds.

[B1]: Commutative Law: -

For any a , b ϵ B Then

We have (i) a + b = b + a
(ii) a . b = b . a

[B2]: Idenity Law: -

For any a ϵ B Then

We have (i) a + 0 = a
(ii) a . 1 = a
[B3]: Distributive Law: -

For any a , b , c ϵ B Then

We have (i) a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c)
(ii) a + (b . c) = (a + b) . (a + c)

[B4]: Complement Law: -

Let a ϵ B Then there exist an element a’ ϵ B such that (i) a + a’ = 1

(ii) a . a’ = 0
Thus, all four conditions are satisfied.
Hence given set is Boolean algebra.
It is denoted by (B, +, ⋅,’,0,1)
Example 1:
Taking 𝑋 as the power set of some set say 𝑆 defining + as ∪, ⋅ as ∩
and ' as complementation with respect to the set 𝑆. Then the empty set ∅ is
the identity for + while the whole set 𝑆 is identity for ‘⋅’. For this reason, ∅
and 𝑆 are often denoted by 0 and 1 respectively. We can see that the four
axioms (B1) to (B4) are satisfied by them.

Example 2:
Define 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 if 𝑥 divides 𝑦 for 𝑥, 𝑦 belongs to N, then 1 is the
minimum element and prime numbers are the atoms.

Definition 1.2:
If we take 𝑆 = ∅ then, the Boolean algebra consist of only one
element. This is a Trivial Boolean Algebra. In this Boolean algebra, the
elements 0 and 1 coincide.
The simplest non-trivial Boolean algebra has 0 and 1 as its only elements.
An example of such a Boolean algebra is obtained by taking the power set of
a singleton set. This Boolean algebra is denoted by Z2.

SUB-ALGEBRA

Definition 1.1:
Let ( B ,+ ,· , ' , 0 , 1) be a Boolean algebra. A non-empty subset S of
B is said to be a sub-algebra (or a sub-Boolean algebra) if S itself is a Boolean
algebra with respect to the operation +, · and ' of B.

From the definition, it is clear that for any Boolean algebra B, the
subsets {0,1} containing identities of + and · and the set B are both sub-
algebras of B. Observe that the identities of + and namely 0 and 1 must
belong to every subalgebra. For if S is a subalgebra of a Boolean algebra B
and a ∈ S then by complement laws, a' ∈ S and thus both a + a' = 1 and
a · a' = 0 belong to S.
Theorem 1:
A non-empty subset S of a Boolean algebra B is sub algebra of B if
and only if S is closed under the three operations of B, i.e, +, · and ' .

Proof:
Suppose that S is a sub-algebra of a Boolean algebra B. Then S itself is a
Boolean algebra under the three operations +, · and ' defined on B. Hence S
is closed under the three operations. Thus

a, b ϵ S ⇒ a + b ϵ S, a · b ϵ S and a' ϵ S

Conversely, suppose S is closed under the operations +, · and ' of B.

That is,
a, b ϵ S ⇒ a + b, a · b and a' ϵ S

To show tha S is a sub-algebra of B.

First of all,
we show that both 0 and 1 are in S. Since S is non-empty,
suppose a ϵ S. We have
a ϵ S ⇒ a’ ϵ S by assumption S is closed under '

Now a ϵ S and a’ ϵ S ⇒ a + a' ϵ S and a · a' ϵ S

because S is closed under + and ·.

⇒ 1 ϵ S and 0 ϵ S
Thus,
Both identities 0 and 1 are in S.

Now we show that all the four axions [B1] to [B4] are satisfied for S.

1. Commutative laws:
Let a, b ϵ S then a, b ϵ В and
Therefore a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a

2. Identity laws:
For any a ϵ S, we have 0 and 1 ϵ S such that
(i) a + 0 = a,∀a ϵ S.
(ii) a · 1 = a, ∀a ϵ S.
3. Distributive laws:
Since operations + and · are distributive over each other for
all elements of B, therefore they must also distribute over each other for all
elements of S.

4. Complement laws:
Let a ϵ S. Then by assumption, a' ϵ S such that
(i) a + a' = 1
(ii) a · a' = 0
Hence,
S itself is a Boolean algebra under the operations of B.
Thus,
S is a sub-algebra of B.

Example :
The subset S = {ϕ, {a}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}} of the Boolen algebra
B={ϕ,{a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {b,c}, {a,b,c}} with respect to union, intersection
and complementation of sets is a sub-algebra of B.

Theorem 2:
A non-empty subset S of a Boolean algebra (B, +, ·, ', 0, 1) is a
subalgebra of B, if and only if S is closed with respect to operations + and '.
Proof:
If S is a subalgebra of (B, +, ·, ', 0, 1) then S is closed with respect to
operations + and · and ' by theorem 1.
Therefore S is closed with respect to operations + and '.

Conversely, suppose S is closed with respect to operations + and '.

To show that S is a subalgebra, we need to show that S is also closed with
respect to ·. That is, we must show
a, b ϵ S ⇒ a · b ϵ S

Let a, b ϵ S.

a, b ϵ S ⇒ a', b' ϵ S ∵ S is closed w. r. to operation '.

⇒ a' + b' ϵ S ∵ S is closed w. r. to operation +.
⇒ (a' + b')' ϵ S ∵ S is closed w. r. to operation '.
But (a' + b')' = (a')' · (b')' = a · b
Thus a · b ϵ S

Hence,
S is closed w. r. to · also. Thus S is a subalgebra.

Theorem 3:
If S₁, and S₂ are two subalgebras of a Boolean algebra B then
S₁∩S₂, is also a sub algebra of B.

Proof:
Let S₁ and S₂, be any two subalgebras of a Boolean algebra B.
We show that S₁∩S₂, is closed with respect to the operations +, · and ' of B
(although in view of theorem 2, we need to show only for + and ').

Clearly S₁∩S₂ is non-empty because 0, l ϵ S₁∩S₂.

Let a ,b ϵ S₁∩S₂ . We have

a, b ϵ S₁∩S₂ ⇒ a, b ϵ S₁ and a, b ϵ S₂

Now, a, b ϵ S₁ and S₁ is subalgebra ⇒ a + b ϵ S₁, a · b ϵ S₁ and a' ϵ S₁.

Similarly,
a, b ϵ S₂ and S₂ is subalgebra ⇒ a + b ϵ S₂, a · b ϵ S₂ and a' ϵ S₂
Since a + b ϵ S and a + b ϵ S₂ ⇒ a + b ϵ S₁∩S₂.
Similarly,
a · b ϵ S₁∩S₂, and a' ϵ S₁∩S₂
Thus,
S₁∩S₂ is a subalgebra of B.
Theorem 4:
Let 𝑌 be a sub algebra of a Boolean algebra (𝑋,+ , ., '). Then 𝑌, with the
induced operations is a Boolean algebra with same identity elements as 𝑋.

Proof:
We first show that 0 and 1 are in 𝑌. Since 𝑌 is non-empty there exists
some 𝑥 ∈ 𝑌. But then 𝑥′ ∈ 𝑌, since 𝑌 is closed under complementation. Since
𝑥, 𝑥′ ∈ 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 is closed under + and ⋅, we get 𝑥 + 𝑥′ ∈ 𝑌 and 𝑥. 𝑥′ ∈ 𝑌. Thus
both 0 and 1 are in 𝑌. Now all the axioms of a Boolean algebra are satisfied
for 𝑌. These follow from corresponding properties of 𝑋.
 An instructive example of a sub algebra, let 𝑋 be the power set Boolean
algebra of a set 𝑆. Let 𝐷, be a decomposition of 𝑆 whose members are say 𝑆1,
𝑆2, … 𝑆r. Let 𝑌 = {𝐴 ⊂ 𝑆: 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑖 =1,2, . . ., 𝑘, 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑖 ⊂ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖 ∩ 𝐴 = ∅}. In
other words, 𝑌 consists of those subsets of 𝑆 which completely contain those
members of 𝐷, which they intersect. 𝑌 cannot contain any subset of 𝑆 which
intersects some 𝑆𝑖, only partly. It is easy to show that 𝑌 is a sub algebra of
𝑃(𝑆). As a Boolean algebra, it can be shown that 𝑌 is isomorphic to the
power set Boolean algebra 𝑃(𝐷).

Stone Representation Theorem:

Every Boolean Algebra is isomorphic to some sub-algebra of a
suitable power set of Boolean algebra.

Theorem 5:
Let (𝑋, +, ⋅, ′) be a Boolean algebra. Then the following properties
hold for all elements 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 of 𝑋.

i. 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑥. 𝑥 = 𝑥 (Laws of Tautology or Idempotency).

ii. 𝑥 + 1 = 1 and 𝑥. 0 = 0.

iii. 𝑥 + 𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑥. (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 (Laws of Absorption).

iv. 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧 and 𝑥. (𝑦. 𝑧) = (𝑥. 𝑦). 𝑧 (Associative Laws).

v. If 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥. 𝑦 = 0 then 𝑦 = 𝑥′ (Uniqueness of Complements).

vi. (𝑥′) ′ = 𝑥 (Law's of Double Complementation).

vii. (𝑥 + 𝑦) ′ = 𝑥′. 𝑦′ and (𝑥. 𝑦) ′ = 𝑥′ + 𝑦′ (De Morgan’s Laws).

viii. 0′ = 1 and 1′ = 0 .

ix. 0 ≠ 1 unless 𝑋 has only one element.

Proof:
Before actually giving the proofs we make an important observation.
There is an absolute symmetry between the operation + and ⋅ in the
definition of a Boolean algebra. Consequently whenever any identity holds
in a Boolean algebra, we can replace all occurrence of + with ⋅ and vice versa
and get a new identity, called the dual of the original identity. Its proof can
be given dualizing each step in the proof of the original identity. This is
known as the principle of duality.

We now prove the assertions one by one.

i. We have,
𝑥 = 𝑥. 1 (by Identities law)
= 𝑥. (𝑥 + 𝑥′) (by Complement law)
= (𝑥. 𝑥) + (𝑥 + 𝑥′) (by Distributive law)
= (𝑥. 𝑥) + 0 (by Complement law)
= 𝑥. 𝑥 (by Identities law)
Hence,
𝑥. 𝑥 = 𝑥 . Then other assertion 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 follows by duality.

ii. We have,
𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 + 1).1 (by Identities law)
= (𝑥 + 1). (𝑥 + 𝑥′) (by Complement law)
= 𝑥 + (1. 𝑥′) (by Distributive law)
= 𝑥 + 𝑥′ (by Identities law)
=1 (by Complement law)

iii. From (ii) we have,

𝑦 + 1 = 1.
Multiplying both sides by 𝑥 we get,
(𝑦 + 1). 𝑥 = 1. 𝑥 . By B3, B2 and B1 the left-hand side
reduces to 𝑥 + (𝑥. 𝑦) while the right-hand side equals 𝑥 by B2.

Hence,
𝑥 + (𝑥. 𝑦) = 𝑥 as was to be proved.

iv. This is really a remarkable property because in most algebraic

structures, it is customary to assume associativity as an axiom. In the case of
Boolean algebras, this property can be proved as a consequence of other
axioms and hence it is redundant to include it as an axiom. Of course, till we
have proved it, we have to be careful to insert parentheses wherever
necessary to avoid ambiguity.
 Let us prove 𝑥. (𝑦. 𝑧). 𝑧 = (𝑥. 𝑦). 𝑧.
Let the left hand and right-hand sides be denoted by 𝑎 and 𝑏 respectively.
Instead of proving 𝑎 = 𝑏 directly, we first prove separately that 𝑎 + 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑥
and 𝑎 + 𝑥′ = 𝑏 + 𝑥′

Now,
𝑎 + 𝑥 = [𝑥. (𝑦. 𝑧)] + (𝑥. 1) (by Identities law)
= 𝑥.[(𝑦. 𝑧) + 1] (by Distributive law)
= 𝑥.[1] (by (ii) proved above)
=𝑥

While
𝑏 + 𝑥 = [(𝑥. 𝑦). 𝑧] + 𝑥
= [(𝑥. 𝑦) + 𝑥].[𝑧 + 𝑥] (by Distributive law)
= [𝑥 + (𝑥. 𝑦)].[𝑥 + 𝑧] (by Commutative law)
= 𝑥. (𝑥 + 𝑧) (by (iii) proved above)
=𝑥 (by (iii) again)
Hence,
𝑎 + 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑥.

Now,
𝑎 + 𝑥′ = [𝑥. (𝑦. 𝑧)] + 𝑥′
= [(𝑥 + 𝑥′)].[(𝑦. 𝑧) + 𝑥′] (by Distributive law)
= 1 .[(𝑦. 𝑧) + 𝑥′] (by Complement law)
= (𝑦. 𝑧) + 𝑥′ (by Identities law)
= (𝑦 + 𝑥′) . (𝑧 + 𝑥′ ) (by Distributive law)

While
𝑏 + 𝑥′ = [𝑥. (𝑦. 𝑧)] + 𝑥′
= [(𝑥. 𝑦) + 𝑥′] .[𝑧 + 𝑥′ ] (by Distributive law)
= [(𝑥 + 𝑥′) . (𝑦 + 𝑥′)] . (𝑧 + 𝑥′) (by Distributive law)
= [1 . (𝑦 + 𝑥′)] . (𝑧 + 𝑥′) (by Complement law)
= (𝑦 + 𝑥′) . (𝑧 + 𝑥′) (by Identities law)

So,
𝑎 + 𝑥′ = 𝑏 + 𝑥′ and as noted before this completes the proof.
v.
Suppose,
𝑥+𝑦=1 and 𝑥. 𝑦 = 0.

Then, 𝑥′ = 𝑥′ .1 (by Identity law)

= 𝑥′ . (𝑥 + 𝑦)
= (𝑥’ . 𝑥) + (𝑥’ .𝑦) (by Distributive law)
= 0 + (𝑥’ . 𝑦) (by Complement law)
= 𝑥’ . 𝑦 (by Identity law)

Similarly,

𝑦=1.𝑦 (by Identity law)

= (𝑥′ + 𝑥) . 𝑦 (by Complement law)
= (𝑥’ . 𝑦) + (𝑥 . 𝑦) (by Distributive law)
= ( 𝑥’ . 𝑦) + 0 (Given 𝑥. 𝑦 = 0)
= 𝑥’ . 𝑦 (by Identity law)
Thus,
𝑥′ = 𝑦.

vi. We have ,
𝑥 + 𝑥’ = 0.

By B1, this gives 𝑥 + 𝑥’ = 1 and 𝑥 . 𝑥’ = 0

But because of the uniqueness of complements just proved, this means 𝑥 is

the complement of 𝑥’. i.e., 𝑥 = (𝑥’) ′

vii. Let 𝑎 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 and 𝑏 = 𝑥′. 𝑦′.

We have to show 𝑎′ = 𝑏. By uniqueness of complements, it suffices to
prove that 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1 and 𝑎. 𝑏 = 0.
Now,
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + (𝑥′. 𝑦′) (because of associativity we need not put
parentheses)
So,
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑥 + [(𝑦 + 𝑥′ ). (𝑦 + 𝑦′)]
= 𝑥 + [(𝑦 + 𝑥′).1]

= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑥′
=𝑦+1
=1
Also,
𝑎.𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑦).(𝑥′.𝑦′)
= (𝑥.𝑥′.𝑦′) + (𝑦.𝑥′.𝑦′)
= (0. 𝑦′) + (0. 𝑥′)
=0+0
=0
This proves (𝑥 + 𝑦) ′ = (𝑥′. 𝑦′). The other assertion follows either by duality
or by replacing 𝑥′ by 𝑥, 𝑦′ by 𝑦 and taking complements.

viii.
Since 0 + 1 = 1 and 0.1 = 0
(From (ii), it follows by (v) again that 1 = 0’ and 0 = 1’)
ix.
Suppose 0 = 1.
We have to show that 𝑋 has only one element.
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. Then 𝑥 = 𝑥.1 =𝑥.0 = 0. So, 0 (or 1) is the only element of 𝑋.

Theorem 6:
A Boolean algebra is self-dual.
Proof:
Let 𝑋 be a Boolean algebra.
Define a map 𝜃 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑋, such that 𝜃(𝑥) = 𝑥′ then 𝜃 is well defined as for
each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑥 exists and is unique.
Now,
𝜃(𝑥) = 𝜃(𝑦) ⇒ 𝑥′ = 𝑦′
⇒ (𝑥′)′ = (𝑦′)′
⇒𝑥=𝑦
Thus,
𝜃 is one-one.
For any 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌, 𝑦′ is the required pre-image under 𝜃 showing that 𝜃 is onto.
Also,
 𝜃(𝑥 ∧ 𝑦) = (𝑥 ∧ 𝑦)′ = 𝑥′ ∨ 𝑦′ = 𝜃(𝑥) ∨ 𝜃(𝑦)
𝜃(𝑥 ∨ 𝑦) = (𝑥 ∨ 𝑦)′ = 𝑥′ ∧ 𝑦′ = 𝜃(𝑥) ∧ 𝜃(𝑦)
Which shows that 𝜃 is a dual homomorphism.
Thus,
𝜃 is a dual isomorphism and hence 𝑋 is self-dual.

Definition 1.2:
𝑋 is called complemented, if for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, there exists some 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋
such that 𝑥 ∧ 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥 ∨ 𝑦 = 0. Any such 𝑦 is called a complement of 𝑥.
Definition 1.3:
Let (𝑋, +,., ′) be a Boolean algebra. Then a minimal element of the set
𝑋 − {0} is called an atom of 𝑋.

Theorem 7:
Let (𝑋,+,⋅ ,′) be finite Boolean algebra. Then
(i) every non-zero element of 𝑋 contain atleast one atom.
(ii) every two distinct atoms of 𝑋 are mutually disjoint, and
(iii) every element of 𝑋 can be uniquely expressed as a sum of atoms,
specifically if 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, then 𝑥 is the sum of all atoms contained in 𝑥 (with an
understanding that an empty sum is 0).
Proof:
(i)
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑥 ≠ 0.
Then either 𝑥 is itself an atom (i.e., a minimal element of 𝑋 − {0})
or there is some 𝑥1 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑥1≠ 0 such that 𝑥1 < 𝑥.
If 𝑥1 is an atom we are done.
Otherwise,
There is some 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑥2 ≠ 0 and 𝑥2 < 𝑥1.
Continuing in this manner, since 𝑋 is a finite set, there will be some 𝑛 such
that is an atom and 𝑥n ≤ 𝑥.
(ii) Let 𝑎, 𝑏 be two atoms of 𝑥.
If 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 ≠ 0, then by (i), there exists an atom 𝑐 such that 𝑐 ≤ 𝑎 ⋅𝑏.
Since 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎,
we have,
𝑐 ≤ 𝑎. Since 𝑎 itself is a minimal non-zero element of 𝑋 , it follows
that 𝑎 = 𝑐.
Similarly,
b = c. Hence 𝑎 = 𝑏. In other words, if 𝑎 ,𝑏 are distinct atoms then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 0.
(iii) Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋.
 If 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑥 contains no atoms and the assertion holds because of the
understanding that an empty sum is to be regarded as 0.
So, suppose 𝑥 ≠ 0.
Let 𝑎1,𝑎2,…,𝑎k be the distinct atoms of 𝑋 contained in 𝑥.
We assert that 𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯+ 𝑎k .
since 𝑎𝑖 ≤ 𝑥 for all 𝑖 = 1,2,…,𝑘 and 𝑎1 + 𝑎2+...+𝑎𝑘 is the supremum of the
set {𝑎1,𝑎2,...,𝑎𝑘},
we already have 𝑎1 + 𝑎2+...+𝑎k ≤ 𝑥.
To show 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2+...+𝑎 k
we must show, by De Morgan’s laws, that 𝑥𝑎1′𝑎2′...𝑎k′ = 0.If not, then by (i)
there exists an atom 𝑏 such that 𝑏 ≤ 𝑥𝑎1′𝑎2′...𝑎k′.
But,
𝑥𝑎1′𝑎2′...𝑎k′ ≤ 𝑥. So 𝑏 ≤ 𝑥 i.e., 𝑏 is an atom contained in 𝑥.
So,
𝑏 = 𝑎, for some 𝑖.
But,
This means 𝑎1 ≤ 𝑥𝑎1′𝑎2′...𝑎 k′ ≤ 𝑎1′ giving = 0. i.e., 𝑎1 = 0 by the law of
tautology.
Since,
No atom can be 0, we get a contradiction, proving that
𝑥 ≤ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2+...+𝑎k and hence 𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2+...+𝑎k.
As for uniqueness,
Suppose,
𝑥 = 𝑏1 + 𝑏2+...+𝑏r
where each 𝑏𝑖 is an atom and 𝑏i ≠ 𝑏j for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. (If 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑏𝑗 for some 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
then, by law of tautology we replace 𝑏i + 𝑏j by 𝑏i itself).
Then 𝑏i ≤ 𝑥 for all 𝑖 =1, 2,…,𝑟. But 𝑎1,𝑎2,...,𝑎k are all the atoms contained in
𝑥 so 𝑏i = 𝑎j for some 𝑗.
Since,
All the 𝑏's are distinct, it follows that 𝑟 ≤ 𝑘.
Suppose,
𝑟 < 𝑘.
Then there is some 𝑎i which does not equal to any 𝑏i. Without loss of
generality suppose 𝑎1 ≠ 𝑏1,𝑏2,...,𝑏r.
We shall derive a contradiction as follows
𝑏i + 𝑏i′ = 1 for all 𝑖 = 1,…,𝑟.
Hence,
𝑎1 = 𝑎1(𝑏1 + 𝑏1′)(𝑏2 + 𝑏2′)...(𝑏r + 𝑏r′).
When this product is expanded, every term expects 𝑎1 𝑏1′𝑏2′...𝑏r′ will contain
product of 𝑎1 at least one of the atoms 𝑏1,...,𝑏r. By (ii), all such products are 0.
Hence,
𝑎1 = 𝑎1 𝑏1′...𝑏r′.
But,
𝑎1 ≤ 𝑥 gives
𝑎1 𝑥′ = 0
which gives 𝑎1 𝑏1′𝑏2′...𝑏r′ = 0.

Since,
𝑥 = 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + ⋯+ 𝑏r.
So,
we get 𝑎1 = 0,
which is a contradiction.
This 𝑎𝑖 equals some 𝑏𝑖 and hence that expression of 𝑥 as a sum of atoms is
unique.

Example 1:
Prove that no Boolean algebra can have three distinct elements.

Solution:
Let B be a Boolean algebra having three elements. Then B must
have two distinct elements 0 and 1 as identities for the operations + and ·
respectively. Let a be the third element of B. Since B is a Boolean algebra,
there exists an element a' in B such that

a + a' = 1 and a · a' = 0

Now there are three cases: (i) a' = a (ii) a' = 0 (iii) a'=1
Case (i) If a' = a then a + a' = 1 ⇒ a + a = 1
⇒a=1
and a · a' = 0 ⇒ a · a = 0
⇒a=0
But a is different from 0 and 1. Therefore a' = a is not possible.
Case (ii) If a' = 0 Then a + a' = 1 ⇒ a + 0 = 1
⇒a=1

But a is not equal to 1. Hence a' = 0 is not possible.

Case (iii) If a' = 1. Then a · a' = 0 ⇒ a · 1 = 0

 ⇒a=0

Thus,
a' ≠ 1 because a is not equal to 0.

Therefore,
B either has only two elements 0 and 1, or B has four elements
because if there is an element a in B different from 0 and 1, then 8 must have
another element a different from 0, 1 and a. Hence no Boolean algebra can
have exactly three elements.

Example 2:
In any Boolean algebra, show that

(1) (a + b) (b + c) (c + a) = ab + bc + ca

(2) (a + b') (b + c') (c + a') = (a' + b) (b'+ c) (c' + a)

Solution: (1)
L.H.S = (a + b) (b + c) (c + a)
= (a + b) [(b + c) (c + a)] by associative law
= (a + b) [(c + b) (c + a)] by commutative law
= (a + b) [c + ba] by distributive law
= a(c + ba) + b(c + ba) by distributive law
= ac + aba + bc + bba by distributive and
associative laws
= ac + (aa)b + bc + (bb)a by commutative and
associative laws
= ac + ab + bc + ba ∵ aa = a
= ac + bc + (ab + ab) by commutative and
associative laws
= ac + bc + ab ∵a+a=a
= ab + bc + ac by associative and
commutative laws
= R.H.S
(Proved)

(2) (a + b') (b + c') (c + a') = [(a + b') (b + c')] (c + a')

 = [(a + b) b+ (a + b) c'] (c + d)
= (ab + b'b + ac' + b'c') (c + a')
= (ab + 0 + ac' + b'c') (c + a')
= (ab + ac' + b'c') (c + a')
= (ab + ac' + b'c') c + (ab + ac' + b'c') a'
= abc + ac'c + b'c'c + aba' + ac'a' + b'c'a'
= abc + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + b'c'a'
= abc + a'b'c'
Similarly,
we can show that
(a' + b) (b' + c) (c' + a) = abc + a'b'c'
Hence,
we have
(a + b') (b + c') (c + a') = (a' + b) (b' + c) (c' + a) .
(Proved)

Example 3:
In any Boolean algebra, prove that b = c if and only if both
a + b = a + c and ab = ac holds.

Proof:
If b = c then we have
a + b = a + c and ab = ac both hold.

Now we show that

a + b = a + c and ab =ac ⇒ b=c

b = b(b + a) by absorption law

= b(c + a) ∵ a+b=a+c⇒b+a=c+a
= bc + ba by distributive law
= bc + ab by commutative law
= bc + ac by given condition
= (b + a)c ∵b+a=c+a
= (c + a)c by absorption law
=c

(Proved)
 CHAPTER-2

BOOLEAN FUNCTION: -

Definition 2.1:
A Boolean variable is a variable which assumes only
two possible values, 0 and 1.
Example 1:
If 𝑥, 𝑦 are two Boolean variables 𝑥 + 𝑦 is the Boolean
variable. It has value 1 when at least one of 𝑥 and 𝑦 has value 1 and
the value 0 otherwise.
Properties of Boolean variable:
• Boolean variables are similar to real variables.
• Boolean variables assume only two possible values.
• It is the simplest possible variable.
• It is a discrete variable.
Two Boolean variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are called independent if each
can assume values independently of the other. This means any of
the given four possibilities can occur.
i) 𝑥 = 0 ,𝑦 = 0
ii) 𝑥 = 1,𝑦 = 1
iii) 𝑥 = 0,𝑦 = 1
iv) 𝑥 = 1,𝑦 = 0
Definition 2.2: -
Let (B, +, ·, ') be a Boolean algebra. By a constant, we shall mean
any symbol, such as 0 and 1, which represents a specified element of B. By a
variable, we mean a symbol, which represents an arbitrary element of B.

A Boolean function or a Boolean polynomial is an expression

derived from a finite number of applications of the operations +, · and ' to
the elements of a Boolean algebra.

Expressions such as ab, (a' + b') + ab'x + ab, and a' + b' are Boolean
functions.
In any Boolean algebra, we know that 2a = a + a = a, 3a = a + a + a = a
and in general na = a where n is any positive integer.
 Also, a² = a. a = a, a³ = a. a. a = a and in general aᵏ = a, where k is
any positive integer. Thus, no multiples or powers appear in the Boolean
polynomials.
Definition 2.3:
The algebraic expression for a Boolean function of n variables as
a sum of atoms is called disjunctive normal form (D.N.F) of that function.
The disjunctive normal form of the function which identically equals 1 is
called the complete disjunctive normal form in 𝑛 variables. The word
‘disjunctive’ here refers to summation, which is more formally called
disjunction.
Definition 2.4:
When a Boolean function of 𝑥1,𝑥2,...,𝑥n is expressed as a product
of this form the function is said to be expressed in its conjunctive normal
form (C.N.F)
The dual concept of disjunctive normal form is the conjunctive normal
form.

CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORM: -

Logical functions are generally expressed in terms of different
combinations of logical variables with their true forms as well as the
complement forms. Binary logic values obtained by the logical functions
and logic variables are in binary form. An arbitrary logic function can be
expressed in the following forms.

(i) Sum of the Products (SOP)

(ii) Product of the Sums (POS)

Product Term. In Boolean algebra, the logical product of several variables

on which a function depends is considered to be a product term. In other
words, the AND function is referred to as a product term or standard
product. The variables in a product term can be either in true form or in
complemented form. For example, ABC′ is a product term.
Sum Term. An OR function is referred to as a sum term. The logical sum of
several variables on which a function depends is considered to be a sum
term. Variables in a sum term can also be either in true form or in
complemented form. For example, A + B + C′ is a sum term.

Sum of Products (SOP). The logical sum of two or more logical product
terms is referred to as a sum of products expression. It is basically an OR
operation on AND operated variables. For example, Y = AB + BC + AC or Y =
A′B + BC + AC′ are sum of products expressions.

Product of Sums (POS). Similarly, the logical product of two or more

logical sum terms is called a product of sums expression. It is an AND
operation on OR operated variables. For example, Y = (A + B + C) (A + B′ +
C) (A + B + C′) or Y = (A + B + C) (A′ + B′ + C′) are product of sums
expressions.

Standard form. The standard form of the Boolean function is when it is

expressed in sum of the products or product of the sums fashion. The
examples stated above, like Y =AB + BC + AC or Y = (A + B + C) (A + B′ + C)
(A + B + C′) are the standard forms.

However, Boolean functions are also sometimes expressed in nonstandard

forms like F = (AB + CD) (A′B′ + C′D′), which is neither a sum of products
form nor a product of sums form. However, the same expression can be
converted to a standard form with help of various Boolean properties, as:

F = (AB + CD) (A′B′ + C′D′) = A′B′CD + ABC′D′

MINTERM: -

A product term containing all n variables of the function in either

true or complemented form is called the minterm. Each minterm is
obtained by an AND operation of the variables in their true form or
complemented form. For a two-variable function, four different
combinations are possible, such as, A′B′, A′B, AB′, and AB. These product
terms are called the fundamental products or standard products or
minterms. In the minterm, a variable will possess the value 1 if it is in true
or uncomplemented form, whereas, it contains the value 0 if it is in
complemented form. For three variables function, eight minterms are
possible as listed in the following table in Figure.

So, if the number of variables is n, then the possible number of

minterms is 2n. The main property of a minterm is that it possesses the
value of 1 for only one combination of n input variables and the rest of the
2n – 1 combination have the logic value of 0. This means, for the above three
variables example, if A = 0, B = 1, C = 1 i.e., for input combination of 011,
there is only one combination A′BC that has the value 1, the rest of the seven
combinations have the value 0.

Canonical Sum of Product Expression: - When a Boolean function is

expressed as the logical sum of all the minterms from the rows of a truth
table, for which the value of the function is 1, it is referred to as the
canonical sum of product expression. The same can be expressed in a
compact form by listing the corresponding decimal equivalent codes of the
minterms containing a function value of 1. For example, if the canonical sum
of product form of a three-variable logic function F has the minterms A′BC,
AB′C, and ABC′, this can be expressed as the sum of the decimal codes
corresponding to these minterms as below.

F (A, B, C) = Σ (3, 5, 6)
= m3 + m5 + m6
= A′BC + AB′C + ABC′
where Σ (3,5,6) represents the summation of minterms corresponding to
decimal codes 3, 5, and 6.
The canonical sum of products form of a logic function can be obtained by
using the following procedure:
1. Check each term in the given logic function.Retain if it is a minterm,
continue to examine the next term in the same manner.
2. Examine for the variables that are missing in each product which is not a
minterm. If the missing variable in the minterm is X, multiply that minterm
with (X+X′).
3. Multiply all the products and discard the redundant terms.

Here are some examples to explain the above procedure.

Example. Obtain the canonical sum of product form of the following

function: F (A, B) = A + B

Solution. The given function contains two variables A and B. The variable B
is missing from the first term of the expression and the variable A is missing
from the second term of the expression. Therefore, the first term is to be
multiplied by (B + B′) and the second term is to be multiplied by (A + A′) as
demonstrated below.

F (A, B) = A + B
= A.1 + B.1
= A (B + B′) + B (A + A′)
= AB + AB′ + AB + A′B
= AB + AB′ + A′B (as AB + AB = AB)

Hence the canonical sum of the product expression of the given function is
F (A, B) = AB + AB′ + A′B.

Example. Obtain the canonical sum of product form of the following

function: F (A, B, C) = A + BC

Solution. Here neither the first term nor the second term is minterm. The
given function contains three variables A, B, and C. The variables B and C are
missing from the first term of the expression and the variable A is missing
from the second term of the expression. Therefore, the first term is to be
multiplied by (B + B′) and (C + C′). The second term is to be multiplied by
(A + A′). This is demonstrated below.

F (A, B, C) = A + BC
= A (B + B′) (C + C′) + BC (A + A′)
= (AB + AB′) (C + C′) + ABC + A′BC
= ABC + AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + ABC + A′BC
= ABC + AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + A′BC
(as ABC + ABC = ABC)

Hence the canonical sum of the product expression of the given function is
F (A, B,C) = ABC + AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + A′BC.

MAXTERM:-

A sum term containing all n variables of the function in either

true or complemented form is called the maxterm. Each maxterm is
obtained by an OR operation of the variables in their true form or
complemented form. Four different combinations are possible for a two-
variable function, such as, A′ + B′, A′ + B, A + B′, and A + B. These sum terms
are called the standard sums or maxterms. Note that, in the maxterm, a
variable will possess the value 0, if it is in true or uncomplemented form,
whereas, it contains the value 1, if it is in complemented form. Like
minterms, for a three- variable function, eight maxterms are also possible as
listed in the following table in Figure.

So, if the number of variables is n, then the possible number of

maxterms is 2n. The main property of a maxterm is that it possesses the
value of 0 for only one combination of n input variables and the rest of the
2n –1 combinations have the logic value of 1. This means, for the above
three variables example, if A = 1, B = 1, C = 0 i.e., for input combination of
110, there is only one combination A′ + B′ + C that has the value 0, the rest of
the seven combinations have the value 1.

Canonical Product of Sum Expression. When a Boolean function is

expressed as the logical product of all the maxterms from the rows of a truth
table, for which the value of the function is 0, it is referred to as the
canonical product of sum expression. The same can be expressed in a
compact form by listing the corresponding decimal equivalent codes of the
maxterms containing a function value of 0. For example, if the canonical
product of sums form of a three-variable logic function F has the maxterms
A + B + C, A + B′ + C, and A′ + B + C′, this can be expressed as the product of
the decimal codes corresponding to these maxterms as below,

F (A,B,C) = Π (0,2,5)
= M0 M2 M5
= (A + B + C) (A + B′ + C) (A′ + B + C′)

where Π (0,2,5) represents the product of maxterms corresponding to

decimal codes 0, 2, and 5.
The canonical product of sums form of a logic function can be obtained by
using the following procedure.

1. Check each term in the given logic function. Retain it if it is a maxterm,

continue to examine the next term in the same manner.
2. Examine for the variables that are missing in each sum term that is not
a maxterm. If the missing variable in the maxterm is X, add that maxterm
with (X.X′).
3. Expand the expression using the properties and postulates as
described earlier and discard the redundant terms.

Some examples are given here to explain the above procedure.

Example. Obtain the canonical product of the sum form of the following
function. F (A, B, C) = (A + B′) (B + C) (A + C′)

Solution. In the above three-variable expression, C is missing from the first

term, A is missing from the second term, and B is missing from the third
term. Therefore, CC′ is to be added with first term, AA′ is to be added with
the second, and BB′ is to be added with the third term. This is shown below.

F (A, B, C) = (A + B′) (B + C) (A + C′)

= (A + B′ + 0) (B + C + 0) (A + C′ + 0)
= (A + B′ + CC′) (B + C + AA′) (A + C′ + BB′)

= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A′ + B + C)
(A + B + C′) (A + B′ + C′)
[using the distributive property, as X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z)]

= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A′ + B + C)
(A + B + C′)
[as (A + B′ + C′) (A + B′ + C′) = A + B′ + C′]

Hence the canonical product of the sum expression for the given function is
F (A, B, C) = (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A′ + B + C) (A + B + C′).

Example. Obtain the canonical product of the sum form of the following
function. F (A, B, C) = A + B′C

Solution. In the above three-variable expression, the function is given at

sum of the product form. First, the function needs to be changed to product
of the sum form by applying the distributive law as shown below.

F (A, B, C) = A + B′C
= (A + B′) (A + C) (distributive property)

Now, in the above expression, C is missing from the first term and B is
missing from the second term. Hence CC′ is to be added with the first term
and BB′ is to be added with the second term as shown below,

F (A, B, C) = (A + B′) (A + C)
= (A + B′ + CC′) (A + C + BB′)
= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C) (A + B′ + C)
[using the distributive property, as X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z)]

= (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C)
 [as (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C) = A + B′ + C]

Hence the canonical product of the sum expression for the given function is
F (A, B, C) = (A + B′ + C) (A + B′ + C′) (A + B + C).

Deriving a Sum of Products (SOP) Expression from a Truth Table.

The sum of products (SOP) expression of a Boolean function can

be obtained from its truth table summing or performing OR operation of the
product terms corresponding to the combinations containing a function
value of 1. In the product terms the input variables appear either in true
(uncomplemented) form if it contains the value 1, or in complemented form
if it possesses the value 0.
Now, consider the following truth table in Figure 2.11, for a
three-input function Y. Here the output Y value is 1 for the input conditions
of 010, 100, 101, and 110, and their corresponding product terms are A′BC′,
AB′C′, AB′C, and ABC′ respectively.

The final sum of products expression (SOP) for the output Y is derived by
summing or performing an OR operation of the four product terms as shown
below.
Y = A′BC′ + AB′C′ + AB′C + ABC′

In general, the procedure of deriving the output expression in SOP form

from a truth table can be summarized as below.
1. Form a product term for each input combination in the table,
containing an output value of 1.
2. Each product term consists of its input variables in either true form or
complemented form. If the input variable is 0, it appears in complemented
form and if the input variable is 1, it appears in true form.
3. To obtain the final SOP expression of the output, all the product terms
are OR operated.

Deriving a Product of Sums (POS) Expression from a Truth Table

As explained above, the product of sums (POS) expression of a

Boolean function can also be obtained from its truth table by a similar
procedure. Here, an AND operation is performed on the sum terms
corresponding to the combinations containing a function value of 0. In the
sum terms the input variables appear either in true (uncomplemented) form
if it contains the value 0, or in complemented form if it possesses the value 1.

Now, consider the same truth table as shown in Figure 2.11, for a three-
input function Y. Here the output Y value is 0 for the input conditions of 000,
001, 011, and 111, and their corresponding product terms are A + B + C, A +
B + C′, A + B′ + C′, and A′ + B′+ C′ respectively.

So now, the final product of sums expression (POS) for the output Y is
derived by performing an AND operation of the four sum terms as shown
below.
Y = (A + B + C) (A + B + C′) (A + B′ + C′) (A′ + B′ + C′)

In general, the procedure of deriving the output expression in POS form

from a truth table can be summarized as below.

1. Form a sum term for each input combination in the table, containing an
output value of 0.
2. Each product term consists of its input variables in either true form or
complemented
form. If the input variable is 1, it appears in complemented form and if the
input variable is 0, it appears in true form.
3. To obtain the final POS expression of the output, all the sum terms are
AND operated.

Conversion between Canonical Forms

From the above example, it may be noted that the complement
of a function expressed as the sum of products (SOP) equals to the sum of
products or sum of the minterms which are missing from the original
function. This is because the original function is expressed by those
minterms that make the function equal to 1, while its complement is 1 for
those minterms whose values are 0. According to the truth table given in
above figure.

F (A,B,C) = Σ ( 2,4,5,6)
= m2 + m4 + m5 + m6
= A′BC′ + AB′C′ + AB′C + ABC′.

This has the complement that can be expressed as

F′ (A,B,C) = (0,1,3,7)
= m0 + m1 + m3 + m7
Now, if we take complement of F′ by De-Morgan’s theorem, we obtain F as
F (A,B,C) = (m0 + m1 + m3 + m7)′
= m0′m1′m3′m′7
= M0M1M3M7
= Π(0,1,3,7)
= (A + B + C)(A + B + C′) (A + B′ + C′) (A′ + B′ + C′).

The last conversion follows from the definition of minterms and maxterms
as shown in the tables in Figures 2.9 and 2.10. It can be clearly noted that
the following relation holds true m′j = Mj.

That is, the maxterm with subscript j is a complement of the minterm with
the same subscript j, and vice versa.

This example demonstrates the conversion between a function expressed in

sum of products (SOP) and its equivalent in product of maxterms. A similar
example can show the conversion between the product of sums (POS) and
its equivalent sum of minterms. In general, to convert from one canonical
form to other canonical form, it is required to interchange the symbols Σ and
π, and list the numbers which are missing from the original form.

Note that, to find the missing terms, the total 2n number of minterms or
maxterms must be realized, where n is the number of variables in the
function.
 CHAPTER-3

APPLICATION
SWITCHING CIRCUITS:-
Definition 3.1:
By a switch we mean a contact or a device which permits or stops the
flow of electric current. The switch can assume two states 'closed' or open'
(ON or OFF). When the switch is closed the current flows in the circuit.
When the switch is open current does not flow. We will use a, b, f: X, Y, Z,
…….etc. to denote switches in a circuit. If two switches operate so that they
open and close simultaneously we denote them by the Same letter. Again, if
two switches be such that one is open if and only if the other is closed. we
represent them by a and a’ .
There are two basic ways in which switches are generally inter-connected.
These are referred to as 'in series' and in 'parallel'.

Definition 3.2:
Two switches a and b are said to be connected 'in series' if the current
flows only when both are closed and current does not flow if any one or both
are open.
Two switches a and b connected in series a circuit is denoted by a.b and
is represented as shown in the following diagram:

Definition 3.3:
Two switches a and b are said to be connected 'in paral- lelif current flows
when any one or both are closed and current does n flow when both are
open.
Two switches a and b connected in parallel in a circuit is denoted by a+b
and is represented as shown in the following diagram:

We assign the value 1 to a switch which is always closed and the value 0 to a
switch which is always open. If two switches a and a' both appear then a is 1
if and only if a'=0.

Theorem:
The algebra of switches is a Boolean algebra.
Proof:
We know that the set B = {0, 1} with operations+, and defined by the
following tables forms a Boolean algebra of two elements

+ 0 1 . 0 1 a a’
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

Consider the following correspondence between the elements and

operations of the switching algebra and the Boolean algebra B of two
elements described above.

Boolean algebra x x’ + . 0 1

Switching Algebra x x’ Connected Connected open closed

in parallel in Series
(+) (.)

With the help of this correspondence, every series-parallel circuit

corresponds to a Boolean function and conversely every Boolean furction
corresponds to a circuit. Two circuits S, and S, are defined to be equivalent if
both are open (current does not pass through either) or both are closed
(current passes through both) for any given position of switches involved.
We now verify that switching algebra satisfies all the axioms of Boolean
algebra:

[B1] Commutative laws: Since

and
circuits

are equivalent, we have a+b=b+a

Similarly, circuits

are equivalent, we have a.b=b.a

[B2] Distributive laws: Since circuits

are equivalents, we have a.(b+c) = ab+bc

Similarly, we have,
a+b.c = (a+b).(a+c)
because circuits

are equivalents.

[B3] Identity laws: Since circuits

where 0 represents a switch which is always open, are equivalent, therefore,

we have, a+0=a
Similarly, circuits

where 1 denotes a switch which is always closed, are equivalent.

Thus, a.1= a

[B4] Complement laws: Since the circuits

are equivalent, we have a+a' = 1

Similarly, the circuits

are equivalent, we have a.a' = 0

Thus,
Algebra of switches is a Boolean algebra.

(Hence Proved)
LOGIC CICUITS
Definition 3.4 :
Logic circuits (also known as logic net- work) are
constructed using certain elementary circuits called logic gates.
Each logic circuit may be viewed as a machine which contains one
or more input devices and exactly one output device. There are
three basic logic gates namely OR gate, AND gate, and NOT gate. By
connecting these gates in different ways, we can build circuit called
logic circuits that perform arithmetic and other operations
associated with the human brain.

1. OR gate: An OR gate has two or more inputs but it has only one output.
Let x and y be two inputs. The output of OR gate is denoted by x+y,
where x+y is defined by the table (b) given below:

The OR gate with 3 input and 4 input are shown by

 2. AND Gate: An AND gate is a circuit that has two or more inputs and
one output. If x and y are two inputs then the output of AND gate is xy
where multiplication is defined by truth table (b) below

The AND gate with 3-input and 4-input are shown below:

3. NOT gate: A NOT gate is a circuit that has one input and one output. If
x is the input, then output of NOT gate is denoted by x’ where x' is
defined by the truth table (b) below. A NOT Gate is also called inverter.
 CONCLUSION
In this project, we have worked on an interesting topic “BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA”. In the modern era, Boolean algebra is seen as the foundations of
the “Information age”. It is a symbolic system of Mathematical logic -
represents relationships between entities either ideas or objects. The basic
rules of this system were formulated in 1847 by George Boole of England
and were subsequently refined by other Mathematicians and applied to set
theory. Today, Boolean algebra is of significance to the theory of probability,
geometry of sets and information theory. Furthermore, it constitutes the
basis for the design of circuits used in electronic digital computer.

We sincerely hope that our project will be deficient as well as useful in

understanding the basic concepts of “Boolean Algebra” which is becoming
more significant and being widely applied in various fields.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
❖ K D Joshi, Foundations of Discrete Mathematics, Second Edition,2014
❖ Vijay K Khanna. Lattices and Boolean Algebras; First Concepts. Second
Edition,2004
❖ Wikipedia