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Chapter 17: BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

Breathing or External respiration is the process of exchange of O 2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by
the cells. Respiration is the oxidation of nutrients in the living cells to release energy for biological work.
Respiratory organs in different animals:
 General body surface: Direct respiration by diffusion from the environment E.g. lower invertebrates like
sponges, coelenterates, flatworms etc.
 Skin or moist cuticle (cutaneous respiration): E.g. earthworms, leech, amphibians etc.
 Tracheal tubes: E.g. insects, centipede, millipede, spider etc.
 Gills (Bronchial respiration): E.g. fishes, tadpoles, prawn etc.
 Lungs (Pulmonary respiration): terrestrial forms. E.g. most vertebrates.

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: It consists of a pair of air passages (air tract) and lungs.
1. Air Passages: Conducting part which transports the atmospheric air into the alveoli, clears it from foreign
particles, humidifies and brings the air to body temperature.
External nostrils → nasal passage → nasal chamber (cavity) → nasopharynx (a part of pharynx) →
glottis → larynx → trachea → primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary bronchi →
bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → respiratory bronchiole → alveolar duct.
 External nostril opens into the nasal chamber through nasal passage.
 The nasal chamber opens into the nasopharynx.
 Nasopharynx opens through glottis of the larynx into the trachea.
 Trachea is a straight tube extending up to themed-thoracic cavity, which divides into right and left
primary bronchi at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra.
 Each bronchus undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles
ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles.
 Trachea, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi and initial bronchioles are supported by cartilaginous
rings.
 Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very thin, irregular-walled and vascularised bags like
structures called alveoli.
 Larynx is a cartilaginous box which produce sound hence called sound box.
 Cartilaginous epiglottis covers the glottis during swallowing to prevent entry of food into trachea.
2. Lungs: Lungs = Bronchi + bronchioles + alveoli.
 The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs.
 Lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber and rest on diaphragm.
 The thoracic chamber is formed –
 Dorsally by vertebral column.
 Ventrally by sternum.
 Laterally by ribs.
 On the lower side by dome shaped diaphragm.
 There are two lungs which are covered by double layered pleura, with pleural fluid in them.
 Right lung has 3 lobes whereas left lung has 2 lobes.
 Lungs are covered by double-layered pleura (outer parietal pleura and inner visceral pleura).
 The pleural fluid present in between these 2 layers lubricates the surface of the lungs and prevents friction
between the membranes.
 Alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of the respiratory system.
 Alveoli are the structural and functional units of lungs
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Diagrammatic view of human respiratory system

Steps of Respiration:
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn
in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.
2. Gas exchange between alveoli & blood: Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
3. Gas transport (O2 transport & CO2 transport): Transport of respiratory gases by blood.
4. Gas exchange between blood & tissues: Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues
5. Cellular or tissue respiration: Utilization of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of
CO2.

1. Mechanism of Breathing:
Inspiration:
 Active Intake of atmospheric air into the lungs.
 Inspiration occurs if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is lower than the
atmospheric pressure i.e. negative pressure in lungs.
 The Diaphragm and a specialized set external and internal intercostal muscles between the ribs help in
generation of pressure gradients.
 During this, the diaphragm contracts (flattens) which increases the volume of thoracic chamber in the
antero-posterior axis.
 The contraction of external inter-costal muscles (muscles found between ribs) lifts up the ribs and
sternum causing an increase in thoracic chamber volume in the dorso-ventral axis.
 These changes reduce pressure inside the thorax causing the expansion of lungs. Thus pulmonary volume
increases resulting in decrease of intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure. So air
moves inside the lungs i.e., inspiration.
Expiration:
 Passive expelling of air from the lungs.
 During this, inter-costal muscles & diaphragm relax and returns the diaphragm and sternum to their
normal positions and reduce the thoracic and pulmonary volume. It increases in intrapulmonary pressure
slightly above the atmospheric pressure. It causes the expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e., expiration.
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 Relaxation of diaphragm and inter-costal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to their normal
positions
 During forceful expiration, abdominal muscles and internal inter-costal muscles contract.
 A healthy man breathes 12-16 times/minutes.
 Respiratory cycle= an inspiration + an expiration
 Normal respiratory (breathing) rate: 12-16 times/min
 Spirometer (respirometer): To measure respiratory rate (The volume of air involved in breathing is
estimated).

Mechanism of breathing showing: (a) Inspiration (b) Expiration

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:

 Tidal volume (TV): volume of air inspired or expired during a normal breathing. It is about 500 ml.
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): Additional volume of air, a person inspire by a forceful inspiration. It is
about 2500-3000 ml.
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): Additional volume of air, a person expires by a forceful expiration. It
is about 1000-1100 ml.
 Residual volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forceful expiration. It is about
1200 ml.
 Inspiratory capacity (IC): Volume of air inspired after a normal expiration (TV + IRV). It is about 3000-
3500 ml.
 Expiratory capacity (EC): Volume of air expired after a normal inspiration (TV + ERV). It is about 1500-
1600 ml.
 Functional residual capacity: Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration (ERV + RV).
It is about 2100-2300 ml.
 Vital capacity: Volume of air that can breathe in after a forced expiration or Volume of air that can breathe
out after a forced inspiration (ERV + TV + IRV). It is 3500-4500 ml.
 Total lung capacity (TLC): Total volume of air in the lungs after a maximum inspiration. (RV + ERV +
TV + IRV or VC + RV). It is about 5000-6000 ml.
 Part of respiratory tract (from nostrils to terminal bronchi) not involved in gaseous exchange is called dead
space.
 Dead air volume is about 150 ml.
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2. EXCHANGE OF GASES: Gas exchange occurs between
A. Alveoli and blood
B. Blood and tissues
Exchange of gases between Alveoli and blood:
 Alveoli are the primary site of exchange of respiratory gases.
 Exchange of gases also takes place between blood and tissues.
 Exchange of O2 and CO2 take place in the pressure gradient, by simple diffusion.
 Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is called the partial pressure and is
represented by pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for carbon dioxide.
The Partial pressures (individual pressure of a gas in a gas mixture) of O2 and CO2 (pO2 and pCO2) are given
below.

Diagrammatic representation of exchange of gases at the alveolus and the body tissues with blood and
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Diffusion of O2
 pO2 in alveolar air = 104 mm Hg.
 pO2 in venous blood = 40 mm Hg.
 O2 diffuses from alveoli to venous blood.
pO2 in alveoli is more (104 mm Hg) than that in the blood capillaries (40 mm Hg). So O2 diffuses into
capillary blood.
Diffusion of CO2
 pCO2 is venous blood = 45 mm Hg.
 pCO2 is alveolar air = 40 mm Hg
 CO2 diffuses from venous blood to alveoli.
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 pCO2 in deoxygenated blood is more (45 mm Hg) than that in the alveolus (40 mm Hg). So CO2 diffuses to
alveolus.
 Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2; the amount of CO2 that can diffuse through the
diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is much higher compared to that of O 2.
 Respiratory membrane is formed by:
 Thin Squamous epithelium of the alveoli.
 Endothelium of alveolar capillaries
 Basement membrane between them.

A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with a pulmonary capillary.

3. TRANSPORT OF GASES in Blood: Blood is the medium of transport of O2 and CO2.

Transport of O2: In 2 ways
a. In physical solution (blood plasma): About 3% of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.
b. As Oxyhaemoglobin: About 97% of O2 is transported by RBC. O2 binds with haemoglobin (red coloured
iron containing pigment present in the RBCs) to form oxyhaemoglobin. This is called oxygenation.
Hb has 4 haem units. So each Hb molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules.

 Binding of O2 depends upon pO2, pCO2, H+ ion concentration (pH) and temperature. In the alveoli, high
pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+ ion concentration and lower temperature exist. These factors are favourable for
the formation of oxyhaemoglobin.
 In tissues, low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ ions and high temperature exist. So Hb4O8 dissociates to release O2.
 Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O 2 to the tissues under normal physiological
conditions.
 Oxygen-Hemoglobin dissociation curve It is a sigmoid curve obtained when percentage saturation of Hb
with O2 is plotted against the pO2.
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Transport of CO2: In 3 ways. In tissues, pCO2 is high and pO2 is low. In lungs, pCO2 is low and pO2 is high.
This favours CO2 transport from tissues to lungs.
a. As carbamino-haemoglobin: In tissues, 20-25% of CO2 binds to Hb to form carbamino-haemoglobin.
 When pCO2 is high and pO2 is low in the tissues, the CO2 bind to Hb and transported to alveoli.
 In alveoli, pCO2 is low and pO2 is high, hence CO2 dissociates from carbamino-haemoglobin.
b. As carbonic acid: In tissues, about 7% of CO2 is dissolved in plasma water to form carbonic acid and
carried to lungs.
c. As bicarbonates: About 70% of CO2 is transported by this method. RBCs and plasma contain an enzyme,
carbonic anhydrase. This enzyme facilitates the following reactions.

In alveoli, the above reaction proceeds in opposite direction leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O. Every 100
ml of deoxygenated blood delivers about 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION: Respiratory centres present in the brain include
1. Respiratory rhythm centre (Inspiratory and Expiratory centres): In medulla oblongata.
2. Pneumotaxic centre: In Pons. It moderates the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre.
3. Chemosensitive area: Seen adjacent to the rhythm centre. Increase in the concentration of CO2 and H+
activates this centre, which in turn signals rhythm centre. Receptors associated with aortic arch and
carotid artery also recognize changes in CO2 and H+ concentration and send necessary signals to the
rhythm centre.
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
1. Asthma: Asthma is a chronic disease that affects airways. Airways are tubes that carry air in and out of our
lungs. In asthma, the inside walls of our airways become sore and swollen. Difficulty in breathing causing
wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
Symptoms of asthma include
 Wheezing, Coughing, especially early in the morning or at night
 Chest tightness and Shortness of breath
2. Emphysema: Emphysema is a form of chronic (long-term) lung disease. It involves damage to the air sacs
(alveoli) in the lungs. Alveolar walls are damaged. It decreases respiratory surface. As a result, our body does
not get the oxygen it needs. People with emphysema have difficulty breathing. Major cause is cigarette
smoking.
3. Occupational respiratory disorders: Occupational lung diseases are concerned primarily with work related
exposures to harmful substances, like dusts or fumes or gases, and the subsequent pulmonary disorders that
may occur as a result.