CHAPTER 16

Automated design of digital ICs

 History of IC design
• The semi-conductor industry has started its
evolution with advent of diodes and
transistors(in 1970s) gradually leading to
development of first ICs.
• SSI- few logic gates on single package(1 to 10)
gradual development of IC technology led to
MSI, LSI and now VLSI
• No. of transistors in one package keeps on
increasing as new design technology emerges
Types of Digital ICs
 Standard Products
• ICs of gates, counters, multiplexers, MCUS
• Manufactured in bulk and sold in large
quantities
• Standard design
 Programmable Devices
• They are ICs that are programmable and
classified as PLD or FPGAs
 Programmable logic devices
• programmable logic device (PLD) is an electronic component used to
build reconfigurable(i.e. it can be configured by the user to perform different
functions) digital circuits.
• It consist of array of AND gates and OR gates. Before the PLD can be used in
a circuit it must be programmed (reconfigured) by using a specialized
program.
• One of the simplest programming technologies is to use fuses. In the original
state of the device, all the fuses are intact. Programming the device involves
blowing those fuses along the paths that must be removed in order to obtain
the particular configuration of the desired logic function.
• PLDs are used to implement combination logic together with sequential
logic.
• Basic building block of PLD is macrocell.
• PLD contain no. of macrocells which are programmable.
• When PLD has flip flop at its output it becomes sequential
PLD.

sequential PLD Macrocell

 CPLD
• When small PLD blocks are combined, they
become CPLD.
• I/O block indicate the presence of programmable
logic behind each I/o pin.
• The switch matrix is a programmable
interconnect.
• It receives input from I/O block and direct it to
individual macrocells
• Selected outputs from macrocells are sent to
output pins as needed.
CPLD made up of PLDs
FPGA(Field Programmable Gate Array)
• An FPGA is a device that contains a matrix of
reconfigurable gate array logic circuitry.
• The structure is regular array of programmable basic
logic cells that can implement combinational as well as
sequential logic
• A matrix of programmable interconnects surrounds the
basic cell
• Programmable I/O cells are associated with I/O pins
• FPGA provides its user a way to configure:
– 1. The intersection between the logic blocks and
– 2. The function of each logic block
Basic Structure of FPGA Unit
Internal Structure of FPGA Unit
Logic block of an FPGA can be configured in such a way that it can
provide functionality as simple as that of transistor or as complex as
that of a microprocessor. It can used to implement different
combinations of combinational and sequential logic functions. Logic
blocks of an FPGA can be implemented by any of the following:
1. Transistor pairs
2. combinational gates like basic NAND gates or XOR gates
3. n-input Lookup tables
4. Multiplexers
5. And-OR structure.

Routing in FPGAs consists of wire segments of varying lengths which

can be interconnected via electrically programmable switches. Density
of logic block used in an FPGA depends on length and number of wire
segments used for routing. Number of segments used for
interconnection typically is a tradeoff between density of logic blocks
used and amount of area used up for routing.
 Types Of FPGA
i. Anti-fuse: Anti-fuse doesn’t conduct initially,
but can be burned to become conducting.
– Such FPGAs can be programmed only once, they
are one time programmable devices.
 Types Of FPGA
SRAM FPGA:
• An interconnect made of SRAM transistors which
conduct or does not conduct according to the logic
burned on it
• Such FPGA lose their configuration once power is
switched OFF.
• To avoid this, there is always a PROM along FPGA
chip which stores configuration information.
• When power is switched ON, the contents of PROM
are used to re-configure the SRAM based FPGA.
 Why FPGA?
i. ‘time to market’ of this design is very small
ii. Flexibility and re-configurability
iii. All parts of product need not to be FPGA-based,
but some parts of it may be FPGA based.
iv. Prototyping device: A new design can be tested
on an FPGA and inadequacies understood.
Because of re-configurability of FPGA, the
design can be re-done any times until it
converges to becoming a satisfactory one.
i. Once design is satisfactory, ASIC can be
manufactured out of it.
 FPGA Vs CPLD
FPGA
CPLD
 CPLD Vs FPGA
CPLD FPGA
1 Instant-on. CPLDs start Since FPGA has to load configuration data from external
working as soon as they ROM and setup the fabric before it can start functioning,
are powered up due to there is a time delay between power ON and FPGA starts
EEPROM Flash based working. The time delay can be as large as several tens of
macro cells milliseconds.
2 Non-volatile. CPLDs FPGAs uses SRAM based configuration storage. The
remain programmed, and contents of the memory is lost as soon as power is
retain their circuit after disconnected.
powering down. FPGAs go
blank as soon as powered-
off.
3 Deterministic Timing Size and complexity of FPGA logic can be humongous
Analysis. Since CPLDs are compared to CPLDs. This opens up the possibility less
comparatively simpler to deterministic signal routing and thus causing complicated
FPGAs, and the number of timing scenarios. Thankfully implementation tools
interconnects are less, the provided by FPGA vendors have mechanisms to assist
timing analysis can be achieving deterministic timing. But additional steps by the
done much more easily. user is usually necessary to achieve this.
4 Lower idle power Relatively higher idle power consumption.
consumption. Newer
CPLDs such as
CoolRunner-II use around
50 uA in idle conditions.
5 Might be cheaper for FPGAs are much more capable compared to CPLDs but can
implementing simpler be more expensive as well.
circuits
6 More "secure" due to FPGAs that use external memory can expose the layout
design storage within built plan externally. Many FPGA vendors offer mechanisms
in non-volatile memory. such as encryption to combat this. Design specific
protection mechanisms also can be implemented.
7 Very small amount of logic Massive amount logic and storage elements, with which
resources. incredibly complex circuits can be designed. FPGAs have
thousands times more resources! This point alone makes
FPGAs more popular than CPLDs.
8 Power down and FPGAs can change their circuit even while running(Since it
reprogramming is always is just a matter of updating LUTs with different content)
required in order to This is called Partial Reconfiguration, and is very useful
modify design when FPGAs need to keep running a design and at the
functionality. same time update the it with different design as per
requirement. This feature is widely used in Accelerated
Computing.
 Manufactures of FPGA and CPLDs
• Actel, Altera, Atmel, Cypress, Lattice,
Quicklogic, Xilinx
 ASIC
• Manufactured for specific applications
• A video codec, audio codec, controller for
specific devices are examples of ASIC.
• Not manufactured in bulk
• Product manufacturer fix the product
specifications
• ASIC designer design them according to
specification
 ASIC
• Two different manufacturer give two different specs
for audio codec
• ASIC is built for one and only one customer
• ASIC is likely to be proprietary by nature and not
available to general public
• Specific design ,entails more work and more time-
consuming and expensive
• Once a product become popular ASIC used in them
have to be manufactured in bulk and become a
standard product
• Such ASIC are called ASSP(Application Specific Standard
product).
 Classification of ASIC
• ICs for specific application.
• Classified as
– Custom design ASIC
– Semi custom design ASIC
 Custom Design
• Design starts from scratch.
• Designer has only transistors as his basic unit of
design.
• Designs bigger circuit with basic unit.
• This gives very high flexibility and freedom to the
designer but also a lot of hard work and time is
involved.
• ASIC designer customizes all the features of IC
• Each new generation micro processor and
memory is designed in this way
 Semi-Custom Design
• Semi-Custom design is easier.
• Units available in library are used to make a final
design.
• Designer use logic cells from a library.
• Basic unit of design is not a transistor but logic
circuits( AND gates, OR gates, and flip-flops)
• Standard cells are designs which are already been
tested and verified
• Easier time and faster design ensures
• Small cells are combined to make ‘megacells’ and
 Semi-Custom Design
• These could be stacked and arranged as
designer wishes and designer does the
interconnections only
 FPGA vs ASIC
FPGA ASIC
1. Reconfigurable circuit. FPGAs can be 1. Permanent circuitry. Once the application specific
reconfigured with a different design. They even circuit is taped-out into silicon, it cannot be
have capability to reconfigure a part of chip while changed. The circuit will work same for its
remaining areas of chip are still working! This complete operating life.
feature is widely used in accelerated computing in
data centres .
2. Same as for FPGA. Design is specified using HDL
2. Design is specified generally using hardware such as Verilog, VHDL etc.
description languages (HDL) such as VHDL or
Verilog.
3. Very high entry-barrier in terms of cost, learning
3. Easier entry-barrier. One can get started with curve, liaising with semiconductor foundry etc.
FPGA development for as low as USD $30. Starting ASIC development from scratch can cost
well into millions of dollars.

4. Suited for low-volume mass production. 4. Suited for very high-volume mass production.

5.Less energy efficient, requires more power for 5. Much more power efficient than FPGAs. Power
same function which ASIC can achieve at lower consumption of ASICs can be very minutely
power. controlled and optimized.
 FPGA vs ASIC
FPGA
6. Limited in operating frequency compared to
ASIC of similar process node. The routing and ASIC
configurable logic eat up timing margin in 6. ASIC fabricated using the same process node can
FPGAs. run at much higher frequency than FPGAs since its
circuit is optimized for its specific function.
7. Analog designs are not possible with FPGAs.
Although FPGAs may contain specific analog
7. ASICs can have complete analog circuitry, for
hardware such as PLLs, ADC etc, they are not
example WiFi transceiver, on the same die along
much flexible to create for example RF
with microprocessor cores. This is the advantage
transceivers.
which FPGAs lack.
8. FPGAs are highly suited for applications such
as Radars, Cell Phone Base Stations etc where
the current design might need to be 8. ASICs are definitely not suited for application areas
upgraded to use better algorithm or to a where the design might need to be upgraded
better design. In these applications, the high- frequently or once-in-a-while.
cost of FPGAs is not the deciding factor.
Instead, programmability is the deciding 9. It is not recommended to prototype a design using
factor. ASICs unless it has been absolutely validated. Once
9. Preferred for prototyping and validating a the silicon has been taped out, almost nothing can
design or concept. Many ASICs are be done to fix a design bug (exceptions apply).
prototyped using FPGAs themselves! Major
processor manufacturers themselves use
FPGAs to validate their System-on-Chips
(SoCs). It is easier to make sure design is
working correctly as intended using FPGA
prototyping.
 ASIC Design
• Design is fully automated –there are EDA tools are available
for each and every stage.

• First point is to have requirement specified i.e. functional

description of circuit we need

• The functional description is represented using different

architectural model such as behavioral model, data
description model and so on

• Model contains information regarding how circuit behaves

• List of inputs, outputs and a function which maps between

the two
Models for expressing Functionality of
circuit
 Behavioral Model
Behavioral Modeling:

• Behavior is expressed in terms of truth table or

HDL(ex. Varilog and VHDL)

• HDLs are syntactically similar to HLL like C. Ex. It

support various construct like -if, for, case statements
etc., same as C

• However, C is sequential language, this is not so for

HDLs. Concurrency is key in HDLs. Additionally, No
HDLs available for designing of analog devices

• It does not directly convert to hardware

• Sequential model is not fully synthesizable

 Data Flow Model

• Expressed in terms of a set of concurrent

statements which shows the logical
relationship between input and output ports.
 Structural Model
• Actual hardware components for design are
identified
• And interconnection between these
components is defined by the statements in
the structural model.
 Simulation
• To verify functional correctness of design
called functional verification
• Tool called simulator is used or the designer
writes the test bench using HDL itself
• Mostly a wave form simulator . Display of
inputs and outputs in wave forms
 Synthesis
• Synthesis tool is available as a part of
automation software
• It converts design to actual
• Synthesis tools convert HDL design to RTL level
design and then gate level netlist
Modelling, Simulation and Synthesis
 RTL
• Design can be broken up into sequential
circuit and combinational circuit
D <= not Q;
process(clk)
begin
if rising_edge(clk)

then Q <= D;
end if;
end process;

The inverter is connected from the output, Q, Circuit described in VHDL

of a register to the register's input, D, to create
a circuit that changes its state on each rising
edge of the clock, clk. In this circuit, the
combinational logic consists of the inverter.
RTL
 Gate Level Netlist
• Dividing RTL further down take us to gates and
wires
• Net means ‘electronic wires’
• List of wires is called net list
• At logic level design is expressed as list of logic
gates and interconnection between them
Design Expressed at Different Levels
of Abstraction
 Front End Design Steps
Design Entry:
Entering the design using HDL

Semantic Checks:
1. Design Entry needs to be checked for
language correctness
2. This phase can also be used to check the
synthesizability of code i.e. whether the
code can lead to practical hardware
3. It is important to check synthesizability, as
RTL should be mapped to standard cells
using synthesis tools

Design Verification:
Verification is the process where the design is
tested against specification

* At the end of front end design step, synthesis

is performed.
What to do with netlist obtained after
front-end design
Two options
i. One is to burn into FPGA
NOTE: SRAM-FPGA are re-configurable. This design
can be overwritten by another one and FGPA
gets re-configured as per new design
e.g. if FPGA is counter to count 0 to 9. later if we
want to change it to 64-bit shift register, we only
need to write the design for shift register using
HDL, synthesize it and burn it into FPGA. It now
function as shift register.
What to do with netlist obtained after
front-end design
• The other option is to make ASIC out of this,
this means that it is to be fabricated as a chip.
• For this few additional steps are required
which is called the Back end Design
 Back-end Design
• Layout : The layout is a set of patterns in which the
transistors and their connections are laid out i.e.
finalized

• Floor Plan: it defines the following

– Aspect ratio of chip
– Placement of cells
– Position of the I/O pad

• Routing: interconnection between and within cells are

finalized
 Back-end Design
• There are CAD tools for all these steps but
manual intervention is sometimes necessary
to make the design optimal.

• Once all these steps are over, the design can

be sent to fabrication unit which delivers the
design in the form of an IC.
 ASIC: The complete Sequence
• In such a step ‘front end’ and ‘back end’
design teams are separate.
• For the front-end design, RTL design and
verification are also done by different teams.
• It starts like this.
• A customer is usually a product designer who
needs ‘the’ ASIC as one of ICs to be
incorporated in his product.
 ASIC: The complete Sequence
• The customer lays out his requirement to the
designer.
• There is no need for any specific format for
this, the designer is made very clear about the
requirements and specifications of the
product his team is to deliver
Steps in Flowchart
 Steps in Flowchart
• Functional Design: this is made using HDL
• RTL Design: This is obtained at end of
synthesis stage, after a simple simulation
check done by the RTL design team.
• Behavioural model: The verification team
keeps ready a model for the functionality of
his design, it could be just a set of statements
indicating the expected output for a set of
input conditions.
 Steps in Flowchart
• RTL verification: RTL is verified against the
behavioral model prepared by the verification
team. This step is also called validation if RTL
design does not match the behavioral model,
the re-design is done by RTL team. This sort of
feedback mechanism is practised until the
complete design is validated.
 Steps in Flowchart
• DFT insertion: DFT stands for Design for
Testability. This is very important aspect of
modern ICs which are very complex. In a big lot of
many such chips, it is quite likely that some of
them are faulty.
• The process of confirming that an IC is fault-free
is called ‘testing or post-silicon validation.
• Extra testing circuits are inserted into the design
and these extra test circuits are called DFT
circuits. They are added to RTL, after functional
verification is over.
 Steps in Flowchart
• Logic Synthesis: This corresponds to technology
mapping, where the RTL is mapped to the
standard cells in the library. After this, the gate
level netlist is available.
• Formal Verification: This stage attempts to prove
mathematically that all requirements are met and
that certain undesired behaviours like deadlock
do not occur. There are formal verification tools
to check whether RTL and logic netlist are
equivalent
 Steps in Flowchart
• Post-synthesis timing analysis: timing had not
considered at all. Now at this stage,
preliminary timing results after synthesis are
analysed and checked against the project
performance requirements.
• If needed RTL design and synthesis options are
modified, and synthesis is repeated as shown
in fig. by feedback loop.
 Steps in Flowchart
• Layout Design: The next two stages are for layout
preparation, and includes floor planning, placement
and routing. The EDA tools do this, but manual routing
is allowed if designer feels it necessary
• Post-layout Timing Analysis: once again timing results
are again compared with performance requirements. If
it doesn’t fit, floor plan can be changed or the
placement run with other parameters.
• Feedback loop shows that RTL design/layout can be
modified again.
 Steps in Flowchart
• DRC: Design rule Check. This confirms that
layout ,made conforms to the rules of foundry
in which ASIC is to be fabricated.
• LVS: Layout verses Schematic
Another formal verification check between post-
synthesis netlist and final layout
Tape out: the process of handing over the
resulting layout to semiconductor fabrication
plant is called tape out
 Suppliers of EDA tools
• Synopsys, cadence, chrysalis, Avanti, Xilinx,
Mentor Graphics, Magma, co-ware, altera etc.
are some important vendors of EDA tools for
digital design.