Lesson 1:

Historical Antecedents in Which Social

Considerations Changed the Course of Science and
Technology in The World
INTRODUCTION
This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the
heart of the society. It is goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by
science and technology.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern
period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human
anatomy), and chemistry transformed societal views about nature. The scientific revolution
began in Europe toward the end of the Renaissance period, and continued through the late 18th
century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. While its
dates are disputed, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus ‘s De revolutionist orbium
coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning
of the scientific revolution.

The scientific revolution was built upon the foundation of ancient Greek learning and
science in the Middle Ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by
Roman/Byzantine science and medieval Islamic science. The Aristotelian tradition was still an
important intellectual framework in the 17th century, although by that time natural
philosophers had moved away from much of it. Key scientific ideas dating back to classical
antiquity had changed drastically over the years, and in many cases been discredited. The ideas
that remained (for example, Aristotle ‘s cosmology, which placed the Earth at the center of a
spherical hierarchic cosmos, or the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion) were transformed
fundamentally during the scientific revolution.

The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons:

1. Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate with

members of the mathematical and astronomical communities to effect advances in
all fields.

2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for their work
and so felt the need to devise new methods (some of which we use today).
 3. Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern
scientific philosophy that they could use as a starting point (either by disproving or
building on the theorems).

4. Institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate science as a
field by providing an outlet for the publication of scientists’ work.

Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when and
where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with
the society. So, how can science be defined?

1. Science as an idea.
2. Science as an intellectual Activity
3. Science as a body of knowledge
4. Science as a personal and social activity.

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities to know and understand

everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and the
physical word to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble
ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain
phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16 th century
up to the 18th century in Europe.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightment when the developments in the
fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of
society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern science because of these
developments from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this period enabled the
people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that
it ignited vast human interests to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
Scientific Revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,
transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It also led to the creation
of a new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for
modern science. In many ways, scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world
of ideas.
Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas
To understand further and deep what exactly happened during the scientific
revolution, it is important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and
contested the dominant theories and ideas during this period----the truths of their time. Scientist
in all periods of time is driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the
physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to
discover.
1. Creativity ----------------- science ideas
2. Curiosity-------------------science discoveries
3. Critical Thinking---------technology

Three (3) notable Scientist

1. Nicolaus Copernicus-Polish Mikołaj Kopernik, German Nikolaus
Kopernikus, (born February 19, 1473, Toruń, Royal Prussia, Poland
—died May 24, 1543, Freudenberg, East Prussia [now Frombork,
Poland]), Polish astronomer who proposed that the planets have
the Sun as the fixed point to which their motions are to be referred; that Earth is a planet which,
besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very slow long-
term changes in the direction of this axis account for the precession of the equinoxes. This
representation of the heavens is usually called the heliocentric, or “Sun-centered,” system—
derived from the Greek helios, meaning “Sun.” Copernicus’s theory had important consequences
for later thinkers of the Scientific Revolution, including such major figures
as Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton. Copernicus probably hit upon his main idea sometime
between 1508 and 1514, and during those years he wrote a manuscript usually called
the Commentariolus (“Little Commentary”). However, the book that contains the final version of
his theory, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi (“Six Books Concerning the Revolutions
of the Heavenly Orbs”), did not appear in print until 1543, the year of his death.

2. Charles Darwin-in full Charles Robert Darwin, (born February

12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England—died April 19, 1882,
Downe, Kent), English naturalist whose scientific
theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of
modern evolutionary studies. An affable country gentleman, Darwin
 at first shocked religious Victorian society by suggesting that animals and humans shared a
common ancestry. However, his nonreligious biology appealed to the rising class of professional
scientists, and by the time of his death evolutionary imagery had spread through all of science,
literature, and politics. Darwin, himself an agnostic, was accorded the ultimate British accolade of
burial in Westminster Abbey, London.

3. Sigmund Freud-(born May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia,

Austrian Empire [now Příbor, Czech Republic]—died
September 23, 1939, London, England), Austrian neurologist
and the founder of psychoanalysis. Freud’s article on
psychoanalysis appeared in the 13th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.

CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America

from Southern Mexico up to the border of South America. There
is no doubt that the Mesoamerica region is rich in culture and
knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

The Maya Civilization is one of the famous civilizations

that lasted for approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They
incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples for astronomical observation.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies were advanced for their time, as
evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycle in planting and
harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems.
These calendars were very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their
religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate
cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system which sophisticated waterways
to supply water to different communities.
 Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field
of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a
mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000
years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica.
They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan
hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral
20. Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the
Romans did.

The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advance scientific ideas
considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they
developed to help them in everyday life:

1. Roads paved with stones.

2. Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;

3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;

4. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;

5. The first suspension bridge;

6. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and

7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specifically prized artistic achievements.

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and
technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

1. Mandatory education.

2. Chocolates

3. Antispasmodic medication
 4. Chinampa

5. Aztec calendar

6. Invention of the canoe.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of

many ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic,
scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science,
technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out:
India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These civilizations
were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during their time.

India

Technological developments in India differ from the two nations mentioned above, in
that the impact will be more beneficial to the overall wellbeing of the country; providing more
than just economic growth. Specifically, experts see the spread of digital innovation, alongside
advances in energy and genomics as being integral to the nation’s progression, improving
business and agricultural productivity, updating healthcare and education services, and, most
importantly, raising the living standards for millions of citizens. That’s not to discount the
economic potential of these changes, predicted to be in the region of $550 billion to $1 trillion by
the year 2025 if things continue at the current rate.

Already, cheap vaccines and sundry other drugs have enabled India to establish itself
firmly in the international pharmaceutical industry to such an extent, that 80% of charity
Médecins Sans Frontières’ anti-HIV drugs are from Indian generics.

Meanwhile, India has big plans for the country’s energy sector. In 2015, coal was still,
understandably, the main source of energy in the country, responsible for roughly two-thirds of
electricity. This is something the government is looking to change moving forward, as they
endeavor to focus aggressively on solar power.
 In 2014 for instance, the government set the target of producing 100 gigawatts of solar-
energy by 2022; a vast increase from the 3.7-gigawatt capacity, it currently provides – a
miniscule 1.4% of India’s total electricity. Wind power currently plays a significant role too.
Producing 23 gigawatts, the country’s wind-power capacity is roughly the planet’s fourth
biggest, roughly equal with Spain.

India has also made great strides in its scientific endeavours in recent years, most notably
in the form of the 2008 and 2014 Moon missions Chadrayaan-1 and the Mars orbiter
Mangalyaan; though it is fair to say the country’s space programme has received both positive
and negative responses to these projects.

Although the initiatives mentioned above are a step in the right direction, making the
most of these developments will not be simple, due to the many issues afflicting the country at
the moment. Telecommunication infrastructure, for one thing, is far from ideal, while computer
literacy is still relatively limited among the Indian population at large. Fortunately, there is
plenty the government can do to encourage the growth of India’s tech industries. Supporting
entrepreneurs and major reforms to regulatory systems would be advantageous, whilst greater
investment in R&D – which was as low as 0.87% of GHDP in 2010 – will have a similarly
beneficial effect to China’s additional investment.

Furthermore, irrespective of India’s recent successes, the India nonetheless continues to

lead the world in incidents of tuberculosis and maternal deaths and is also unable to provide a
quarter of its citizens with electricity. Therefore, given that the country is likely to become the
most populous within a generation, India will undoubtedly require significant technological and
scientific development to meet the energy, food, and health care needs of its people.

China

Throughout history, China has been the origin of countless technologies we take for
granted in the modern age: paper, matches, the iron plough, propellers, and even the rocket are
all the product of Chinese research and innovation from times past. Having had such a huge
impact on human society, it’s probably fair to say we may not be at our current state of
technological advancement without them. However, in recent decades, science and technology in
the country has stagnated, whilst their European counterparts underwent a scientific revolution in
the 16th century.

As such, in 2006, the government unveiled its ‘ingenious innovation’ campaign, aiming
to make the country a technological powerhouse by 2020, and likewise help solve some of the
country’s biggest problems: air pollution and inequality. In the succeeding years since the
initiative was announced, China has already seen noticeable benefits. In 2014, for example,
roughly 7 million students are expected to graduate from Chinese universities, a 7-fold increase
from the 1.1 million who completed courses in 2001. To support this rapid increase in advanced
study, in the past 5 years, China has implemented a range of complimentary initiatives aimed at
precipitating ‘indigenous innovation’, reducing the nation’s reliance on the US and West in
general for its advanced technologies.

Together with the aforementioned programmes and initiatives, the Chinese government is
also investing heavily in various tech industries to help realise the country’s ambitions.

In 2012, spending on Research and Development (R&D) totalled one trillion Yuan,
equivalent to $164 billion – just a shade under 2% of the nation’s GDP. Compare this to the
States, which spent $447 billion/2.8% GDP in the same year, and you can see the gap between
the two countries is fast disappearing. Interestingly, China is actually predicted to overtake the
United States in this regard by the year 2022.

The combination of the influx of tech students and intensified investment has led
researchers to conclude that China is now a major player in world science and technology, and
will become progressively more important in future, thanks to its large population, locally based
scientists, and a government keen to finance these industries.

China’s recent focus on technology and science does have its downsides, however.
According to two Chinese university deans, obtaining grants in the country depends largely on
buttering-up bureaucrats rather than good research; a claim supported by the findings of an anti-
corruption watchdog in 2014, which said it had uncovered evidence of “fraud in research grants
by China’s Ministry of Science and Technology and at prestigious Fudan University”.

Middle East
 Over the centuries, scientific and technological advances have repeatedly enabled foreign
powers to interfere with the functioning of Middle Eastern economies, as well as to undermine
the security of the less advanced countries of the region. This section will discuss some of the
main technology-related events that led to this situation, which continues today.

Following the rise of Islam in the seventh century, science and technology flourished in the
Islamic world to a far greater extent than in the West. Muslim rulers promoted the translation of Greek
philosophy and science, and then encouraged further scientific exploration in numerous fields including
mathematics, astronomy, medicine, pharmacology, optics, chemistry, and physics. Much of the
knowledge developed by the Muslims and transmitted to the Europeans enabled Europe to emerge from
the Dark Ages into the Renaissance (Saliba 2011).

Until the sixteenth century, the Arab world was connected by a unique system of trade and
transport that unified its large population scattered over vast areas of land and sea. The system sustained
the economy of each Arab state, underpinned trade with Europe, and fed into the various international
trading systems (Bahlan 1999, 261).

In fact, the Arabs had developed an effective transnational trading system which reached its peak
in the eighth to sixteenth centuries and which was based on local technological inputs, such as skilled
merchants and caravan managers, navigators with extensive geographic knowledge efficiently operated
ports and trading emporia, scientifically bred camels, and seaworthy dhows (Bahlan 1999, 262). Trust and
mutual dependence among closely knit social groups prevailed. The socioeconomic support of the
transport and trading system enhanced regional harmony and the stability of local communities. The
mechanics of the Arab trading system were so flexible that traders could move their business readily from
place to place in response to changes in supply and demand, or in order to avoid ruthless rulers or areas of
conflict (Bahlan 1999, 263). Since trade brought prosperity and employment, local governments sought to
attract traders, and provide security and support facilities to ease the process of trade and the life of the
traveller.

The Arab transport system was responsible for the large–scale circulation of people and
information. This included the diffusion of agricultural products, inventions, and all types of knowledge.
Thus, the trade and transport system had a powerful economic, social, and cultural impact. It also
integrated the economies of Arab countries with each other and with those of Asia, the Mediterranean,
and Africa.
 According to Antoine Zahlan (1999), there are three main reasons Middle Eastern countries lag
behind in terms of technology and scientific knowledge: their loss of trade and transportation systems, the
effects of the Industrial Revolution on Arab economies, and the political and economic effects of the
colonization and neo-colonization processes.

Development of Science in Africa

Science, technology, and innovation are familiar issues to the G8. In 2000 in Okinawa, G8
leaders established a task force to address the global digital divide, and at the 2003 summit in
Evian, G8 leaders endorsed an action plan for science and technology in sustainable
development. There is a clear continuing need for these important initiatives.

We would like to stress, more generally, the fundamental importance of science, technology,
and innovation in tackling a wide range of problems facing Africa and other developing regions.
The goal of securing a sustained improvement in the living standards of nations is highly
complex and should be informed by scientists along with economists, social scientists, and other
experts in the field of development. At the heart of this endeavor, alongside issues of
governance, security, and trade, lies the capacity of nations to engage with global science and
technology. We, the national science academies of the G8 nations and the Network of African
Science Academies, therefore, call on world leaders, including those meeting at the Gleneagles
G8 Summit in July 2005, to implement the following recommendations without delay. For our
part, we also commit ourselves to working with appropriate partners towards these urgent goals.

 Recognize that science, technology, and innovation underpin success and sustainability
in all aspects of international development in Africa, including poverty alleviation and
economic growth as well as in areas such as health and agriculture. African countries
must be able to develop, adapt and exploit scientific and technological solutions
appropriate to their specific needs, otherwise they risk becoming ever more dependent on
advice and assistance from the developed world.
 Recognize that investment in a country’s own science capabilities, along with
development of merit-based processes and institutions, are essential to the successful use
of science, technology, and innovation in Africa, and are fundamental to sound
policymaking, good governance, and industrial development. African countries need to
have in place appropriate mechanisms and infrastructure for training and exploitation of
 knowledge. This will enable them to make meaningful evidence-based policy, in order
adequately to address local needs and participate in the international community on
science and technology issues.
 Recognize that for innovation, growth, and policymaking in Africa, it is fundamental to
promote and develop an environment that encourages knowledge to be produced,
communicated, and applied to a nation’s needs. Sustainable national structures and
strategies are needed to provide and maintain a source of well-trained, knowledgeable
people, requiring attention at all levels of education from primary to tertiary.
 Help revitalize African universities and support the development of centres of excellence
in science, engineering, and technology, including African institutes of technology. The
Commission for Africa report in March 2005, for example, stressed the need for
investment in higher education and centres of excellence, particularly in science and
technology. Joint science academies’ statement: Science and technology for African
development June 2005
 Explicitly build development of science, technology, and innovation capacity into
international assistance programmes, including those for specific development sectors,
and ensure that these initiatives are African-led and sensitive to social and cultural
diversity. Isolated investment in science and technology is not enough – capacity
development initiatives should be integrated into programmes in specific sectors. A
health programme, for example, should also seek to develop local expertise and resource
to enable locals to continue to address the issues long after the specific programme has
ended.
 Encourage the transfer and sharing of scientific, technological and innovation excellence
between the developed and developing worlds, as well as among developing world
nations. It is critical to ensure appropriate networks are in place to enable all nations to
share their experiences and best practice.
 Identify explicit funds for science, technology, and innovation capacity building in
Africa. Without adequate funding, nothing will change.
 Continue to keep the development of science, technology, and innovation capacity on
the G8 agenda in forthcoming years. Regular updates at annual Summits will help to
maintain the momentum for change.
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