1. State the use of 6 flags in TCP header ? 3. Compare TCP and UDP ? I.

Source port number = BC8216 = 48258

There are 6, 1-bit control bits that control II. Destination port number = 000D16= 13
connection establishment, termination, III.Total length = 002B16 = 43 bytes
abortion, flow control etc.. IV. Since the header is 8 bytes the data length is 43
− 8 =35 bytes.
URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN
5. Explain the TCP connection establishment using
a) URG: Urgent pointer If this bit field is a three way handshake mechanism ?
set the receiving TCP should interpret TCP uses a Three way handshaking mechanism to
the urgent pointer field. establish a connection between client and server
b) ACK: Acknowledgement If this bit field machines. The three steps in three way handshaking
is set the ACK field described earlier is mechanism are as follows.
valid. SYN:
c) PSH: Push function Request for push The client sends the first segment, a SYN segment,
d) RST: Reset the connection If this bit is in which only the SYN flag is set. This segment is for
present it signals the receiver that synchronization of sequence numbers.
sender is aborting the connection i.e. SYN + ACK
Reset the connection. The server sends the second segment, a SYN +ACK
e) SYN: Synchronize When this bit field in segment, with 2 flag bits set.
present then the sender is attempting ACK:
to “synchronize” sequence numbers The client sends the third segment. This is just an
f) FIN: No more data from sender. If this 4. The dump of a UDP header in ACK segment. It guarantees the completion of three
bit is set then it terminates the hexadecimal format is as follows : way handshaking.
connection BC 82000 D 002 B 001 D Obtain the
following from it :
2. List two advantages of using UDP over
(i) Source port number
TCP ?
(ii) Destination port number
a) UDP is connection less and unreliable (iii) Total length
transport layer protocol. i.e. It does (iv) Length of the data
not require to maintain a connection.
The UDP header has four parts, each
b) UDP is transaction oriented and
of two bytes. That means we get the
suitable for simple query response
following interpretation of the header.
protocols.
c) UDP is faster since it does not require
acknowledgment.
d) Useful when time sensitivity is more
important
6. Explain how TCP connections are c) Both TCPs go to the FIN-WAIT-1 state • The dotted black lines in the figure
established using the 3 way handshake. and send FIN segments that are in represent the transition that a server
What happens when 2 hosts simultaneously transit simultaneously normally goes through;
try to establish a connection ? d) After receiving the FIN segment, each • The solid black lines show the transitions
If 2 host Simultaneously try to establish end goes to the CLOSING state and that a client normally goes through.
connection sends an ACK segment. • Sometimes in some situations, a server
• Simultaneous Open: e) The CLOSING state takes the place of transitions through a solid line or a client
a) It's possible for two applications to send a FIN-WAIT-2 or CLOSEWAIT in a transitions through a dotted line.
SYN to each other to start a TCP connection, common scenario.
although the possibility is small, because 7. Explain TCP connection management
both sides have to know which port on the with the help of TCP connection
other side to send to. This process is called management finite state machine ?
"Simultaneous Open", or "simultaneous To keep track of all the different events
active open on both sides". happening during connection
b) In a simultaneous open, both applications establishment, connection termination,
issue active opens. and data transfer, TCP is specified as the
c) This is a rare situation in which there is no Finite State Machine –FSM
client or server; communication is between TCP State Machine:
two peers that know their local port • TCP uses a three way handshake to
numbers. close connection
d) Both TCPs go through SYN-SENT and SYN- • Singled by the FIN bit in the packet
RCVD states before going to the header
ESTABLISHED state. The figure shows the two FSMs used by
e) Both processes act as client and server. the TCP client and server combined in
f) The two SYN+ACK segments acknowledge one diagram.
the SYN segments and open the connection • Ovals/rectangle represents states.
OR • Transition from one state to another is
• Simultaneous Close: shown using directed lines.
a) It's permitted in TCP for both sides to do • Each line has two strings separated by a
"active close", which is called slash.
"Simultaneous Close". During • The first string is the input, what TCP
"Simultaneous Close", 4 packets are receives.
exchanged, the same as in normal • The second is the output, what TCP
situations. sends.
b) In this situation, both ends issue an active
close.
SUMMER 2022 imaginary "tube", as shown in the figure below: Full-Duplex Service
1. State any four features of TCP ? TCP offers a full-duplex service where
a) TCP is connection oriented Protocol. the data can flow in both directions
b) It provides reliable delivery of messages simultaneously. Each TCP will then
c) TCP makes checks for errors and reporting. have a sending buffer and receiving
d) TCP has flow control. buffer. The TCP segments are sent in
e) TCP has High Speed both directions.
Connection-Oriented Service
2. State different applications of UDP ? We are already aware that the TCP is
a) Lossless data transmission a connection-oriented protocol.
UDP can be used in applications that require When a process wants to
lossless data transmission. communicate (send and receive) with
b) Gaming, voice and video another process (process -2), the
UDP is an ideal protocol for network 4. Draw state transition diagram of TCP ? sequence of operations is as follows:
applications in which perceived latency is • TCP of process-1 informs TCP of
critical, such as in gaming, voice and video process-2 and gets its approval
communications. • TCP of process-1 tells TCP of
c) Multicasting and routing update protocols process-2 exchange data in both
UDP can also be used for multicasting because directions.
it supports packet switching • After completing the data exchange,
when buffers on both sides are
3. List and explain, services provided by TCP
empty, the two TCPs destroy their
(Transmission Control Protocol) ?
buffers.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to the The type of connection in TCP is not
processes at the application layer: physical, but it is virtual. The TCP
a) Stream Delivery Service. segment encapsulated in an IP
b) Full Duplex Service datagram can be sent out of order.
c) Connection Oriented Service. These segments can get lost or
d) Reliable Service. corrupted and may have to be resend.
Stream Delivery Service Each segment may take a different
TCP is a stream-oriented protocol. It enables path to reach the destination
the sending process to deliver data as a Reliable Service
stream of bytes and the receiving process to TCP is a reliable transport protocol. It
acquire data as a stream of bytes. TCP creates uses an acknowledgment mechanism
a working environment so that the sending for checking the safe and sound
and receiving procedures are connected by an arrival of data.
5. Differentiate between TCP, UDP and SCTP d) No flow and error control application Error control in TCP is mainly done through
on the basis of reliability, connection using UDP services are responsible for the use of three simple techniques :
management, transmission of message, providing them. 1. Checksum – Every segment contains a
flow control, security and data delivery e) UDP encapsulates and encapsulates checksum field which is used to find corrupted
the message. segments. If the segment is corrupted, then
• UDP application that segment is discarded by the destination
a) Domain Name Services. TCP and is considered lost.
b) Simple Network Management 2. Acknowledgement – TCP has another
Protocol. mechanism called acknowledgement to affirm
c) Trivial File Transfer Protocol. that the data segments have been delivered.
d) Routing Information Protocol. Control segments that contain no data but
e) Kerberos. have sequence numbers will be acknowledged
as well but ACK segments are not
5. Explain TCP with respect to flow
acknowledged.
control and error control ?
3. Retransmission – When a segment is
TCP Flow Control is a protocol designed to missing, delayed to deliver to a receiver,
manage the data flow between the user corrupted when it is checked by the receiver
and the server. It ensures that there is a then that segment is retransmitted again.
specific bandwidth for sending and Segments are retransmitted only during two
receiving data so the data can be events: when the sender receives three
processed without facing any major duplicate acknowledgements (ACK) or when a
issues. In order to achieve this, the TCP retransmission timer expires.
protocol uses a mechanism called the Retransmission after RTO: TCP always
sliding window protocol preserves one retransmission time-out (RTO)
timer for all sent but not acknowledged
segments. When the timer runs out of time,
SUMMER 2023 the earliest segment is retransmitted. Here no
3. List UDP services and UDP applications timer is set for acknowledgement. In TCP, the
(any 4 each). RTO value is dynamic in nature and it is
• Services offered by the UDP are a s follows: updated using the round trip time (RTT) of
a) Process to process port to port segments. RTT is the time duration needed for
transmission of segment. a segment to reach the receiver and an
b) Connectionless and minimum overhead acknowledgement to be received by the
Protocol sender.
c) Fast and simple transmission
Retransmission after Three duplicate ACK 1. Source and Destination port number to i. The client sends an INIT signal to the
segments: RTO method works well when the enable multiplexing of different SCTP server to initiate an association.
value of RTO is small. If it is large, more time is
associations at the same address. ii. On receipt of the INIT signal, the
needed to get confirmation about whether a 2. A 32-bit verification tag that guards against server sends an INIT-ACK response to
segment has been delivered or not. the insertion of an out-of-date or false the client. This INIT-ACK signal
Sometimes one segment is lost and the message into the SCTP association. contains a state cookie. This state
receiver receives so many out-of-order 3. A 32-bit checksum for error detection. The cookie must contain a Message
segments that they cannot be saved. In order checksum can be either a 32-bit CRC Authentication Code (MAC), along
to solve this situation, three duplicate checksum or Alder-32 checksum. with a time stamp corresponding to
acknowledgement method is used and missing 4. Chunk Layout: A chunk can be either a the creation of the cookie, the life
segment is retransmitted immediately instead control chunk or data chunk. span of the state cookie, and the
of retransmitting already delivered segment. i. Chunk Type: This field identifies the type information necessary to establish the
This is a fast retransmission because it makes of information contained in the Chunk association. The MAC is computed by
it possible to quickly retransmit lost segments data field. The value of chunk field the server based on a secret key only
instead of waiting for timer to end. ranges from 0 to 254. the value 255 is known to it.
reserved for future. SCTP consists of one iii. On receipt of this INIT-ACK signal, the
6. Describe the fields of SCTP packet format. client sends a COOKIE-ECHO response,
DATA chunk and 12 control chunks.
Explain SCTP association establishment which just echoes the state cookie.
ii. Chunk Flag: The chunk field contains the
process ? iv. After verifying the authenticity of the
flag, such as U(unordered bit),
SCTP transmits data in the form of messages B(beginning bit), and E(ending bit). state cookie using the secret key, the
and each message contains one or more Usage of this field depends on the chunk server then allocates the resources for
packets. The control come before data chunks. type specified in the chunk type field. the association, sends a COOKIE-ACK
iii. Chunk Length: This field represents the response acknowledging the COOKIE-
size of the fields chunk type, chunk flag, ECHO signal, and moves the
chunk length, and chunk value, in bytes. association to ESTABLISHED state.
5. SCTP DATA CHUNK: Data chunks are used SCTP supports also graceful close of an
to send actual data through the stream and active association upon request from the
have rather complex headers in some ways, SCTP user. The following sequence of
but not really worse than TCP headers in events occurs:
general i. The client sends a SHUTDOWN signal
SCTP Association Establishment Process:- to the server, which tells the server
SCTP association startup and shutdown that the client is ready to close the
guidelines are described here. SCTP connection.
association is comprised of a four-way ii. The server responds by sending a
handshake that takes place in the following SHUTDOWN-ACK acknowledgement.
order: iii. The client then sends a SHUTDOWN-
WINTER 2023 When the segment sent by Host-1 WINTER 2022
6. Demonstrate with suitable example of call reaches the destination, i.e., host -2, 1. what is udp ? which services are provided by
collision in TCP connection ? the receiving server checks to see if udp?.(any two points)
The connection is established in TCP using the there is a process that has done a UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
three-way handshake as discussed earlier to LISTEN on the port given in the UDP is a simple, datagram-oriented, transport layer
create a connection. One side, say the server, destination port field. If not, it sends protocol. It involves a minimum amount of
passively stays for an incoming link by a response with the RST bit on to communication mechanisms. It is a connectionless,
implementing the LISTEN and ACCEPT refuse the connection. Otherwise, it reliable protocol.
primitives, either determining a particular governs the TCP segment to the UDP Services:
other side or nobody in particular. The other listing process, which can accept or 1. Process-to-Process Communication: - UDP
side performs a connect primitive specifying decline (for example, if it does not provides process-to process communication
the I/O port to which it wants to join. The look similar to the client) the using socket addresses, a combination of IP
maximum TCP segment size available, other connection. Call Collision: If two addresses and port numbers.
options are optionally like some private data hosts try to establish a connection 2. Connectionless Service: - UDP provides a
(example password). The CONNECT primitive simultaneously between the same connectionless service, i.e. each user datagram
transmits a TCP segment with the SYN bit on two sockets, then the events sent by UDP is an independent datagram.
and the ACK bit off and waits for a response. sequence is demonstrated in the 3. UDP provides no flow control.
The sequence of TCP segments sent in the figure under such circumstances. 4. UDP does not provides no error control.
typical case, as shown in the figure below – Only one connection is established. 5. UDP does not provide congestion control.
It cannot select both the links 6. UDP protocol encapsulates and decapsulates
because their endpoints identify messages.
connections. Suppose the first set up
results in a connection identified by 2. Describe flow control under SCTP
(x, y) and the second connection are Flow control under SCTP
also released up. In that case, only Flow control in SCTP is similar to that in TCP. Like
tail enter will be made, i.e., for (x, y) TCP, SCTP executes flow control to prevent
for the initial sequence number, a overwhelming the receiver. In SCTP, we need to
clock-based scheme is used, with a handle two units of data, the byte and the chunk.
clock pulse coming after every 4 The values of rwnd and cwnd are expressed in
microseconds. For ensuring bytes; the values of TSN and acknowledgments are
additional safety when a host expressed in chunks. Current SCTP
crashes, it may not reboot for sec, implementations still use a byte-oriented window
which is the maximum packet for flow control.
lifetime. This is to make sure that no
packets from previous connections
are roaming around.
Receiver Site: Sender Site: 2. When a SACK is received, the chunks
The receiver has one buffer (queue) and three The sender has one buffer (queue) and with a TSN less than or equal to the
variables. The queue holds the received data three variables: curTSN, rwnd, and cumulative TSN in the SACK are
chunks that have not yet been read by the inTransit, as shown in the following figure. removed from the queue and
process. The first variable holds the last TSN We assume each chunk is 100 bytes long. discarded. The sender does not have to
received, cum TSN. The second variable holds The buffer holds the chunks produced by worry about them anymore. The value
the available buffer size; win size. The third the process that either have been sent or of inTransit is reduced by the total size
variable holds the last accumulative are ready to be sent. The first variable, of the discarded chunks. The value of
acknowledgment, last ACK. The following curTSN, refers to the next chunk to be sent. rwnd is updated with the value of the
figure shows the queue and variables at the All chunks in the queue with a TSN less than advertised window in the SACK.
receiver site. this value have been sent, but not
3. Draw and Explain TCP segment
acknowledged; they are outstanding. The
structure ?
second variable, rwnd, holds the last value
advertised by the receiver (in bytes). The TCP is a reliable connection- oriented
third variable, inTransit, holds the number protocol i.e., connection is established
of bytes in transit, bytes sent but not yet between the sender and receiver before
acknowledged. The following is the the data can be transmitted.
procedure used by the sender. A Packet in TCP is called a segment. TCP
segment consists of data bytes to be sent
1. When the site receives a data chunk, it
and a header that is added to the data by
stores it at the end of the buffer (queue)
TCP as shown in following figure.
and subtracts the size of the chunk from
winSize. The TSN number of the chunk is
stored in the cumTSN variable.
2. When the process reads a chunk, it
removes it from the queue and adds the
size of the removed chunk to winSize 1. A chunk pointed to by curTSN can be sent
(recycling). if the size of the data is less than or equal
3. When the receiver decides to send a SACK, to the quantity rwnd - inTransit. After
it checks the value of lastAck; if it is less sending the chunk, the value of curTSN is
than cumTSN, it sends a SACK with a incremented by 1 and now points to the
cumulative TSN number equal to the next chunk to be sent. The value of
cumTSN. It also includes the value of inTransit is incremented by the size of the
winSize as the advertised window size. data in the transmitted chunk.
 4) Acknowledgment Number: - This 32-bit field defines the byte
number that the receiver of the segment is expecting to receive
from the other party. If the receiver of the segment has
successfully received byte number x from the other party, it
defines x + 1 as the acknowledgment number. Acknowledgment
and data can be piggybacked together.
5) Header length: - This 4-bit field indicates the number of 4-byte
words in the TCP header. The length of the header can be
between 20 and 60 bytes. Therefore, the value of this field can
be between 5 (5 x 4 = 20) and 15 (15 x 4 = 60).
6) Reserved:- This is a 6-bit field reserved for future use.
7) Control Field:- This field defines 6 different control bits or flags.
These are 6, 1 bit control bits that controls connection
The header of TCP segment can range from 20-60 bytes.40 bytes are establishment, connection termination, connection abortion,
for option. if there are no options, header is of 20 bytes else it can flow control, mode of transfer etc.
be of upmost 60 bytes.
Header Fields in TCP Segment Structure:
1) Source port address: - This is a 16-bit field that defines the port
number of the application program in the host that is sending
the segment. This serves the same purpose as the source port The function of control fields in TCP are:
address in the UDP header URG: Urgent pointer is valid.
2) Destination port address: - This is a 16-bit field that defines the PSH: Request for push.
port number of the application program in the host that is RST: Reset the connection.
receiving the segment. This serves the same purpose as the SYN: Synchronize sequence numbers.
destination port address in the UDP header. FIN: Terminate the connection
3) Sequence Number: - This 32-bit field defines the number 8) Window Size: This field tells the window size of the sending TCP
assigned to the first byte of data contained in this segment. As in bytes
we said before, TCP is a stream transport protocol. To ensure 9) Checksum: This field holds the checksum for error control. It is
connectivity, each byte to be transmitted is numbered. The mandatory in TCP as opposed to UDP
sequence number tells the destination which byte in this 10) Urgent Pointer: This field (valid only if the URG control flag is
sequence comprises the first byte in the segment. During set) used to point to data that is urgently required that needs to
connection establishment, each party uses a random number reach the receiving process at the earliest. The value of this field
generator to create an initial sequence number (ISN), which is is added to the sequence number to get the byte number of the
usually different in each direction. last urgent byte
11) Options: There can be up to 40 bytes of optional information in
the TCP header.
4. List different timers used in TCP ? connection remains open forever. So a
TCP uses several timers to ensure that keepalive timer is used. Each time the
excessive delays are not encountered during server hears from a client, it resets
communications. Several of these timers are 3. Deviated RTT (RTTd): Most implementation do this timer. The time-out is usually 2
elegant, handling problems that are not not use RTTS alone so RTT deviated is also hours. . If the server does not hear
immediately obvious at first analysis. Each of calculated to find out RTO. from the client after 2 hours, it sends
the timers used by TCP is examined in the a probe segment. If there is no
following subsections, which reveal its role in response after 10 probes, each of
ensuring data is properly sent from one which is 75 s apart, it assumes that
connection to another. TCP implementations the client is down and terminates the
use at least four timers as shown in following Retransmission Timeout: connection
Fig. 4) Time Wait Timer: This timer is
1. RTO Calculation: The value of RTO is based on
used during TCP connection
the smoothed round-trip time and its
termination. The timer starts after
deviation. Most implementations use the
sending the last Ack for 2nd FIN
following formula to calculate the RTO: Initial
1) Retransmission Timer: To retransmit lost and closing the connection. After a
value → Original (given in question). After any
segments, TCP uses Retransmission Time TCP connection is closed, it is
measurement→RTO=RTTs +4*RTTd
Out (RTO). When TCP sends a segment the 2. Persistent Timer: To deal with a zero-window- possible for datagrams that are
timer starts and stops when the still making their way through the
size deadlock situation, TCP uses a persistence
acknowledgment is received. If the timer network to attempt to access the
timer. When the sending TCP receives an
expires timeout occurs and the segment is closed port. The quiet timer is
acknowledgment with a window size of zero, it
retransmitted. RTO (retransmission intended to prevent the just closed
starts a persistence timer. When the
timeout is for 1 RTT) to calculate port from reopening again quickly
persistence timer goes off, the sending TCP
retransmission timeout we first need to and receiving these last
sends a special segment called a probe. This
calculate the RTT. Three Types of RTT: datagrams. The quiet timer is
segment contains only 1 byte of new data. It
1. Measured RTT (RTTm): The measured usually set to twice the maximum
has a sequence number, but its sequence
Round Trip Time (RTT) for a segment is the segment lifetime (the same value
number is never acknowledged; it is even
time required for the segment to reach the as the Time- To-Live field in an IP
ignored inCalculating the sequence number for
destination and be acknowledged, header), ensuring that all
the rest of the data. The probe causes the
although the acknowledgment may segments still heading for the port
receiving TCP to resend the acknowledgment
include other segments. have been discarded.
which was lost.
2. Smoothed RTT (RTTS): It is the weighted 3. Keepalive Timer: A keepalive timer is used to
average of RTTm. RTTM is likely to change prevent a long idle connection between two
and its fluctuation is so high that a single TCPs. If a client opens a TCP connection to a
measurement cannot be used to calculate server transfers some data and becomes silent
RTO. the client will crash. In this case, the
5. State need for Flow control in networking. • Large number to hosts and servers
a. Sequence control Flow Control Flow control make it possible connected in the internet can be classified
b. Error control for sender to send the amount of data bytes using Domain name system so that
c. Flow control in networking. that can be sent without worrying an hierarchical naming system is
Sequence Control acknowledgment and is one of the most implemented
The 32-bit sequence number field defines the important duties of the data link layer. In • To identify an entity, TCP/IP protocols
number assigned to the first byte of data most protocols, flow control is a set of use the IP address. An IP is uniquely
contained in this segment. TCP is a stream procedures that tells the sender how much identifies the connection of a host to
transport protocol. To ensure connectivity, each data it can transmit before it must wait for internet. Use for mapping can map a
byte to be transmitted is numbered. The an acknowledgment from the receiver. The name to an address or an address to a
sequence number tells the destination which flow Control procedures not allowed to name.
byte in this sequence comprises the first byte in overwhelm the receiver. Any receiving 2. State the transmission modes of FTP ?
the segment. During connection establishment, device has a limited speed at which it can Transmission modes of FTP:
each party uses a Random number generator to Flow Control Flow control make it possible • Stream mode
create an initial sequence number (ISN), which is for sender to send the amount of data bytes • Block mode
usually different in each direction. We know that that can be sent without worrying an • Compressed mode
a TCP sequence number is 32 bit. So it has finite acknowledgment and is one of the most
(from 0 to (232-1) = 4 Giga sequence numbers) important duties of the data link layer. In 3. Explain working of WWW. ?
and it means we will be able to send only 4GB of most protocols, flow control is a set of The Web is a repository of information in
data with a unique sequence number not more procedures that tells the sender how much which the documents, called web pages, are
than that. It helps with the allocation of a data it can transmit before it must wait for distributed all over the world and related
an acknowledgment from the receiver. The documents are linked together. The WWW
sequence number that does not conflict with
flow Control procedures not allowed to today is a distributed client-server service, in
other data bytes transmitted over a TCP which a client using a browser can access a
connection. An ISN is unique to each connection overwhelm the receiver. Any receiving service using a server. The service provided is
and separated by each device. device has a limited speed at which it can
distributed over many locations called sites.
Error Control ACN UNIT 5 QUESTION BANK Each site holds one or more web pages. Each
Error Control mechanisms are useful to ensure WINTER 2019 web page can contain some links to other
reliability service of TCP. To provide reliable 1. State the need of domain name system ? web pages in the same or other sites.
service TCP detects and corrects errors. Error • Simple web page has no links to other web
• Since IP addresses are difficult to pages.
control mechanisms are useful for detecting
remember and names are easier to • Composite web page has one or more links
corrupted segments, lost segments, out-of-order
remember Domain Name System is used to other web pages. Each web page is a file
segments, and duplicated segments. Error
and DNS servers are used for converting with a name and address. The web page is
detection and correction in TCP is achieved
these names into IP addresses. stored at the web server. Each time a request
through the use of three simple tools: checksum, arrives, the corresponding document is sent
acknowledgment, and time-out. to the client.
4. Explain the working of TELNET ? 5. Construct a diagram to show the application • Request Line
TELNET: TELNET is an abbreviation for of cookies in a scenario in which the server The first line in a request message
TErminaLNETwork. It is the standard TCP/IP protocol uses cookies for advertisement ? is called a request line. There are
for virtual terminal service. Use of Cookies for advertisements: A cookie is three fields in this line separated by
TELNET Working: also used by advertising agencies. An some character delimiter as shown
• TELNET is a client-server application that allows a advertising agency can place banner ads on in Figure 22.11. The fields are called
user to log on to a remote machine, giving the user some main website that is often visited by methods, URL, and Version. These
access to the remote system. users. The advertising agency supplies only a three should be separated by a
• The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal URL that gives the banner address instead of space character. At the end two
driver, where the local operating system accepts the the banner itself. When a user visits the main characters, a carriage return
characters but does not interpret them. website and clicks on the icon of an advertised followed by a line feed, terminate
• A terminal driver correctly interprets the corporation, a request is sent to the advertising the line.
keystrokes on the local terminal or terminal agency. The advertising agency sends the E.g: HTTP/1.1 200 OK
emulator. banner, a GIF file, for example, but it also • Headers
• The characters are sent to the TELNET client, includes a cookie with the ill of the user. Any Three types of headers are present
which transforms the characters to a universal future use of the banners adds to the database HTTP Response message which are
character set called network virtual terminal (NVT) that profiles the Web behavior of the user. The as follows.
characters and delivers them to the local TCP/IP advertising agency has compiled the interests a) General Header The general
protocol stack. of the user and can sell this information to header gives general information
• The commands or text, in NVT form, travel other parties. This use of cookies has made about the message and can be
through the Internet and arrive at the TCP/IP stack them very controversial. Hopefully, some new present in both a request and a
at the remote machine regulations will be devised to preserve the response.
• Here the characters are delivered to the operating privacy of users. e.g. Date: Mon, 27 Jul 2009
system and passed to the TELNET server, which 12:28:53 GMT
6. Describe the HTTP response message b) Response Header The response
changes the characters to the corresponding
format ? header can be present only in a
characters understandable by the remote computer
• However, the characters cannot be passed directly response message. It specifies the
to the operating system because the remote server's configuration and special
operating system is not designed to receive information about the request.
characters from a TELNET server: It is designed to e.g. Server: Apache/2.2.14 (Win32)
receive characters from a terminal driver. c) Entity Header The entity header
• A piece of software called a pseudo terminal gives information about the body
driver is added which pretends that the characters of the document.
are coming from a terminal. e.g. Content-Length: 88 e.g.
• The operating system then passes the characters Content-Type: text/html
to the appropriate application program.
• Blank Line An empty line (i.e., a line with a) It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. c) Port number for DHCP is 67, 68.
nothing preceding the CRLF) indicating the end It is a part of the TCP/IP standard protocol. • POP3
of the header fields Using a process called “store and forward,” a) Post Office Protocol, version 3 (POP3)
• Body It contains actual content. This part is SMTP moves your email on and across is simple and limited in functionality. •
optional. networks. POP works as a Message Access Agent.
b) It works closely with something called the b) The client POP3 software is installed
Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to send your on the recipient computer; the server
communication to the right computer and POP3 software is installed on the mail
email inbox. server.
c) Port number for SMTP is 25. c) Mail access starts with the client when
• TELNET the user needs to download e-mail
a) TELNET is an abbreviation for from the mailbox on the mail server.
TErminaLNETwork. It is the standard TCP/IP
protocol for virtual terminal service 8. Describe E-mail security over non-
b) TELNET enables the establishment of a secure channel ?
connection to a remote system in such a a) Email security describes different
7. Explain about standard and non standard way that the local terminal appears to be a techniques for keeping sensitive
protocols at the application layer ? terminal at the remote system. information in email communication
c) There are two parties involved TELNET and accounts secure against
• HTTP Client and TELNET server. unauthorized access, loss or
a) The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a • DNS compromise.
Application layer protocol used mainly to a) It stands for Domain Name Service. Every b) Email is often used to spread malware,
access data on the World Wide Web. time you use a domain name, therefore, a spam and phishing attacks. Attackers
b) HTTP uses the services of TCP on well- DNS service must translate the name into use deceptive messages to entice
known port 80. the corresponding IP address. recipients to part with sensitive
• FTP b) For example, the domain name information, open attachments or click
a) FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is standard www.abc.com might translate to on hyperlinks that install malware on
TCP/IP protocol to transfer files. It uses the 198.105.232.4 the victim‟s device.
services of TCP. It needs two TCP c) Port number for DNS is 53. c) Email encryption involves encrypting,
connections. • DHCP or disguising, the content of email
b) The well-known port 21 is used for the a) It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration messages to protect potentially
control connection and the well-known Protocol (DHCP). It gives IP addresses to sensitive information from being read
port 20 for the data connection. hosts. by anyone other than intended
• SMTP b) There is a lot of information a DHCP server recipients. Email encryption often
can provide to a host when the host is
includes authentication.
registering for an IP address with the DHCP
server.
d) Since most organizations rely on email to 2. Distinguish between FTP and TFTP f) Email is temporarily stored on the
do business, attackers exploit email in an protocols ? local and eventually transferred
attempt to steal sensitive information. directly to receiving server.
e) Because email is an open format, it can be g) It is simple ASCII protocol.
viewed by anyone who can intercept it. It • COMMANDS & RESPONSE
can be easily read and the contents of an ❖ SMTP uses commands and response to
email by intercepting it. transfer message between MTA client and
f) Email Security Policies can be established MTA server
by viewing the contents of emails flowing • SMTP Commands:
through their email servers. It’s important 1. HELO: Used by client to identify itself.
to understand what is in the entire email 2. MAIL FROM: Identify sender.
in order to act appropriately. After these 3. RCPT TO: Identify intended recipient.
baseline policies are put into effect, an 4. DATA: Send actual message.
organization can enact various security 5. QUIT: Terminate the message.
policies on those emails. 6. RSET: Reset the connection.
g) These email security policies can be as 3. Describe SMTP with suitable diagram ? 7. VRFY: Verify the add of recipient
simple as removing all executable content 8. HELP: Mail
from emails to more in-depth actions, like
4. Describe the frame format of SSH ?
sending suspicious content to a
sandboxing tool for detailed analysis. a) Length: It indicates the size of the
h) If security incidents are detected by these packet, not including the length field
policies, the organization needs to have or the variable length random padding
actionable intelligence about the scope of fields that follows it.
the attack. b) Padding: It causes an intrusion to be
i) Enforce email encryption policies to more difficult.
prevent sensitive email information from a) It is the protocol that defines MTA client & c) Type: It identifies the type of message.
falling into the wrong hands. server in internet. d) CRC: It is an error detection field.
b) It is an application layer protocol of TCP/IP
SUMMER 2022 model.
1. List two protocols of each for Connection- c) It transfer messages from sender’s mail
oriented service and Connectionless servers to receivers mail server.
service ?
d) SMTP interacts with local mail system and
Connection-Oriented Service = TCP, Telnet, FTP. not user.
Connection-less Service = UDP, IP, ICMP. e) SMTP uses a TCP socket on port 25 to
transfer email reliably from client to server
6. Describe DHCP with its operation & static as well as other configuration details. The c) Telnet can be used to test or
and dynamic allocation ? whole process takes place immediately after troubleshoot remote web or mail
• The Domain Name System, more popular as the new computer boots, and to be successful, servers, as well as trusted internal
DNS, and the Dynamic Host Configuration it has to be completed before initiating IP networks
Protocol, also known as DHCP, represent two based communication with other hosts in the 1. Distinguish between SMTP and POP3
crucial TCP/IP areas of a Windows NT Server network. (2 points) ?
network. The DNS is responsible for • STATIC ALLOCATION
converting hostnames into IP addresses, The static allocation method is very popular in
while the DHCP is engaged in assigning modern ISP networks, which do not use dial-
unique dynamic IP addresses and the up methods. With the static allocation, the
corresponding subnet masks and default DHCP sever keeps a database with all clients'
gateways to TCP/IP running computers within LAN MAC addresses and gives them an IP
a particular server network. Thanks to the address only if their MAC address is in the
dynamic addressing executed by the DHCP, a database. This way, the clients can be sure that
computer can have a different IP address they will be getting the same IP address every
every time it connects to the network it time.
belongs to, without the intervention of a • DYNAMIC ALLOCATION
UNIX administrator. Through this DHCP When the DHCP server is configured to use
functionality every new computer added to a dynamic allocation, this means that it uses a
network is automatically assigned a unique IP lease policy. This way, when an assigned IP
address. address from the available pool is no longer
• DHCP servers greatly simplify the used, it will be transferred back to the pool,
configuration of networks and are built in the making it available for someone else to use.
majority of the wireless access points and The advantage of this method is that the IP
wired Ethernet routers. In a network, a DHCP addresses are used to their maximum - as soon
server manages a pool of IP addresses, as as they are no longer used by the client, they
well as default gateway details, DNS details are instantly made available to others. The
and other information for the clients’ disadvantage of this method is that a client will
network configuration. When a new always have a random IP address.
computer is introduced into a DHCP server- 2. State the use of Telnet ?
enabled network, it will send a query to the
a) TELNET is used to connect remote
DHCP server requesting all the necessary
computers and issue commands on those
information. When the query reaches the
computers.
DHCP server, it will grant the new computer a
b) It is used as a standard TCP/IP protocol for
new IP address and a lease - a time frame for virtual terminal service which is given by
which the computer can use this IP address,
4. With the help of diagram explain 7. Explain working of SSH ?
architecture of WWW ? SSH (Secure Shell) is the most popular
The WWW (World Wide Web) is a way of remote login application program. SSH
exchanging information between computers uses client-server architecture in its
on the Internet. WWW works on client server implementation. An SSH server can be
architecture, in which a client using a browser deployed and allow several SSH clients to
can access a service using a server. Today, the connect to it. The architecture of SSH is
WWW is a distributed client server service. shown in following Fig. and the SSH
The service provided is distributed over many process is as follows: 1) The SSH client on
locations called sites and each site holds one the left provides authentication to the SSH
or more documents i.e., Web pages. server on the right. In the initial
connection, the client receives a host key
The main web document and the image are
of the server, therefore, in all subsequent
stored in two separate files in the same site
connections, the client will know it is
(file X and file Y) and the referenced text file is
connecting to the same SSH server. This
stored in another site (file Z). Since, we are
places less emphasis on the IP address of
dealing with three different files, (namely, X, Y
the SSH server, which can be easily
and Z) we need three transactions if we want
spoofed, and more emphasis on the host
to see the whole document. The first
key of the server, which cannot be spoofed
transaction (request/response) retrieves a
very easily. 2) The SSH server determines if
copy of the main document (file X), which has
Client sends a request through its browser to a reference (pointer) to the second and the the client is authorized to connect to the
the server using HTTP protocol which SSH service by verifying the
third files. When a copy of the main document
specifies the way the browser and web server is retrieved and browsed, the user can click on username/password or public key that the
communicates. Then server receives request the reference to The image to invoke the client has presented for authentication.
using HTTP protocol and checks its search for second transaction and retrieve a copy of the This process is completely encrypted. 3) If
the requested web page. If found it returns it image (file Y). if the user further needs to see the SSH server authenticates the client
back to the web browser and close the HTTP the contents of the referenced text file, she and the client is authorized, the SSH
connection. Now the browser receives the session begins between the two entities.
can click on its reference pointer) invoking the
web page, it interprets it and display the All communication is completely
third transaction and retrieving a copy of the
contents of web page in web browser's encrypted.
file Z. Note that although file x and y both are
window. The steps involved in creating an SSH
stored in site x, they are independent files with
session go like this:
different names and addresses. Two
1. Client contacts server to initiate a
transactions are needed to retrieve them
connection.
2. The server responds by sending the
client a public cryptography key.
3. The server negotiates parameters and When the sender and the receiver of an e-
opens a secure channel for the client. mail are on the same mail server, we need
4. The user, through their client, logs into only two user agents.
the serve b) Second Scenario

SUMMER 2023 When the sender and the receiver of an e-

5. Describe the architecture of E-mail system mail are on different mail servers, we need
using four scenario ? two UAs and a pair of MTAs (client and
To explain the architecture of e-mail, we give server).
four scenarios. We begin with the simplest c) Third Scenario
situation and add complexity as we proceed.
The fourth scenario is the most common in
the exchange of e-mail. TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2 Topics Discussed in the Section
a) First Scenario When both sender and receiver are
b) Second Scenario connected to the mail server via a LAN or a
c) Third Scenario WAN, we need two UAs, two pairs of MTAs
d) Fourth Scenario (client and server), and a pair of MAAs
a) First Scenario (client and server). This is the most
When the sender is connected to the mail common situation today.
server via a LAN or a WAN, we need two UAs
and two pairs of MTAs (client and server)
d) Fourth Scenario
WINTER 2023 5. Compare POP3 with IMAD on below points
4. Construct a suitable (i) TCP port used
diagram for each (ii) E-mail stored at
below commands of (iii) Time required to connect
FTP to show its use ? (iv) Multiple mail boxes
(i) get
(ii) mget
(iii) put
(iv) mput
8. Describe DHCP operations, when DHCP
client and server on same network ?
DHCP is based on a client-server model and
based on discovery, offer, request, and
ACK.DHCP client and server can either be on
the same network or on different networks.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
is a network management protocol used to
dynamically assign an IP address to any
device, or node, on a network so it can
communicate using IP. DHCP automates and
centrally manages these configurations rather
than requiring network administrators to In this case, the operation can be described as follows:
manually assign IP addresses to all network a) The DHCP server issues a passive open command on UDP port number 67 and waits for
devices. DHCP can be implemented on small a client
local networks, as well as large enterprise b) A booted client issues an active open command on port number 68. The message is
networks. DHCP assigns new IP addresses in encapsulated in a UDP user datagram, using the destination port number 67 and the
each location when devices are moved from source port number 68.
place to place, which means network c) The server responds with either a broadcast or a unicast message using UDP source
administrators do not have to manually port number 67 and destination port number 68.
configure each device with a valid IP address
or reconfigure the device with a new IP
address if it moves to a new location on the
network.